NEW WORK ON GARDENING.
In 1 vol. (pp. 764), illustrated by 383 Engravings, price 16s.
mHE SUBURBAN HORTICULTURIST; adapted for the Use of
JL those interested in the Formation and Management of either Large or Small
Gardens, By J. C. LOUDON, F.L.S. &c. Conductor of The Gardener's Magazine,
Author of The "Encyclopedias of Gardening, Plants, Agriculture, Trees and Shrubs,
Cottage, Farm, and Villa Architecture, The Arboretum Britannicum, 8fc. 8fc.
No pains have been spared towards rendering this work as complete as possible. It
contains full instructions for the formation of gardens and their management, according
to the most approved modes of practice. Extensive information will be found respecting
the nature of soils and their improvement ; the different kinds of manures and their
application ; the operations of Planting, Sowing, Budding, Grafting, and the various
other modes of Propagation ; Pruning and Training of Standard, Dwarf, Espalier, and
Wall Trees. The formation of borders for Fruit Trees, the construction of Forcing
Houses, P' ts,and other structures for forcing and protection, and the various modes
of Heating by Hot Water and otherwise, are treated of in full detail, as are likewise the
Cropping anu Particular Management of the Kitchen Garden, Forcing of the Pine Apple,
Vine, Peach, Fig, Cucumber, and Melon. Lists and descriptions of the best varieties of
Vegetables and Fruits are also included. Those who have a considerable knowledge ot
Gardening will find in this work much information to which they n\ay advantageously
refer ; whilst it will enable such as are inexperienced to proceed with every probability ot
success.
From the following quotations, the work will appear to be particularly adapted *
clergymen, and retired citizens or amateurs, who wish to be their own gardeners, and for
emigrants.
" Mr. Loudon has made a most successful attempt to teach the science tif gardening to the un-
initiated ; the instructions given respecting the various branches being so clear and intelligible as
to be readily understood even by those totally ignorant of the subjects of which they treat ; and,
in addition to this, everything is illustrated by woodcuts admirably adapted to convey their exact
meaning, particularly the operations of pruning, training, and propagation, which are exceedingly
valuable parts of the work, and well worthy the attention of the most experienced. The volume
before us will be found most invaluable to young gardeners, and those who know little of the science
of gardening, and areeither desironsof cultivating their gardens personally for health and recreation,
or of directing their management upon the most approved principles, with a labourer only. For
accomplishing either of these ends the practical directions are most ample and complete."
PAXTON'S MAGAZINE OF BOTANY, March 1843, p. 46.
" The novice in gardening will here find ample instructions in the various branches of labour,
such as digging, trenching, mowing, &c. as well as for the propagation of plants by budding,
grafting, inarching, and other methods. A considerable space is j ustly occupied with directions for
planting, an operation too often considered of minor importance, but which, as daily experience
proves, cannot be too carefully performed. Those sections of the work which relate to pruning
and training are well worthy the perusal of even the practical gardener ; were the rules therein
inculcated, as well as those relative to the proper formation of borders, more strictly attended to,
we should not have to lament the barren and unsightly state of fruit trees, which is so frequently
observable."— DR. LINDLEY, in GARDENERS' CHRONICLE, Nov. 1842.
Published by William Smith, 113, Fleet Street.
THE
SUBURBAN HORTICULTURIST;
OB,
AN ATTEMPT TO TEACH THE SCIENCE AND PRACTICE OF
(Culture antr Jltanaejement
THE KITCHEN, FRUIT, & FORCING GARDEN
THOSE WHO HAVE HAD NO PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE OR PRACTICE IN THESE
DEPARTMENTS OF GARDENING.
J. C. LOUDON, F.L.S., H.S., &c.,
AUTHOR OF " THE SUBURBAN (ARCHITECT AND LANDSCAPE) GARDENER," CONDUCTOR OF
" THE GARDENER'S MAGAZINE," ETC. ETC.
ILLUSTRATED WITH NUJIEEOIISJENGRAVINGS ON WOOD.
^ _^^
C )
^V^/teRA^X
LONDON:
PRINTED FOR THE AUTHOR,
AND SOLD BY
WILLIAM SMITH, 113, FLEET STREET,
AND ALL BOOKSELLERS.
MDCCCXLII.
LONDON :
11RADBURV AND EVANS, PKJNTERS, WHITKFHIARS.
PREFACE.
THE Author submits the following work to the public as by
far the best Treatise on the Culture of the Fruit and Kitchen
Garden which has hitherto been produced by his pen ; because it
contains all the latest improvements, while the Horticulture in
the last edition of the Encyclopedia of Gardening was pre-
pared in 1834. He has bestowed more than common care in
compiling the present Treatise, and he has had the inestimable
advantage of being assisted by Mr. Thompson, the superin-
tendant of the fruit and culinary vegetable departments in the
Horticultural Society's Garden. The selections and descriptions
of fruits, and of culinary vegetables, have either been made by
Mr. Thompson, or approved of by him.
The Author has also had the assistance of various other prac-
tical gardeners, including Mr. Henry Charles Ogle, who pre-
pared the Calendarial and General Index, and Mr. Lymburn, who
furnished most of the Notes in the APPENDIX. The important
note in p. 706, on the subject of charcoal, and the use of rough,
rooty, turfy soil, and small stones in potting plants, is extracted
from an article on this subject in The Gardeners Magazine for
November 1842, by Mr. James Barnes, gardener to the Right
Hon. Lady Rolle, at Bicton, near Exeter.
a 2
IV PREFACE.
It was originally intended to have included Floriculture in this
volume ; but as it would have swelled it to an inconvenient size,
it has been thought advisable to publish Suburban Horticulture by
itself, and leave Suburban Floriculture for a third volume. These
two volumes, added to the volume entitled The Suburban (Archi-
tect and Landscape) Gardener already published, will form a
complete cycle of SUBURBAN GARDENING.
In the mean time, till the Suburban Floriculturist is published,
an excellent substitute will be found in the Companion to the
Ladies' Flower-garden, by Mrs. Loudon.
Corrections, additions, and suggestions for the improvement of
this work, are earnestly requested from its readers, with a view to
assisting the author in rendering a future edition, should it be
called for, as perfect as possible. In the mean time any additions,
or discussions which may be of importance in themselves without
reference to this volume, will be published under the head of
" Retrospective Criticism," in the Gardeners' Magazine.
J. C. L.
BAYSWATER,
Nov. 1st, 1842.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
NAMES OP THE FRUITS AND CULINARY VEGETABLES CULTIVATED IN
BRITISH GARDENS, IN DIFFERENT LANGUAGES, &c. . . xxiv
LIST OF ENGRAVINGS ..... xxviii
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . .1
PART I.
FACTS RELATIVE TO PLANTS, THE SoiL, MANURES, THE ATMOSPHERE,
&c., ON WHICH HORTICULTURE is FOUNDED . . .2
CHAPTER I.
PLANTS CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO THEIR CULTURE IN GARDENS 2
SECT. I. — The Analogy between Plants and Animals, considered with
reference to Horticulture . . . . .2
SECT. II. — Classification of Plants, with a View to Horticulture . 8
22. E'xogens. 23. E'ndogens. 24. A'crogens. 28. Thalamiflorse.
29. Ranunculacese. 30. Cruciferae. 31. Malvaceae. 32. Geraniacese.
33. Magnoliacese, &c. 34. Calyciflorae. 35. Leguminosze. 36. Rosaceee.
37. Umbellacese. , 38. Composite. 39. Ericaceee. 40. Rhamnacese,
&c. 40. Corollifl6rse. 41. Scrophulariacese. 42. Labiacese. 43.
Epacridacese, &c. 44. Monochlamydeae. 45. Amentaceae. 46. Coni-
ferge. 47. Plantaginese, &c. 48. E'ndogens. 49. Orchidacese. 50.
Scitaminaceee. 51. Iridacese. 52. Amaryllidacese. 53. Liliacese. 54.
Palmacese. 55. Graminacese. 56. Alismacese, &c. 57. A'crogens.
58. Fillces. 59. Musci. 60. Lichenes. 61. A'lg«. 62. Fungi. 63.
Equisetacese. 66. Evergreens. 67. Subevergreens. 68. Persistent-
leaved plants. 69. Deciduous-leaved plants. 70. Ligneous plants.
71. Suffruticose plants. 72. Trees. 73. Shrubs.
SECT, III. — Nomenclature of Plants with a view to Horticulture . 19
SECT. IV. — Structure of Plants with a view to Horticulture . . 20
80. Elementary organs. 81. Compound organs. 82. The root. 83.
The stem. 85. The bark. 86. The medullary rays or plates. 89.
Nodi. 90. Buds. 91. Leaves. 92. Hairs. 93. Flower-buds. 94.
Inflorescence. 95. The floral envelope. 96. The sexes of plants.
97. The ovulum. 98. The fruit. 100. The seed.
SECT. V. — Functions of Plants with reference to Horticulture . 24
102. Germination. 103. Growth. 105. The stem. 109. Wood.
111. The bark. 113. Leaves. 115. Buds. 126. The Flowers. 129.
The sexes. 130. The fruit.
SECT. VI.— The Geographical Distribution of Plants, and their sta-
tions and habitations, with reference to their Culture in Gardens 37
135. Temperature. 140. Physical circumstances. 142. Stations.
143. Light. 144. Water. 145. Soil. 146. Soils formed by particular
rocks. 147. Atmosphere. 148. Stations. 150. The habitations of
plants.
VI CONTENTS.
CHAPTER II.
PAGE
SOILS CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE . . .45
SECT. I. — Origin and Kinds of Soils . . . .46
153. Sandy soil. 155. Clayey soil. 156. Lime. 157. Magnesia.
158. Iron. 159. Alluvial soils. 160. Peat. 161. Organic matter.
162. Loose naked sands or gravels. 163. Calcareous soils or gravels.
164. Loams. 165. Loams are the best soils. 166. Texture. 167.
Subsoils. 168. The surface of soils. 169. The plants which grow on
a soil.
SECT. II. — The Improvement of Soils, with a view to Horticulture . 51
171. Draining. 172. Altering the texture and composition of soil.
173. Changing the inclination of the surface of soils. 174. Burning of
soils. 175. Pulverising soils. 177. Rotation of crops.
CHAPTER III.
MANURES CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE . . 56
SECT. I. — Organic Manures . . . . . 5G
181. Fresh and tender vegetables. 182. Spent tanner's bark. 183.
Peat soil. 184. Principal vegetable manures. 185. Animal manures.
186. Excrementitious manures. 189. Bones. 190. Vegeto-animal
manures.
SECT. II. — Inorganic Manures . . . .60
194. Lime. 195. Mild-lime. 197. Carbonate of lime, or chalk.
198. Marl. 199. Gypsum. 200. Sea shells. 201. The rationale of
the action of lime. 202. The most important uses of lime. 203. Lime
compost. 204. Saltpetre. 205. Common salt.
SECT. III. — Mixed Manures . . . . .64
207. Coal ashes. 208. Vegetable ashes. 209. Soot. 210. Street
manure. 21 1. Composts. 212. Mixed manure in a liquid state. 213.
Application of manures.
CHAPTER IV.
THE ATMOSPHERE CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE . 67
SECT. I. — Heat, considered with reference to Horticulture . . 67
219. Conduction of heat. 220. Radiation. 223. Dew, or hoar-frost.
224. Dew is never formed upon metals. 225. The formation of dew.
226. The effects of radiation. 227. Refrigeration. 228. Protecting
plants. 229. The secondary effect which radiation has upon the climate.
230. The influence of hills upon the nightly temperature of the valleys.
231. Exalting the powers of the climate. 232. Houses for growing the
plants of warm climates. 234. Increasing the heat of the atmosphere
and the soil. 235. Frost. 236. Straw mats, bast mats, cloth, wool, or
wood. 237. Wall trees. 238. Tender shrubs and trees. 239. A
stream or river. 240. Watering. 241. Conclusions.
SECT. II. — Atmospheric Moisture, considered with reference to Horti-
culture ......... 76
242. Existence of water in air. 243. Hygrometers. 244. Their utility.
245. Evaporation. 249. Vapour. 250. Rain. 251. Moisture of the
free atmosphere. 252. Artificial climates unnaturally dry. 253. Drain
of moisture. 255. Dryness of the atmosphere of hothouses. 256.
Coolers of wet porous earthenware. 257. Plants in living rooms.
CONTENTS. Vll
SECT. II. — Atmospheric Moisture, considered with reference to Horti-
culture— continued. PAOE
258. Absorbent function. 259. A strict attention to the atmosphere.
260. Tropical plants. 261. The heat of the glass of a hothouse at
night. 262. The skilful balancing of the temperature and moisture.
SECT. III. — The Agitation of the Atmosphere considered with refer-
ence to Horticulture ....... 83
263. Motion. 264. Perspiration. 265. Shelter. 266. Agitation
of the air in plant structures. 267. To heat the air before it is admitted
among the plants. 268. Effect on the human feelings. 269. The im-
pression of an atmosphere saturated with moisture. 270. Mr. Penn's
method of warming and ventilating. 271. Heating by pipes in the
ordinary manner. 272. Greenhouses. 273. Pits and cucumber-frames.
274. Change of air and ventilation. 275. The climate, during the
growing season. 276. Ventilators. 277. General principle.
SECT. IV. — Light, considered with reference to Horticulture . . 89
279. Light follows the same laws as heat. 280. Radiation of light.
281. Transmitted. 282. Refracted. 283. Disperses. 284. Perpen-
dicular light. 285. The efficiency of light. 286. A due proportion
between light and heat. 287. Absence of light.
CHAPTER V.
WORMS, SNAILS, SLUGS, REPTILES, BIRDS, &c., CONSIDERED WITH
REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE . . . . .93
SECT. I. — The Earth-worm, considered with reference to Horticulture 94
290. Lumbricus terrestris. 293. Natural uses. 294. Injury.
SECT. II. — Snails and . Slugs, considered with reference to Horticulture 96
297. Helix asp^rsa, and H. nemoralis. 298. Slugs. 299. Snails
and slugs. 300. Snails and slugs are hermaphrodite and oviparous.
301. Natural uses of the snail. 302. Retires. 303. To destroy snails.
304. To destroy slugs.
SECT. III. — Insects, considered with reference to Horticulture . . 99
SUBSECT. I — Of the Nature of Insects, and their Classification . .99
306. Insects. 307. Winged insects. 308. Insects without wings.
309. Crabs and spiders. 310. Arrangement here given.
SUBSECT. II. — Transformation of Insects 101
311. Eggs. 312. Larvae. 313. Nymphae or pupse. 314. Perfect
insect.
SUBSECT. III. — Food of Insects 102
315. Nourishment. 316. Roots, stem, and branches. 317. Fo-
liage. 318. Flowers. 319. Number. 320. Food. 322. Transforma-
tion. 323. Gluttonous. 324. No nourishment. 325. Eat . .
SUBSECT. IV. — Distribution and Habits of Insects . . . .104
326. Distribution. 327. Water. 328. Land insects. 329. Other
animals.
SUBSECT. V.— Uses of Insects 105
332. Uses. 333. Medicine. 334. Insects destroyed by other in-
sects. 335. Consume dead animal substances.
SUBSECT. VI. — Means contrived by Nature to limit the Multiplication
of insects 105
336. Continued rain. 337. Late frosts. 338. Inundations. 339.
Enemies. 340. Insectivorous Mammalia. 341. Birds. 342. Wood-
Vlll CONTENTS.
SECT. III. — Insects, considered with reference to Horticulture —
continued. PAGE
pecker race. 343. Sparrow tribe. 344. Cuckoo. 345. Crows. 346.
Insectivorous birds, sometimes granivorous. 347. Amphibious ani-
mals. 348. Equilibrium. 349. Beetles. 350. Ichneumdnidse. 351.
Ants, and field or tree bugs.
SUBSECT. VII — Means devised by Art for arresting the Progress of
Insects in Gardens, or of destroying them there . • . .108
352. Insects may be destroyed in all their different stages. 353. De-
terring the perfect insect. 354. Preventing the perfect insect from
laying its eggs. 355. Catching the perfect insect. 356. Destroy-
ing the perfect insect. 357. Luring away the perfect insect. 358. Col-
lecting the eggs of insects. 359. Preventing eggs from being hatched.
360. Collecting or destroying larvae. 361. Collecting the pupae, or
chrysalids.
SECT. IV. — Amphibious Animals, considered with reference to Hor-
ticulture . . .114
SECT. V. — Birds, considered with reference to Horticulture . .115
364. Raptores (seizers). Insessores (perchers). 367. Rasores
(scratchers). 368. Grallatores (waders). 369. Natatores (swimmers).
370. The different modes of deterring birds. 371. The destruction of birds.
SECT. VI. — The smaller Quadrupeds, considered with reference to
Horticulture 120
372. Ferae (wild beasts). 373. Glires (dormice). 374. Ungulata
(hoofed animals).
CHAPTER VI.
DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS OF PLANTS, CONSIDERED WITH REFER-
ENCE TO HORTICULTURE . . . . . . . 123
375. Canker. 376. To prevent canker. 377. Cure. 378. Gum.
379. Mildew. 380. Honey-dew. 381. Blight. 382. Flux of juices.
383. Accidents. 384. Other plant diseases.
PART II.
IMPLEMENTS, STRUCTURES, AND OPERATIONS OF HORTICULTURE . 127
CHAPTER I.
IMPLEMENTS OF HORTICULTURE . . . . . . 127
385. Tools, instruments, utensils, machines, and other articles.
SECT. I. — General Observations on the construction and uses of the
Implements used in Horticulture ...... 128
387. The mechanical principles on which they act. 388. Construc-
tion of implements. 389. Repairs.
SECT. II. — Tools used in Horticulture . . . . . . 129
390. The common lever. 391. Perforators. 392. The dibber.
393. Picks. 394. Draw-hoes. 395. Scrapers. 396. Thrust-hoes.
397. Spades. 398. Turf-spades. 399. Turf-racers. 400. The trowel
and the spud. 401. Transplanters. 402. Forks. 403. Rakes. 404.
Besoms. 405. Beetles and rammers. 406. The mallet. 407. The
garden hammer. 408. The garden pincers.
CONTENTS. IX
PAGE
SECT. III. — Instruments used in Horticulture .... 137
409. Garden knives. 410. Bill-knives, or hedge-bills. 411. Prun-
ing-saws. 412. Pruning-chisels. 413. Shears. 414. The axe. 415.
Verge shears. 416. Grass shears. 417. The short grass scythe. 418.
Other instruments. 419. Chests of tools, and instruments.
SECT. IV. — Utensils used in Horticulture . . ... 142
420. Earthenware pots for plants. 421. Porosity. 422. Earthen-
ware saucers for pots. 423. Rectangular boxes. 424. Wooden tubs.
425. Watering-pots. 426. Money's inverted rose watering-pot. 427.
Sieves and screens. 428. Carrying utensils. 429. Baskets. 430.
Basket-making. 431. Carrying-baskets. 432. Measuring-baskets. 433.
Baskets for growing plants. 434. Portable glass utensils. 435. Sub-
stitute for bell glasses. 436. Powdering boxes. 437. Other utensils.
SECT. V. — Machines used in Horticulture . . , .153
438. Wheelbarrows for gardens. 439. Rollers. 440. The watering
engines. 441. Garden bellows. 442. The mowing-machine. 443.
Other machines.
SECT. VI. — Miscellaneous articles used in Horticulture . . . 158
444. Articles for protection. 445. Mats of straw or reeds. 446.
Wooden shutters. 447. Asphalte covers. 448. Oiled paper frames.
449. Oiled paper caps. 450. Wicker-work hurdles. 451. Props for
plants. 452. The durability of wooden props. 453. Garden tallies
and labels. 454. Nails, lists, and ties. 455. The garden line. 456.
Ladders. 457. A levelling instrument. 458. Thermometers. 459.
A hydrometer. 460. Other articles.
CHAPTER II.
STRUCTURES AND EDIFICES OF HORTICULTURE .... 171
SECT. I. — Portable, Temporary, and Movable Structures . . . 171
461. Wicker-work structures. 462. Portable substitutes for hand-
glasses. 463. Canvas coverings. 464. Canvas shades to hothouses.
465. The common hotbed frame.
SECT. II. — Fixed Structures used in Horticulture . . . 176
SUBSECT. I. — Walls, Espalier rails, and Trellis work . . . 176
466. Walls. 467. Direction and material. 468. The materials of
walls. 469. The height of garden walls. 470. The foundations. 471.
The copings of walls. 472. On the construction of walls. 473. Trel-
lised walls. 474. Colouring the surface of walls black. 475. Flued
walls. 476. Conservatory walls. 477. A substitute for a wall of brick.
478. Espalier rails. 479. Trellises and lattice-work.
SUBSECT. II — Fixed Structures for growing Plants with Glass roofs . 187
480. Plant houses. 481. Situation. 482. The form. 483. Cur-
vilineal roofs. 484. Ridge and furrow roofs. 485. Materials. 486.
The law of the reflection of light from glass. 487. Iron roofs. 488.
Heat. 489. Fermenting substances. 490. Fermenting materials and
fire heat combined. 491. Heating from vaults, or from stacks of flues.
492. Flues. 493. The best materials for building flues. 494. The
furnace. 495. On substitutes for smoke flues. 496. Steam. 497.
Hot water. 498. The modes of heating by hot water. 499. A reser-
voir of heat. 500. The pipes. 501. The situation in which the pipes
are placed. 502. The boiler. 503. The furnace. 504. Rogers's co-
nical boiler and hot-water apparatus. 505. Rain-water. 506. To pre-
vent the water in the apparatus from freezing. 507. Open gutters.
508. Retaining heat by coverings. 509. Atmospheric moisture. 510.
Steaming. 511. Ventilation. 512. The agitation. 513. Light. 513.
Water. 514. The different kinds of fixed structures for plants. 515.
X CONTENTS.
SECT. II. — Fixed structures used in Horticulture — continued. PAQE
Pits. 516. The greenhouse. 517. The orangery. 518. The conser-
vatory. 519. Botanic stoves. 520. The pine stove. 521. Forcing,
houses. 522. A plant structure for all or any of the above purposes.
SUBSECT. III. — Edifices used in Horticulture 224
523. Gardener's house. 524. Journeyman gardener's lodge. 525.
The fruit-room. 526. Seed-room. 527. Root-cellar, and other con-
veniences. 528. Tool-house. 529. Open sheds.
CHAPTER III.
OPERATIONS OF HORTICULTURE ....... 227
SECT. I. — Horticultural Labours ....... 227
SUBSECT. I. — Horticultural Labours on the Soil .... 227
531. Object of labours on the soil. 532. Marking with the garden
line. 533. Digging. 534. Trenching. 535. Trenching ground that is
to be cropped with culinary^ vegetables. 536. Operation of trenching.
537. Forking soil. 538. Hoeing. 539. Raking. 540. Rolling.
541. Screening or lifting. 542. Other labours on the soil.
SUBSECT. II. — Garden Labours with Plants 235
544. Sawing. 545. Cutting. 546. Clipping. 547. Clipping hedges.
548. Mowing. 549. Weeding. 550. Other labours with plants.
SECT. II.— Operations of Culture 239
SUBSECT. I. — Propagation ........ 239
% I. On Propagation by Seed . 240
552. The seed. 553. Process of germination. 554. The period neces-
sary to complete the process of germination. 555. The quantity of
moisture most favourable to germination. 556. The water requi-
site to cause old seeds to germinate. 557. The depth to which a seed
is buried in the soil. 558. The degree of heat most favourable for the
germination of seeds. 559. The degree of heat which the seeds of plants
will endure. 560. The degree of cold which seeds will endure. 561.
Atmospheric air. 562. The influence of light. 563. Accelerating the
germination of seeds. 564. Various experiments have been made
to accelerate germination. 565. Electricity and alkalies as stimu-
lants to vegetation. 566. The length of time during which seeds
retain their vitality. 567. The length of time that seeds will lie in
the ground without growing. 568. The season for sowing seeds.
569. The mechanical process of sowing. 570. Sowing seeds in pow-
dered charcoal. 571. Sowing seeds in snow. 572. The discoveries
daily making in chemical science.
§ 2. — On Propagation by Cuttings 249
573. A cutting. 574. Selecting plants from which the cuttings are
to be taken. 575. Selecting the shoot. 576. Shoots which have formed
blossom-buds. 577. As general rules. 578. The time of taking off
cuttings. 579. Preparation of the cutting. 580. The number of
leaves which are left on the cutting. 581. Taking off a cutting.
582. Treatment of cuttings from the time they are made till they are
planted. 583. Cuttings of succulent or fleshy plants. 584. The soil
in which cuttings are planted. 585. The depth. 586. Planting
cuttings. 587. The distance at which cuttings are planted. 588.
After-treatment of cuttings. 589. The most proper form of bell-glass
for covering cuttings. 590. Watering cuttings. 591. The temperature
most suitable for cuttings. 592. Cuttings of hardy deciduous trees
and shrubs. 593. Cuttings of hardy evergreens. 594. Cuttings of
all the Coniferse and Taxacese. 595. Cuttings of hardy or half-hardy
herbaceous plants. 596. Piping. 597. Cuttings of soft-wooded green-
house plants. 598. Cuttings of hard-wooded greenhouse plants. 59.0.
CONTENTS. XI
SECT. II. — Operations of Culture — continued. PAGE
Cuttings of heath-like plants. 600. Cuttings of succulent plants.
601. Cuttings of the underground stems and roots. 602. Striking cut-
tings in water or moist moss. 603. Striking plants in powdered char-
coal. 604. Propagation by joints and nodules. 605. A nodule. 606.
Propagating by joints of the vine. 607. Propagation by bulbs and
entire tubers and tubercles. 608. Propagating by bulb-bearing leaves.
§ 3. — Propagation by Leaves 266
609. The principle on which the propagation of plants by leaves is
founded. 610. The conditions generally required for rooting leaves.
611. Rooting portions of leaves. 612. The plants usually raised by
leaves in British gardens. 613. Propagation by the leaves of bulbs.
614. Rooting leaves and parts of leaves in powdered charcoal. 615.
Leaves with the buds in the axils root freely. 616. Immature fruits have
even been made to produce plants. 617. The essence of all the differ-
ent modes of forming plants from cuttings. 618. To induce stems or
shoots to produce leaves or growths from which cuttings may be formed.
§ 4; — Propagation by Layers .... .... 272
619. The theory of layering. 620. The operation of layering. 621.
The state of the plant most favourable for layering. 622. Hardy trees
and shrubs. 623. Shrubs with very long shoots. 624. Layering by
insertion of the growing point. 625. Plum and paradise stocks. 626.
Roses. 627. Hardy herbaceous plants. 628. Shrubby plants in pots
kept under glass. 629. The soil in which plants are layered. 630.
Hooked pegs. 631. The time which layers require to produce roots.
§ 5. — Propagation by Suckers f Slips, Offsets, Runners, and Simple
Division 277
632. A sucker. 633. Stem suckers or slips. 634. Offsets. 635.
Runners or stolones. 636. Simple division.
§ 6. — Propagation by grafting, inarching, and budding . . . 280
637. The term graft. 638. The origin of grafting. 639. The
phenomena of grafting. 640. The condition. 641. Anatomical
analogy. 642. Physiological analogy. 643. The modifications effected
by the graft. 644. The influence of the scion on the stock. 645. The
uses of grafting. 646. The different kinds of grafting. 647. The ma-
terials used in grafting. 648. Grafting-clay. 649. Grafting-wax.
§ 7. — Grafting by detached Scions 287
651. Splice-grafting. 652. Splice-grafting the peach. 653. Cleft-
grafting. 654. Cleft-grafting the vine. 655. Saddle-grafting. 656.
Side-grafting. 657. Wedge-grafting. 658. Grafting the mistletoe.
659. Root-grafting. 660. Herbaceous grafting. 661. Grafting the
pine and fir tribe. 662. Grafting the tree-peony. 663. Grafting on
fleshy roots. 664. Herbaceous wedge-grafting. 665. Herbaceous
grafting for shoots with opposite leaves. 666. Herbaceous grafting
annual or perennial plants- 667. Grafting herbaceous shoots of succu-
lents. 668. Grafting the melon, 669. The greffe etouffee.
§ 8. — Grafting by approach or inarching 297
671. Side inarching. 672. Terminal inarching. 673. Inarching
with partially-nourished scions.
§ 9. — Budding or grafting by detached buds 300
675. The uses of budding. 676. Performing the operation. 677.
Prepared wax for budding. 678. Plastic wax. 679. Shield-budding
in the end of summer. 680. Shield- budding in June. 681. Shield-
budding in spring. 682. Shield- budding without a bud or eye. 683.
Budding with a circular shield. 684. Budding with a shield stamped
out by a punch. 685. Budding with the shield reversed. 686. Bud-
ding with the eye turned downwards. 687. Shield-budding for resinous
trees. 688. Budding with the shield covered. 689, Budding with a
Xll CONTENTS.
SECT. II. — Operations of Culture — continued. PAGE
square shield. 690. Shield-budding with a terminal bud. 691. Flute-
budding, or tube-budding. 692. Flute-budding in spring. 693. Ter-
minal flute -budding. 694. Flute-budding with strips of bark. 695.
Annular budding. 696. The after-care of grafts by budding.
SUBSECT. II. — Rearing 308
§ 1. — Transplanting and Planting ' 309
698. To transplant. 699. The uses of transplanting. 700. The
theory of transplanting. 701. Seedlings. 702. Deciduous trees and
shrubs, and perennial herbaceous plants. 703.Whether deciduous trees
and shrubs ought to be transplanted in autumn or spring. 704. Different
modes of transplanting large trees and shrubs. 705. Transplanting with
large balls of earth. 706. Transplanting by shortening the roots, so
as to induce them to throw out fibres. 707. Sir Henry Steuart's prac-
tice in transplanting large trees. 708. Pulling down the tree and rais-
ing it out of the pit. 709. Transporting and replanting the tree.
710. Transplanting by shortening the roots, without permitting them
to throw out fibres at their extremities. 711." Transplanting by thin-
ning and pruning the roots and branches. 712. The removal of large
trees and shrubs. 713. Transplanting by heading-in, that is, cutting
in the branches. 714. The staking or supporting of newly-trans-
planted trees, and the protection of their stems from cattle. 715. The
machinery for moving large trees. 716. Transplanting evergreens.
717. The best season for transplanting evergreens. 718. The drying
of the roots of evergreens. 719. Planting evergreens. 720. Trans-
planting evergreens with balls. 721. The machines and implements
for transplanting large shrubs with balls. 722. Packing evergreens.
723. Methods of planting small plants. 724. Planting with the dibber.
725. Planting with the trowel. 726. Planting in drills. 727. Laying
in by the heels. 728. Trench-plan ting. 729. Slit-planting. 730. Hole-
planting. 731. Planting in pits. 732. Hole-planting, and fixing with
water. 733. Planting in puddle. 734. Planting out plants which have
been grown in pots. 735. Watering, mulching, and staking newly-
planted plants. 736. Taking up previously to~ planting. 737. As a
summary of general rules for planting.
§ 2. — Potting and Repotting or Shifting . . . .329
738. To pot a plant. 739. The main object of growing plants in pots.
740. The disadvantages of growing plants in pots. 741. Potting. 742.
The same soil which is suitable for the open garden is not always suitable
for using in pots. 743. Bottom drainage. 744. The mode of sowing or
planting in a pot. 745. Transplanting from the free soil into a pot or
box. 746. Care of newly potted or shifted plants. 747. Shifting or re-
potting. 748. Seasons and times for potting and shifting. 749. The most
difficult plants to manage in pots. 750. Growing hardy plants in pots.
§ 3.— Pruning . . . . . . 335
752. The specific principles on which pruning is founded, and
its general effects. 753. Forest-trees. 754. Ornamental trees.
755. Ornamental shrubs. 756. Fruit-trees and shrubs. 757.
Herbaceous plants. 758. Close pruning. 759. Shortening-in. 760.
Fore-shortening. 761. Spurring-in. 762. Heading-in. 763. Lopping.
764. Close lopping. 765. Snag-lopping. 766. Lopping-in. 767.
Cutting down. 768. Stopping and pinching out. 769. Disbarking.
770. Ringing. 771. Disbudding. 772. Disleafing. 773. Slitting and
splitting. 774. Bruising and tearing. 775. Clipping. 776. Root-
pruning. 777. Girdling and felling. 778. The girdling machine.
779. The seasons for pruning.
§ l.— Thinning . . . . . 349
781. Seedling crops in gardens. 782. Thinning plantations. 783.
Thinning ornamental plantations.
5,_ Training . . . . . . .351
CONTENTS. Xlll
SECT. II. — Operations of Culture — Training — continued. PAGK
784. To train. 785. The principles. 786. Manual operations of
training. 787. Training herbaceous plants. 788. Herbaceous and
shrubby plants in pots. 789. Training hardy flowering shrubs in the
open ground. 790. Evergreen shrubs. 791. Training fruit-trees.
792. The different modes of training bushes and trees in the open
garden. 793. The different modes of training fruit-trees against walls
or espaliers. 794. Dwarfs in the open garden. 795. Spiral cylinders. —
796. Standards in the open garden. 797. The spurring-in system.
798. Conical standards. 799. Hayward's quenouille- training. 800.
Fan-training. 801. Fan-training in the common English manner.
802. Fan-training according to Seymour's mode. 803. Fan-training
in the wavy or curvilinear manner. 804. Wavy fan-training with two
stems. 805. Wavy fan-training with a single stem. 806. Horizontal
training. 807. Fan-training and horizontal training combined. 808.
Perpendicular training. 809. Instruments and materials. 810. Com-
parative view of the different modes of training. 811. A standard tree.
§ 6 — Weeding . ...... 378
813. A weed. 814. Annual weeds. 815. Perennial weeds. 816.
Weeds in gravel-walks. 817. Weeds in lawns or on grass-walks.
818. Weeds in shrubberies and plantations. 819. Weeds in woods and
park scenery. 820. Weeding ponds, rivers, and artificial waters.
§ 7.— Watering . . . . . . .382
821. Water. 822. The specific purposes for which water is used in
horticulture. 823. The ordinary sources from which water is obtained
in gardens. 824. The distribution of water. 825. The ordinary mode
of giving water to plants. 826. When it is proper to water, and
how much water to give. 827. Whether plants should be watered over
the leaves, or only over the soil in which they grow. 828. Watering
plants in pots. 829. Aquatic and marsh plants. 830. Watering with
liquid manure. 831. To economise the water given to plants.
§ 8. — Stirring the soil and manuring . ... 388
§ 9.— Blanching . . . . . . 389
§ 10. — Protection from atmospherical injuries . . . 389
835. The object of shading. 836. Sheltering from wind. 837. The
principles of protecting from cold. 838. Protecting from rain.
§ 11. — Accelerating vegetation ..... 391
839. Acceleration. 840. Artificial heat. 841. Hotbeds. 842. Pre-
paration of materials for hotbeds. 843. M'Phail's hotbed or pit.
844. The formation of common hotbeds. 845. Ashes, tan, and leaves.
846. The nightly covering to hotbeds and pits. 847. Management of
hotbeds and pits heated by dung.
§ 12. — Retarding vegetation 395
§ 13. — Resting vegetation 396
849. In the natural state of vegetation. 850. Nightly temperature.
851. What the night temperature of a hotbed or hothouse ought to be.
852. Double glass roofs. 853. The annual resting of plants. 854. The
natural period of rest in hardy plants. 855. The advantages of putting
trees that are to be forced into a state of rest.
§ 14. — Operations of gathering, preserving, keeping, and packing . 401
856. Gathering. 857. Preserving. 858. Keeping fruits. 859. Packing
and transporting plants and seeds. 860. Packing fruits and flowers.
§ 15. — Selecting and improving plants in culture .... 403
8G2. Cultivation. 863. Selection. 864. Selecting from accidental
variations. 865. Cross-breeding. 866. Precautions against promiscuous
fecundation. 867. Fixing and rendering permanent the variety produced.
868. The production of double flowers. 869. Duration of varieties.
§ 16 — Operations of order and keeping 409
871. Order. 872. Keeping. 873. Rules.
Xiv CONTENTS.
CHAPTER IV.
PAGE
OPERATIONS OP HORTICULTURAL DESIGN AND TASTE . 411
875. Taking plans. 876. Carrying plans into execution. 877. Re-
ducing a surface to a level, or to a uniform slope.
CHAPTER V.
OPERATIONS OF GENERAL MANAGEMENT . . . . . . 412
879. General management of a garden. 880. On undertaking the
charge of a garden. 881. The books to be kept by a gardener. 882.
The ordering of seeds and plants. 883. The management of men and
the distribution of work. 884. The wages of a gardener.
PART III.
THE CULTURE OP THE KITCHEN, FRUIT, AND FORCING GARDEN . 416
CHAPTER I.
LAYING OUT AND PLANTING THE KITCHEN AND FRUIT GARDEN . 416
SECT. I. — Laying out the Kitchen Garden . . . . 416
885. The situation and general management of the kitchen garden.
886. Trenching and levelling.
SECT. II. — The Distribution of Fruit-trees in a Kitchen Garden . 420
SUBSECT. 1.— Wall-fruit Trees 422
888. Select list of fruit-trees adapted for walls of different aspects. 890.
The distance. 891. For low walls. 892. Training. 893. Planting.
SUBSECT. II. — Fruit-trees for Espaliers and Dwarfs .... 424
894. Espaliers. 895. Dwarfs or standards trained in the conical
manner. 896. Espalier-rails. 897. A wooden espalier rail. 898. Es-
palier rails of cast iron. 899. Espalier rails of wrought iron. 900.
Dwarfs. 901. Select list. 902. The plants. 903. Standard fruit-trees.
SUBSECT. III.— Fruit Shrubs 429
904. Gooseberries and currants. 905. Select list. 906. Plants.
SUBSECT. IV. — Selection of Fruit-trees adapted for an Orchard . . 430
907. A plantation or orchard. 908. The plants. 909. Select list.
910. Training. 911. Culture of the soil.
CHAPTER II.
CROPPING AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF A KITCHEN GARDEN . 434
SECT. 1.-— Cropping 434
913. The herbaceous vegetables grown in kitchen gardens. 914. Gene-
ral proportions of crops. 916. The quantity of seed.
SECT. 11.— Rotation of Crops 435
918. Successional cropping. 919. The object to be obtained by a
system of cropping. 920. Successional cropping. 921. The simulta-
neous mode of cropping. 922. Modes of cropping. 923. Successional
and simultaneous cropping combined. 924. Order of rotation. 925.
Secondary crops. 926. Times of sowing and planting.
SECT. III. — Planting, Sowing, Cultivating, and Managing . . 439
928. Management of the fruit-tree borders. 929. Management of
the culinary crops. 930. Gathering, storing, and keeping of fruit.
931. Management of the fruit-room.
CONTENTS. XV
CHAPTER III.
PAGE
THE FORCING DEPARTMENT . ..... 442
SECT. I. — Culture of the Pine-apple, and Management of the Pinery 443
SUBSECT. I.— Natural data on which the Culture of the Pine-apple is
founded 443
932. The conclusions to be drawn from these data. 933. Soil. 934.
Water.
SUBSECT. II. — Culture of the Pine-apple in British Gardens . . 444
935. Construction of the pit. 936. Kinds grown. 937. Water-
ing and sprinkling. 938. Worms. 939. Heat, air, and moisture. 941.
Jamaica pines. 942. Starting pine plants into fruit. 943. Air.
944. Propagation. 945. Bottom-heat. 946. As the season declines, the
temperature is lowered. 947. Culture of the queen pine, so as to have
the fruit ripe in February and March. 948. Sizes of the pots in which
the plants are grown. 949. Culture of queen pines for early fruit.
950. Growing the pine-apple in beds of soil. 951. Fruiting suckers
on the stools. 952. To grow the pine-apple to an extraordinary size.
953. Insects.
SECT. II. — Culture of the Grape Vine under Glass and on Walls . 452
SUBSECT. I. — Natural data on which the Culture of the Grape Vine is
founded 452
954. The grape vine. 955. With respect to atmospheric moisture.
956. Soil. 957. Form of house.
SUBSECT. II. — Propagation, Pruning, and Training the Vine . . 454
958. Propagation. 959. Pruning. 960. Training. 961. Essential
points. 962. The long, or the renewal system of pruning. 963. The
spurring-in method of pruning. 964. The fan-system of vine- training.
965. The Thomery system.
SUBSECT. Ill — Culture of the Grape Vine under Glass . . . . 457
966. Vine border. 967. Planting. 968. To raise the plants. 969.
When planted in the vinery. 970. The sorts. 971. A diary of the
course of culture applied to the grape vines at Oakhill. 972. Growing
two or three crops of grapes in one house. 973. Growing three crops
of grapes in one house together with pines. 974. Another mode of
growing three crops of grapes in one house. 975. Keeping grapes.
SUBSECT. IV. — Growing the Grape on open walls, and on cottages . 464
976. Fruit-bearing powers of the vine. 977. Aspect. 978. Soil.
979. Manure. 980. Walls. 981. Propagation. 982. Pruning. 983.
Training. 984. Mr. Hoare's mode of training. 985. Training the
vine on the walls of cottages. 986. The appearance of a portion of the
front of a house covered with vines in Mr. Hoare's manner. 987. The
walls and roof of a cottage of the most irregular architecture. 988.
Kinds of grapes most suitable for the open wall or for cottages.
SUBSECT. V. — Insects, Diseases, <|c., of the Grape Vine .... 472
SECT. III. — Culture of the Peach and Nectarine under Glass . . 472
SUBSECT. I. — Natural data on which the Culture of the Peach is founded. 472
989. The peach. 990. Natural and experimental data.
SUBSECT. II.— Culture of the Peach under Glass in British Gardens . 474
991. Construction of the peach-house. 992. Peaches and nectarines
best adapted for forcing. 993. Plants and mode of training. 994.
Pruning. 995. The summer pruning, 996. The fruit is thinned before
and after the stoning season. 997. The peach border. 998. General
treatment. 999. Insects and diseases. 1000. Peaches may be forced
in pots.
XVI CONTENTS.
SECT. III. — Culture of the Peach and Nectarine under Glass —
continued. PA^
SUBSECT. Ill The details of a routine course of forcing the Peach
for two years ........... 477
1001. Soil. 1002. Border. 1003. Planting. 1004. Forcing in the
first season. 1005. Watering and fumigating. 1006. Summer
pruning. 1007. Routine treatment during the first season. 1008.
Winter treatment. 1009. Forcing in the second season. 1010.
Applying a preventive composition. 1011. Forcing in February.
1012. March. 1013. Thinning the shoots and fruit. 1014. Stoning.
1015. Watering. 1016. Ripening. 1017. Duration of the crop.
SECT. IV.— Culture of the Cherry under Glass . . . 480
SUBSECT. I.— Natural Data for the Culture of the Cherry . . . 480
SUBSECT. II. — The practice of Cherry Forcing in British Gardens . . 480
1019. The cherry-house. 1020. Kinds of cherries for forcing, pot-
ting the plants, &c. 1021. Time of commencing to force. 1022.
Progress. 1023. Insects. 1024. Thinning and stoning, &c. 1025.
Treatment of the plants in pots after they are taken out of the house.
1026. To have a constant succession of cherries. 1027. Forcing cher-
ries by a temporary structure. 1028. German practice.
SECT. V. — Culture of the Fig under Glass . . . . 485
SUBSECT. I. — Natural data on which the Culture of the Fig is founded . 485
SUBSECT. II. — The forcing of the Fig as practised in British Gardens . 485
1031. The construction of the fig-house. 1032. The varieties best
adapted for forcing. 1033. The time of beginning to force. 1034.
The forcing of fig-trees in pots. 1035. Winter treatment.
SECT. VI. — On forcing the Plum, Apricot, Gooseberry, and other
Fruit-trees, and Fruit-shrubs . . 487
SECT. VII.— Culture of the Melon . . . 487
SUBSECT. I Natural and experimental data on which the Culture of the
Melon is founded 487
SUBSECT. II. — Culture of the Melon as practised in British Gardens . 490
1038. The sorts. 1039. Very early melons. 1040. Seedlings. 1041.
Cuttings. 1042. Planting out. 1043. General treatment. 1044.
Persian melons. 1045. Culture of the melon in the open air. 1046.
Insects and diseases. 1047. The red spider and the damp.
SECT. VIII. — Culture of the Cucumber ... . 494
SUBSECT. I. — Data on which the Culture of the Cucumber is founded . . 494
SUBSECT. II. — Culture of the Cucumber in a Dung -bed . . . 496
1051. The formation of a dung-bed. 1052. The seed-bed. 1053.
Soil. 1054. Seeds and treatment of the young plants. 1055. Raising
plants from cuttings. 1056. Fruiting-bed. 1057. Ridging out the
plants. 1058. A temporary lining. 1059. Air. 1060. Earthing-up.
1061. Linings of cucumber beds and their management. 1062.
Water. 1063. Stopping. 1064. Moulding up. 1065. The covering
at night. 1066. Setting or impregnating the fruit. 1067. To procure
seed. 1068. Inlaying, or earthing in, the vines of the cucumber.
1069. When extraordinary fine fruit is desired.
SUBSECT. III. — Culture of the Cucumber in pits heated by dung linings,
flues, or hot water 503
1070. Of pits heated wholly or in part by dung linings. 1071. Pits
to be heated by flues or hot water. 1072. A pit to be heated by a flue.
CONTENTS. XV11
SECT. VIII. — Culture of the Cucumber — continued. PAGK
1073. A pit to be heated by hot water, and by a flue from the fire which
heats the boiler. 1074. Corbett's cucumber pit. 1075. Green's
cucumber pit. 1076. The advantages gained by this pit. 1078. The
culture of the cucumber in pots. 1079. Construction of the cucumber
house. 1080. Treatment of the plants.
SUBSECT. IV. — Culture and treatment of the Cucumber for Prize Ex-
hibitions 510
SUBSECT. V. — Cultivation of the Cucumber in the open air . . . 510
1082. Cucumbers grown in the open air are commonly protected by
hand or bell glasses. 1083. Increasing the atmospheric heat of the
soil. 1084. Cucumbers against a south wall. 1085. Growing
cucumbers on balconies, or in court-yards. 1086. Watering cucumbers
in the open garden. 1087. Cucumber and melon culture compared.
SECT. IX. — Culture of the Banana ...... 512
SECT. X. — Forcing the Strawberry . . . . . 514
1090. Data,on which the forcing of the strawberry is founded. 1091.
Routine practice in forcing Keen's seedling, and the old scarlet or
Virginian strawberries. 1092. How grown and protected before forcing.
1093. After forcing. 1094. The Alpine strawberry.
SECT. XI. — Forcing the Asparagus, Sea Kale, Rhubarb, Chicory,
and other fleshy roots . . . . . . .516
SECT. XII. — Forcing the common Potato, the sweet Potato, and
other tubers . . . . . . . . .519
1100. The common potato. 1101. A substitute for new potatoes.
1102. The sweet potato. 1103. O'xalis Deppei.
SECT. XIII. — Forcing Kidney Beans and Peas . . . . 520
SECT. XIV. — Forcing Salads, Pot-herbs, Sweet-herbs, and other
culinary Plants ........ 521
1106. Lettuce, chicory, radish, cress, mustard, rape, parsley, chervil,
carrot, turnip, onion, and similar plants. 1107. Small salading.
1108. Radish. 1 1 09. To produce full-grown cabbage-lettuces through-
out the winter. 1110. Perennial pot and sweet herbs.
SECT. XV. — Forcing the Mushroom . . . . . 523
SUBSECT. I. — Data on which the Culture and Forcing of the Mushroom
is founded 523
SUBSECT. II. — Forcing the Mushroom in British Gardens . . . 524
1112. The ordinary form of a mushroom-house. 1113. Thespawn.
1114. To grow the mushroom. 1115. Growing the mushroom in a
cellar. 1116. Management of the bed. 1117. Mushroom spawn.
1118. Gathering mushrooms. 1119. The duration of a crop of
mushrooms.
/ CHAPTER IV.
CATALOGUE OF FRUITS ........ 526
1120. The fruits usually cultivated in British gardens. 1121. Ar-
ranged botanically. 1122. Geographically and horticulturally. 1123.
Suitable for climates analogous to that of Britain. 1124. For climates
analogous to that of the South of France. 1125. For climates sub-
tropical, or tropical.
SECT. I. — Hardy or Orchard Fruits 528
SUBSECT. \.~The Apple 52g
1128. The uses of the apple. 1129. Properties of a good apple.
b
XVlli CONTENTS.
SECT. I. — Hardy or Orchard Fruits — The Apple — continued.
1130. Varieties. 1131. Early dessert apples. 1132. Dessert apples
to succeed early kinds. 1133. Early kitchen apples. 1134. Kitchen
apples for winter and spring use. 1135. Cider apples. 1136. Dessert
apples which may be used as kitchen apples. 1137. Kitchen apples
which may be used as dessert apples. 1 138. Apples for cottage gardens,
where the soil and situation are favourable, and which may be used either
for the table or the kitchen. 1139. Apples for training against the
walls or on the roofs of cottages, or on the walls of cottage gardens.
1 140. Apples for cottage gardens in situations liable to spring frosts.
1141. Apples for a cottage garden in an unfavourable climate. 1142.
Apples adapted for walls of different aspects. 1143. Apples adapted
for espaliers, dwarfs, or conical standards. 1144. Apples suitable for
an orchard. 1 145. Apples remarkable for the form of the tree, or the
beauty of the blossoms or fruit. 1146. General principles of selecting
varieties of the apple. 1147. Propagation. 1148. Soil and situation.
1149. Mode of bearing, pruning, and training. 1150. Spurring-in
pruning. 1151. Pruning with reference to the entire tree. 1 1 52. Ga-
thering and keeping. 1153. Diseases, insects, casualties, &c.
SUBSECT. II. — The Pear 545
1155. Uses. 1156. Properties of a good pear. 1157. The varieties.
1 1 58. Dessert pears arranged in the order of their ripening and keep-
ing. 1159. Kitchen pears arranged in the order of their ripening and
keeping. 1160. Perry pears arranged in the order of their merits.
1161. A list of pears adapted for walls of different aspects. 1162. A
list of pears for espaliers, dwarfs, or standards, trained conically or
spurred-in. 1163. A list of pears adapted for an orchard, or being
grown as standards. 1164. A selection of Pears where the space is
very limited, or for cottage gardens. 1165. Pear-trees of forms adapted
for landscape scenery. 1166. The propagation, nursery, culture, and
choice of plants. 1167. Soil, situation, and final planting. 1168. The
mode of bearing, pruning, and training. 1 169. Gathering and keeping.
1170. The diseases, insects, and casualties.
SUBSECT. III.— The Quince 551
1172. Varieties. 1173. Propagation, soil, and other points of cul-
ture and management.
SUBSECT. TV.— The Medlar 552
1175. Varieties. 1176. Propagation, soil, and other points of cul-
ture and management.
SUBSECT. V. — The True Service 552
1177. The true service. 1178. Pyrus t6rminalis. 1 179. Pyrus A'ria
var. cretica.
SUBSECT. VI.— The Cherry 553
1181. Use. 1183. Varieties. 1183. Dessert cherries, arranged in
the order of their ripening. 1184. Cherries for preserving. 1185.
Cherries adapted for being trained against walls of different aspects.
1186. Cherries adapted for espaliers or dwarfs. 1 1 87. Cherries adapted
for being grown as standards. 1188. Cherries for a cottage garden.
1 189. Cherries for the north of Scotland. 1190. Propagation, nursery
culture, and choice of plants. 1191. Soil, situation, and final planting.
1192. Mode of bearing, pruning, and training. 1193. Gathering and
keeping. 1194. Diseases, insects, casualties, &c. 1195. A Dutch
cherry garden.
SUBSECT. VII. — The Plum 558
1197. Use. 1198. Varieties. 1199. Dessert plums arranged in the
order of their ripening. 1200. Kitchen plums arranged in the order of
their ripening. 1201. A selection of plums for walls of different aspects,
espaliers and dwarfs, and for an orchard. 1202. Dessert and kitchen
plums for a garden of limited extent. 1203. A selection of dessert
CONTENTS. XIX
SECT. I. — Hardy or Orchard Fruits — The Plum — continued. PAGK
plums for a very small garden. 1204. Dessert and kitchen plums for
a cottage garden. 1205. Propagation, nursery culture, and choice of
plants. 1206. Soil, situation, and final planting. 1207. Mode of
bearing, pruning, and training. 1208. Gathering, keeping, packing, &c.
1209. Insects, diseases, casualties, &c. 1210. The plum may be forced.
SUBSECT. VIII The Gooseberry 560
1212. Use. 1213. Varieties. 1214. A selection of gooseberries for
a suburban garden. 1215. The largest prize gooseberries. 1216.
Gooseberries for a cottage garden. 1217. Large Lancashire goose-
berries adapted for a cottage garden. 1218. Propagation, nursery cul-
ture, and choice of plants. 1219. Soil, situation, and final planting.
1220. Mode of bearing, pruning, and training. 1221. The growers of
gooseberries for prizes. 1222. Gathering and keeping. 1223. Insects,
diseases, and casualties. 1224. Forcing.
SUBSECT. IX. — The Red and White Currant 566
1226. Use. 1227. Varieties. 1228. The propagation and future
treatment.
SUBSECT. X. — The Black Currant 567
SUBSECT. XI.— The Raspberry 567
1231. Varieties. 1232. Propagation, soil, and other points of cul-
ture. 1233. Gathering. 1234. Forcing. 1235. The cloudberry.
1236. The Nootka raspberry.
SUBSECT. XII. — The Strawberry 570
1238. Use. 1239. Varieties. 1240. Selection of strawberries from
the above classes in the order of their ripening. 1241. A selection for
a small garden. 1242. A selection for a cottage garden. 1243. A
selection for a confined, shady situation. 1244. Propagation, soil, &c.
1245. Culture. 1246. Culture in rows. 1247. Culture in beds.
1248. Mulching and watering. 1249. Culture of particular kinds.
1250. Retarding a crop. 1251. Accelerating a crop in the open garden.
1252. Gathering. 1253. Forcing.
SUBSECT. XIII.— The Cranberry 576
SUBSECT. XIV.— The Mulberry 577
SUBSECT. XV.— The Walnut 578
1257. The Walnut. 1258. Pacane-nut hickory, and the shell-bark
hickory.
SUBSECT. XVI — The Sweet Chestnut 578
SUBSECT. XVII.— The Filbert 579
SUBSECT. XVIII. — The Berberry, Elderberry, Cornelian Cherry, Buf-
falo-berry, and Winter Cherry 580
1261. The berberry. 1262. The Magellan sweet berberry. 1263. The
Nepal berberry. 1264. The alder-tree. 12.65. The cornelian cherry:
1266. The buffalo berry. 1267. The winter cherry
SECT. II. — Half-hardy or Wall-fruits 582
SUBSECT. I The Grape 582
1270. A selection of grapes for early forcing. 1271. The selection of
grapes grown at Hungerton Hall. 1272. A selection of grapes of va-
rious flavours and colours. 1273. Grapes for a late crop in a vinery.
1274. Grapes for a house in which pines are grown. 1275. Grapes
with small leaves, and hardy ; adapted for the rafters of a greenhouse.
1276. Grapes with small leaves, less hardy than the preceding selec-
tion, and fit for the rafters of a plant or stove. 1277. Grapes with
small bunches and berries, adapted for being grown in pots or boxes.
1278. Grapes for a cottage garden where the climate is not very favour-
b2
XX CONTENTS.
SECT. II. — Half-hardy or Wall-fruits— The Grape — continued. PAGK
able. 1279. Grapes suitable for the open wall, or for cottages. 1280.
Propagation. 1281. Culture, pruning, training, &c. 1282. Pruning.
1283. Thinning. 1284. Setting the blossom. 1285. Growing grapes
in pots. 1286. General treatment of the vine. 1287. Growing grapes
for wine-making.
SUBSECT. 11.— The Peach and Nectarine 586
1289. Use. 1290. Properties of a good peach or nectarine. 1291.
Varieties. 1292. Select peaches arranged in the order of their ripening.
1293. Select nectarines arranged in the order of their ripening. 12.94.
Peaches and nectarines for a wall to come in, in succession. 1295.
Peaches for a cold late situation. 1296. A selection of peaches for
forcing. 1297. Propagation and nursery culture. 1298. Soil, situa-
tion, &c. 1299. Mode of bearing, pruning, &c. 1300. Mr. Callow's
mode of training. 1301. Shortening the young wood of the peach.
1302. In summer-pruning the peach. 1303. Thinning the fruit. 1304.
Treatment of the peach border. 1305. Over-luxuriant peach trees.
1306. Old decaying peach trees. 1307. Protecting peach trees during
winter and spring. 1308. Growing the peach on a flued wall. 1309.
The acceleration of the ripening of a crop of peaches. 1310. Gathering.
1311. Diseases, insects, &c. 1312. The essential points of peach cul-
ture. 1313. Forcing the peach and nectarine.
SUBSECT. III.— The Almond 595
SUBSECT. IV. — The Apricot 596
1316. Varieties. 1317. Apricots for walls of different aspects.
1318. Apricots for the walls of a cottage. 1319. Propagation, nursery
culture, &c. 1320. Final planting, pruning, &c.
SUBSECT. V. — The Fig ... 598
1322. Selections of the best figs for forcing, and for walls of different
aspects. 1323. Propagation, culture, &c.
SUBSECT. VI.— The Pomegranate ....... 599
SUBSECT. VII. — The Peruvian Cherry 600
SECT. III. — Tropical or Sub-tropical Fruits .... 600
SUBSECT. I. — The Pine- Apple 600
1328. Pines cultivated chiefly for their kigh flavour. 1329. Pines
cultivated chiefly for their large size. 1 330. Culture.
SUBSECT. II. — The Banana 601
SUBSECT. III.— The Melon 602
1334. Melons with red flesh. 1335. Melons with green flesh. 1336.
Persian melons. 1337. Winter melons. 1338. Water melons.
SUBSECT. IV.— The Cucumber 603
SUBSECT. V. — The Pumpkin and Gourd 604
SUBSECT. VI. — The Tomato, the Egg-plant, and the Capsicum . . 606
SUBSECT. VII. — The Orange Family 608
1347. The common orange. 1348. Bigarade, Seville, or bitter orange.
1349. Thebergamot orange. 1350. The lime. 1351. The shaddock.
1352. The sweet lemon. 1353. The true lemon. 1354. The citron.
1355. Propagation and culture.
SUBSECT. VIII — The Guana, Lo-quat, Granadilla, and other fruits
little known in British Gardens 611
1356. The guava. 1357. The lo-quat. 1358. The granadilla. 1359.
The Indian fig. 1360. The pawpaw. 1361. The olive. 1362. Other
exotic fruits.
SUBSECT. IX. — Remarks applicable to Fruit-trees, and Fruit-bearing
Plants generally 613
CONTENTS. XXI
CHAPTER V.
PAGE
CATALOGUE OP CULINARY VEGETABLES . . . . .616
1364. The culinary vegetables usually cultivated in British gardens.
1365. Classed Horticulturally and Economically. 1366. Propagation
and seed-sowing. 1367. The selection of varieties. 1368. Whether
a crop;which is raised from seed ought to be sown where it is finally to
remain, or sown in a seed-bed and transplanted. 1369. Soils. 1370.
Proportion of each crop.
SECT. I. — Brassicaceous Esculents^ or the Cabbage Tribe . . 622
1372. The white cabbage. 1373. The couve tronchuda. 1374.
Cabbage coleworts. 1375. The red cabbage. 1376. The savoy. 1377.
Brussels sprouts. 1378. Borecole. 1379. Cauliflower. » 1380. Broc-
coli. 1381. The turnip cabbage. 1382. The Chinese cabbage. 1383.
General culture and management of the cabbage tribe. 1384. Substi-
tutes for the cabbage tribe.
SECT. II. — Leguminaceous Esculents ..... 630
SUBSECT. I. — The Pea 630
1386. Varieties. 1387. Culture. 1388. The earliest crops. 1389.
Portable walls for early crops of peas, &c. 1390. The summer and
autumn crops. 1391. Diseases, vermin, &c.
SUBSECT. II.— The Bean 634
SOBSECT. Ill — The Kidney-bean 635
1396. Varieties. 1397. Culture of the dwarf sorts. 1398. Culture
of the twining sorts. 1399. Gathering. 1400. The lima bean. 1401.
The common lentil. 1402. The white lupin. 1403. Substitutes.
SECT. III. — Radicaceous Esculents ..... 638
SUBSECT. I. — The Potato 638
1406. Varieties. 1407. Culture. 1408. For an early crop. 1409.
The Lancashire practice. 1410. Gathering. 1411. Messrs. Chap-
man's new spring potatoes. 1412. For a main or late crop. 1413.
Young potatoes during winter. 1414. Selecting and preparing the
sets. 1415. Greening potatoes for sets. 1416. Taking up and pre-
serving a crop. 1417. Diseases, insects, &c.
SUBSECT. II. — The Jerusalem Artichoke 646
SUBSECT. III. — The Turnip 647
. 1420. Varieties. 1421. Culture. 1422. In gathering. 1423. Pre-
serving turnips through the winter. 1424. To save seed. 1425. Dis-
eases, insects, &c. 1426. Forcing the turnip.
SUBSECT. IV. — The Carrot 649
1428. Varieties. 1429. Culture. 1430. Gathering and keeping.
1431. Diseases and insects. 1432. Seed saving.
SUBSECT. V. — The Parsnep 651
SUBSECT. VI.— The Red Beet 651
SUBSECT. VII. — The Skirret, Scorzonera, Salsify, and (Enothera . 652
1436. The skirret. 1437. The scorzonera. 1438. The salsify. 1439.
The Spanish salsify. 1440. The tree-primrose.
SUBSECT. VIII. — The Hamburgh Parsley 653
SUBSECT. IX.— The Radish 653
1443. Varieties. 1444. Soil.
SUBSECT. X. — Oxalis Deppei, O. crenata, and Tropaeolum tuberosum . 654
:Xll CONTENTS.
PAGE
SECT. IV .—Spinaceous Esculents ...... 656
SUBSECT. I. — The common Spinach 656
SUBSECT. II. — Orach or French Spinach . . . . , . 657
SUBSECT. III. — New Zealand Spinach .... . 657
SUBSECT. IV. — Perennial Spinach 657
SUBSECT. V. — The Spinach Beet, and the Chard Beet . . . 658
SUBSECT. VI. — Patience Spinach 658
SUBSECT. VII.— The Sorrel 658
SECT. V. — Alliaceous Esculents 650
SUBSECT. 1.— The Onion 659
1462. Varieties and species. 1463. Propagation and culture. 1464.
An autumn and winter crop of onions. 1465. A transplanted crop.
1466. The potato onion. 14(>7. The bulb-bearing onion. 1468. Treat-
ment common to all the kinds. 1469. Diseases, insects, &c. 1470. The
onion fly. 1471. Gathering the crop. 1472. To save seed.
SUBSECT. II.— The Leek 663
SUBSECT. III.— The Shallot . . 664
SUBSECT. IV. — The Garlic 664
SUBSECT. V. — The Chive 664
SUBSECT. VI. — The Rocambole 664
SECT. VI. — Asparagaceous Esculents ..... 665
SUBSECT. I. — The Asparagus 665
1481. Soil, and sowing or planting the asparagus. 1482. Routine
culture. 1483. Gathering. 1484. Culture after gathering. 1485.
The duration of an asparagus plantation. 1486. To save seed.
SUBSECT. II.— The Sea-Kale 668
1488. Propagation and culture. 1489. Gathering. 1490. The cul-
ture after gathering. 1491. Diseases and insects. 1492. The dura-
tion of a plantation of sea-kale. 1493. To save seed. 1494. Forcing.
SUBSECT. III. — The Artichoke 670
SUBSECT. IV. — The Cardoon 671
1498. Cookery of thejcardoon. 1499. Varieties, propagation, &c.
SUBSECT. V — The Rampion 672
SUBSECT. VI.— Substitutes for Asparagaceous Esculents . . . 672
SECT. VII. — Acetariaceous Esculents ..... 673
SUBSECT. I. — The Lettuce 673
1504. Varieties. 1505. Propagation and culture. 1506. Lettuces
as small salad. 1507. To save seed.
SUBSECT. II. — The Endive 675
SUBSECT. Ill The Succory 676
1512. An excellent substitute for the succory.
SUBSECT. IN.— The Celery 677
1514. Varieties. 1515. Propagation and culture. 1516. Trans-
planting into trenches. 1517. Blanching. 1518. Late spring celery.
1519. Taking the crop. 1520. Celeriac. 1521. Diseases, insects, &c.
1522. To save seed. 1523. The alisanders. 1524. The Naples parsley.
SUBSECT. V. The Lamb's Lettuce, Burnet, the Garden Cress, Winter
Cress, American Cress, and Water Cress . . . .681
SUBSECT. VI.— Small Salads 682
SUBSECT. VII. — Substitutes for Acetariaceous Esculents f . . . 693
CONTENTS. XX111
r-AOE
SECT. VIII. — Adornaceous Esculents . . . C83
SUBSECT. I.— The Parsley 684
SUBSECT. II.— The Chervil, the Coriander, the Anise, Dill, Fennel,
Tarragon, and Purslane 684
SUBSECT. III. — The Indian Cress, Borage, and Marigold . . . 686
SUBSECT. IV.— The Horse Radish and Substitutes . . . .686
SECT. IX. — Condimentaceous Esculents ..... 687
SUBSECT. I The Rhubarb 687
1551. Propagation and culture. 1552. Substitutes.
SUBSECT. II. — The Angelica, Elecampane, Samphire, Caper, Qc. . 688
1559. Excellent substitutes. 1560. The ginger. 1561. The flowers
of Magnolia grandifl6ra.
SECT. X. — Aromaceous Esculents ...... 690
1563. The common thyme. 1564. The lemon thyme. 1565. The
sage. 1566. The clary. 1567. The common mint. 1568. The pen-
nyroyal mint. 1569. The pot marjoram. 1570. The sweet marjoram.
1571. The winter marjoram. 1572. The winter savory. 1573. The
summer savory. 1574. The sweet basil. 1575. The bush basil. 1576.
The tansy.
SECT. XI. — Fungaceous Esculents ..... 691
1577. The garden mushroom. 1578. The truffle. 1579. The morel.
1580. Substitutes.
SECT. XII.-— Odoraceous Herbs 693
1582. The lavender. 1583. The rosemary. 1584. The peppermint.
SECT. XIII.— Medicaceous Herbs 693
1586. The medicinal rhubarb. 1587. The chamomile. 1588. The
wormwood. 1589. The rue. 1590. The horehound. 1591. The
hyssop. 1592. The balm. 1593. The blessed thistle. 1594. The
liquorice. 1595. The blue melilot.
SECT. XIV.— Toxicaceous Herbs 694
1597. The tobacco. 1598. Propagation and culture. 1599. After
management. 1600. Curing. 1601. The white hellebore. 1602. The
foxglove. 1603. The henbane. 1604. Walnut leaves.
SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES ....... 697
A MONTHLY CALENDAR OP OPERATIONS . ... 715
January, 715. February, 715. March, 716. April, 716. May,
717. June, 717. July, 718. August, 718. September, 719. Octo-
ber, 719. November, 719. December, 720.
GENERAL INDEX ........ 721
ERRATA 731
NAMES OF THE FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
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LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.
TOOLS.
FIG. PAGE
12. The common lever . .130
13. Kneed lever and crow-bar . 130
14. 15. Perforators . . . 30
16. Dibbers . . . .31
17. Potato-dibber . . . . 31
18. Cast-iron sheaths for dibbers . 31
19. Picks 131
20. Draw-hoes . . . .131
162. The Leicestershire, or shifting-
blade, draw-hoe . . 232
21. Spanish hoes . . . . 132
23. Thrust hoes . . .132
381. Sickle hoe . ... 660
382. Drill hoe .... 660
22. Lawn scraper . . . . 132
24. Spades . . . .133
25. Turf spades . . . . 134
32. Transplanting spades . .135
26. 27. Verge-cutters or turf-racers 134
28. Garden spud . , .134
29. Trowels . . . . 1 35
30. Daisy weeder . . .135
31. Saul's transplanter . . . 135
33. Dung and tan forks . .135
34. Digging forks . . .135
36. Garden rakes . . . . 136
35. Daisy and grass rakes . .136
383. Drill-rake . . . . 660
37. Beetles and rammers . .136
38. Wooden mallet and garden
hammer . . . . 137
39. Garden pincers . . .137
324. Weeding pincers . . . 381
335. Orchardist's crook , 441
INSTRUMENTS.
40. Garden knives . . .137
95. Grafting-knife, made to serve
also for a budding-knife . 286
FIG. PACK
236. Godsall's budding-knife im-
proved . . . . 302
203. Splitting-knife and opening pick,
for using in cleft-grafting . 29Q
41. Asparagus knife. . . . 138
42. The scimitar bill-knife . . 138
43. Dress bill-knife . . . 138
48. Garden-axe . . . 140
50. Garden-scythes . . . 140
44. Garden-saws . . .139
202. Bow-saw for cutting off branches
of trees .... 290
45. Pruning chisels . . .139
46. Shears for clipping hedges and
box-edginga . . .139
49. Verge and grass shears . .140
47. Pruning shears . . .139
243. Punch used for punching out
shield-buds . 306
UTENSILS.
6. A fly glass . . . .111
10. Inverted flower-pot for catch-
ing mice . . . .121
5. Cap for covering the holes in
the bottoms of pots . . 96
65. Pot carrier . . . . 148
51. Sizes of flowerpots . . 142
52. Propagating pot . . . 143
53. 54. Pots with raised bottoms to
prevent the entrance of worms 143
55. Pot with channelled bottom,
to facilitate the escape of water 143
56. Ornamental flowerpot, with the
base serving as a receptacle
for drainage water . . 143
259. A double pot . . . . 331
57. Pot with pierced rims and bands
for introducing wire-work . 143
333-342. Sections of pots for pines 448, 449
LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.
XXIX
FIG. PAGE
58. Blanching pot . . .143
59. Isolating saucer . 144
60. Annular water saucer . . 144
61. Plant box . . . . 145
62. Sucker, kneed-spouted, and
over-head watering-pot8 . 146
63. Money's inverted-rose watering
pot 147
64. Wire screen for soil, old tan,
or gravel . . . .147
66 — 74. Baskets, and illustrations
of the mode of making
them . . . 149, 151
75. Punnet baskets". . . . 152
323. Trainer's basket . . . 376
76. Bell glasses. . . . . 152
78. Substitutes for bell glasses . 152
77. Cast-iron hand glass . . 152
79 Mode of preparing hand glasses
to serve as fly traps . Ill, 112
MACHINES.
79. Garden wheelbarrow . .153
80. Read's garden syringe . . 154
81. Read's pneumatic hand-engine 154
82. Section of Read's pneumatic
hand-engine . . . 155
83. Read's barrow-engine . . 155
84. Read's fumigating bellows . 156
85. Section of the canister of Read's
fumigating bellows . . 156
87. Powdering bellows . . .157
86. Iron fumigating pot . . 156
258. Shrub and tree transplanter . 323
261, 262. Side, and perspective view
of the girdling machine 347, 348
325, 326. Water-barrow and distri-
butor .-x .384
MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES.
4. Eggs of the earthworm . . 95
88. Wisps of straw used as pro-
tectors .... 158
89. Mode of making straw mats . 159
90 — 93. Oiled paper cap for pro-
tecting flowers . . . 162
94. Props for climbers . .163
95. Cast and wrought iron props
for supporting climbers . 1 64
96— 99. Labels and tallies . 165,166
100. Nailing wallet . . . 167
101. Iron reel and pin for a garden
line 168
102. 103. Portable ladder open and
shut . . . .168
104, 105. Rule joint and orchard
ladder . . . . • 169
106. Garden level . . .169
107. Bridge plank for wheeling
across box edgings . . . 1 70
FIG.
108. Leather bearing straps .
264. Wire frame work for climbing
plants in pots
266, 267. Wire standard and rings
for supporting climbing plants.
270. Umbrella trellis for climbing
plants ....
271. Trellis over a walk . . .
361. Netting for covering a cherry
garden ....
373. Hooked stick for training prize
gooseberry bushes .
374. Forked stick for training prize
gooseberry bushes
PAGE
170
355
355
355
357
557
564
564
DIAGRAMS.
31
1 . Part of the trunk of a disbarked
lime tree . . . .
11. Mode of forming a triple fence
for excluding cattle, sheep,
and hares . . . .123
66—74. Illustration of the mode
of making baskets . 149 — 151
130. Section of an iron sash-bar . 191
131. Section of a wooden sash-bar . 191
133. Vertical profile of part of a
ridge and furrow roof . . 192
134. Section of a dung bed, with a
tube for supplying hot air . 196
155. Lap of glass panes puttied and
painted .... 219
161. Diagrams showing the angle
which the blades of draw-hoes
ought to make with the
handle . . . .232
163. Section of the head of a garden
rake 233
253. Modes of protecting trees from
cattle .... 318
254. Mode of securing newly planted
trees from the effects of high
winds 319
255—257. View, profile, and section
of a tree guard . . . 320
328. Details of a mode of fastening
coverings on frames . . 394
359. Outline of a Pearmain apple . 531
270. The term oblate exemplified . 554
372. Section through a cherry garden
covered with netting . . 557
378, 379. Section and view of a prop
for climbing plants . . 637
380. Sections of ground prepared for
planting potatoes . . 642
MOVEABLE AND PORTABLE GARDEN
STRUCTURES.
109. Wickerwork protector for low
shrubs . . 171
XXX
LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.
110. Wickerwork protectors of va-
rious kinds
111 — 113. Details of a hand box, as
a substitute for a hand glass.
114. Iron bracket for supporting a
temporary wooden coping
115. Apparatus for rolling up and
letting down canvas shades .
322. Thatched hurdles for protect-
ing plants in the open garden.
377. Cover for peas and other early
crops
172
172
174
175
401
633
FIXED GARDEN STRUCTURES.
2. Section of a hothouse heated by
hot-water according to Mr.
Penn's manner ... 85
3. Section of a hothouse heated by
hot-water in the ordinary
manner . . 86
116. A stone for fixing temporary
rafters . . . .179
117. Mode of fixing temporary rafters 179
118. Plan of a hollow brick wall . 180
1 19. 120. Plan and end view of a
brick wall 7£ inches thick . 180
121. Longitudinal section of a flued
wall 182
122, 123. Plan and section of a reed
wall .... 183, 184
124. Trellised arcade for fruit-trees . 186
125. Trellis for climbers . .186
126. Plan showing the intersection
of trellised walks . . 186
127. Steep-roofed house for winter
forcing of plants in pots . 189
128 Curvilineal glass roofs . . 189
129. Ground plan of curvilineal
plant house . . .190
132. Perspective view of the original
ridge and furrow house at
Chatsworth . . .191
135. Perspective elevation and section
of a pinery heated by dung
linings . . . .196
1 36. Section of a vinery heated by
dung 196
137. Section of a furnace and double
flue 198
138. Section of a greenhouse, with
reserve flue and common flue 199
139. Section of a common brick flue,
with a zinc cistern over it . 200
156. Section of a span-roofed pit, .
with the roof over the path
157.
158.
Ground plan of a pit to be heated
in Mr. Corbett's manner
Section of a pit to be heated by
Corbet's system, or by smoke
flues.
221
222
222
FIG. PAGE
317. Section of a pit on M'Phail's
principle . . . .393
332. Stake espalier rail . . . 425
333. Cast-iron espalier rail . . 426
334. Strained wire espalier rail . .427
336. Section of a pine-pit at Oakhill 445
337. Section of a pit at Oakhill for
fruiting Queen pines . . 448
356. Section of Corbet's cucumber
pit 504
357. Section of Green's cucumber
pit 506
358. Section of Ayres' cucumber
house . , 508
HOT-WATER APPARATUS.
140. A hot-water apparatus for cir-
culation on a level . . 202
141. Boiler and furnace for heating
by hot water in rising and
falling pipes . . . 202
142. Apparatus for circulating hot
water below and above the
level of the boiler . . 202
143. Syphon mode of circulating hot
water .... 203
144. Hot-water pipe, and reserve
cistern for hot water . . 203
145. Section of a reserve cistern and
hot-water pipes . . . 204
146. Perkins's double boiler . . 206
147. Roger's conical boiler . . 208
148. Mode of setting Rogers's boiler 208
149. Rogers's boiler set with the
chimney added . . . 209
150. Rogers's boiler with the heat-
ing pipe joined to it . . 210
151. Rogers's substitute for a stop-
cock . . 210
666- Rogers's hot- water reservoir . 210
154. Zinc cisterns for double ' and
single pipes . . .216
DIGGING, TRENCHING, AND RIDGING.
159. A plot of ground properly marked
off for digging or trenching . 229
160. A plot of ground disadvantage-
ously marked off for digging
or trenching . . . 229
160*. A section showing the differ-
ence between proper and im-
proper trenching . .231
380. Section of ridges prepared for
planting potatoes . . 642
PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS, LAYERS, &c.
164. A shoot improperly, and one
properly cut
166. Prepared cutting of a Shaddock
236
254
LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.
XXXI
167. A cutting of a Capo Heath pre-
pared and planted . . 256
168. A cutting of an Epacris prepared
and planted . . . 256
169. A cutting of Acacia alata pre-
pared and planted . .257
170. Forsyth's mode of striking cut-
tings . . . .259
171. A cutting of Rosa semperfl orens
prepared and planted . . 259
172. A piping of a pink prepared and
planted . . . .261
173. A cutting of a pelargonium pre-
pared and planted . .261
174. A cutting of a fuchsia prepared
and planted . . .262
175. A cutting of a camellia prepared
and planted . . . 262
176. 177. Eyes of vines prepared
and planted . . .265
178, 179. The lower and upper half
of the leaf of theophrasta
rooted and sending up a shoot 268
180. Wedges inserted above and be-
low buds to check the flow of
the sap . . . 270
181. A ringed shoot, to accumulate
sap at the base of the buds, &c. 270
182. A shoot bent to cause the buds
at the angles to break . . 271
183. 184. Layering with the tongue
made in the under and upper
side of the shoot . . 273
J 85. A stool with shoots layered . 274
186. A petunia layered " . . 275
187. A carnation layered . . . 276
188. A cutting layered . . . 276
189. A branch ringed, and prepared
for rooting in a case . . 276
190. Branch layered in a tin case . 276
191. Branches of a coniferous plant
pegged down, to force it to
throw up a leader . . 279
192, 193. Injured bulbs throwing up
offsets 279
593. Branch of a peach tree protected
by fern t . . .593
GRAFTING ILLUSTRATED.
194. Scion and stock illustrative of
the principles on which they
are united . . . . 280
196. Splice-grafting in its different
stages .... 288
197. The scion with its young shoots
on and the heel of the stock
cutoff . . . . 289
198. Splice-grafting with a tongue . 289
199. Splice-grafting with a shoulder 289
200. Splice-grafting the peach . . 290
201. Cleft-grafting . . .290
FIG. PAGE
204. Rind-grafting . ... 290
205-207. Cleft-grafting the vine, rose,
and camellia . . .291
208. Epiphyllum truncatum grafted
on Pereskia acule&ta . . 291
209, 210. Saddle-grafting . . 292
211. Grafting the lateral branches of
fruit-trees . . . . 292
212. Side-grafting the orange . . 293
213. Side-grafting the vine . . 293
214. Wedge-grafting . . .293
215. Herbaceous grafting the pine
and fir tribe . ... 294
216. Grafting the tree peony on the
tubers of the herbaceous peony 295
217. Cleft-grafting the dahlia on its
own tubers . . . 295
218. Peg-grafting the dahlia on its
own tubers . . . . 295
219-223. Different modes of herba-
ceous-grafting . . .296
BUDDING ILLUSTRATED.
237. The different steps in the pro-
cess of shield-budding . 303
238." Shield-budding the roseinspring 305
239. Shield-budding the camellia in
spring .... 305
240. Shield-grafting without a bud . 305
241. Budding with a circular shield 305
242. Budding by the aid of a punch 305
244. Budding with the shield re-
versed .... 306
245. Budding with a pointed shield
for resinous trees . . 306
246. Budding with a double shield 306
247. Budding with a square shield . 306
248. Budding with a terminal eye . 306
249. Flute-budding the mulberry in
spring . . . .307
250. Terminal flute-budding in spring
or summer . . . 307
251. Flute-budding with strips of bark 307
252. Annular budding . . 308
INARCHING ILLUSTRATED.
224. A scion and stock prepared for
inarching . . . 298
225. The scion inarched to the stock
and bandaged . . .298
226. Inarching with the ecion and
stock tongued and united but
not bandaged . . .298
227, 228. A stock and scion prepared
for saddle inarching . . 299
229. A scion and stock united by
saddle inarching . . 299
230—232. Stocks and scion prepared
for inarching . . . 299
233. A large stock and small scion
united by inarching . . 300
xxxn
LIST OP ENGRAVINGS.
FIG. PAGE
234. Inarching with the scion nou-
rished by water . . .300
235. The camellia inarched with the
scion nourished by water . 300
DIAGRAMS ILLUSTRATIVE OF PRUNING AND
TRAINING.
260. Mode of causing a pear-tree to
produce blossom buds . . 345
263. Mode of nailing a bent shoot
straight .... 352
265. Mode of training the grape-vine
in pots .... 355
268. Mode of training climbers on a
wall .... 355
269. A rose trained in the balloon
manner .... 356
272. Spiral training, first stage . 359
2 73. Plan of spiral training . . S59
274. Elevation of spiral training . 360
275 — 277. Progressive stages of the
spurring-in system . 360, 361
278. Quenouille training . .361
280. Conical training . . 361
281 — 284. Hayward's quenouille
training .... 362
285 — 288. Progressive stages of fan-
training . . . 363, 364
289 — 295. Progressive stages of Sey-
mour's fan-training . 365—368
296—298. Wavy-training . 368, 369
FIG.
299 — 306. Progressive stages of
wavy-training . . 369—372
307 — 311. Progressive stages of hori-
zontal-training . . 372, 373
312, 313. Horizontal. and fan-train-
ing combined . . . 374
314. Horizontal and perpendicular
training combined . .374
315 — 318. Progressive stages of half-
fan training . . 374, 375
319 — 322. Progressive stages of per-
pendicular-training . 375, 376
343 — 347. Progressive stages of prun-
ing the vine . . 456, 457
348. The Thomery system of train-
ing vines .... 458
349 — 355. Hoare's system of train-
ing the vine . . 469—472
360 — 368. Spur-pruning the apple
exemplified . . 538—542
369. Method of training shy-bearing
pears • 550
375. A trained prize gooseberry-bush 564
PLANS OF KITCHEN GARDENS.
330. A plan containing one acre
•within the walls, and half an
acre in the surrounding slip . 419
331. A plan containing one acre
within the walls, and three-
quarters of an acre in the slips 421
THE
SUBUEBAN HOETICULTURIST.
INTRODUCTION.
HAVING in a twin volume* treated of Gardening as an Art of
Design and Taste, our object in the present work is to complete the
subject of Suburban Residences, by treating of Gardening as an Art
of Culture. We shall consider ourselves as writing for grown up
pupils who have previously known little of the subject; and we shall
embrace all that we think will be useful to the possessors of small
gardens, whether in town or country, at home or abroad, and whether
they belong to the retired citizen, the clergyman, the farmer, the
mechanic, the labourer, the colonist, or the emigrant.
The possessor of a garden may desire to know the science and the
art of its cultivation for several reasons. He may wish to know
whether it is properly cultivated by his gardener ; he may wish to
direct its culture himself ; he may desire to know its capabilities of
improvement or of change ; he may wish to understand the principles
on which the different operations of culture are performed, as a source
of mental interest ; or he may wish to be able to perform the opera-
tions himself as a source of recreation and health. The two last are by
far the most important purposes which this volume is intended to
serve ; and hence we shall give, as far as we find practicable, the
philosophy of every operation of culture, as well as practical directions
for the manner in which it should be performed. Some topics we shall
illustrate by Notes, in an Appendix at the end of the work, and all
the technical terms will be found explained in the General Index.
We shall commence with some preliminary chapters on Plants,
Soils, Manures, and the Operations common to all the departments of
garden cultivation ; and we shall next treat, in succession, of the kitchen
and fruit garden, the forcing garden, the flower garden, the shrubbery,
and the pleasure grounds, including the ornamental plantations.
* The Suburban Architect and Landscape Gardener. 1839. 1 vol. 8vo.
PART I.
FACTS RELATIVE TO PLANTS, THE SOIL, MANURES, THE
ATMOSPHERE, &c., ON WHICH HORTICULTURE IS
FOUNDED.
CHAPTER I.
PLANTS CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO THEIR CULTURE IN GARDENS.
IT is not our intention to enter into any scientific discussion on the
nature of plants ; but it is necessary that we should strongly impress on the
mind of the reader who has little idea of their culture, that they are
living beings, and quite as sensible of good and bad treatment as animals.
Because a part of the leaves and branches of a plant may be cut off, and the
remainder which is attached to the root will continue to live and grow, it
seems to be inferred that a plant will bear any kind of treatment with
impunity. Many persons purchase a plant and plant it in their garden, as
they would purchase a piece of furniture and place it in a room, thinking
that the one act requires no more care than the other. Many labourers,
and even not a few gardeners, when planting a plant, insert it in the
soil with little more care than they would a stick or a post, crowding all
the roots into a small hole and then pressing the earth on them with their
feet, with apparently no other end than placing the plant upright and keeping
it firm. A person that knows anything of the nature of a plant, and of the
manner in which it draws its nourishment, by the means of the points of
fibrils so tender as to be rendered useless by the slightest bruise, and fur-
nished with mouths or pores so small as only to be seen by means of a
powerful magnifier, will feel this treatment to be barbarous and injurious.
Another person, on the contrary, who knows the grateful return that every
plant makes to him who bestows on it the operations of culture properly
performed, will take a degree of interest in the operation of planting, and
derive a degree of enjoyment from the future growth and development of
the plant, of which a person ignorant of the subject can form no idea. As all
men may be presumed to know something of the nature of animals, per-
haps the easiest way of giving some knowledge of plants to those who have
hitherto paid little attention to the vegetable kingdom, will be by first
exhibiting the principal points of analogy between plants and animals, and
next noticing the classification, nomenclature, structure, functions, geo-
graphy, and habitations of plants.
SECT. I. — The Analogy between Plants and Animals, considered with
reference to Horticulture.
1. Plants are organised beings, that, like animals, depend for their exist-
ence on nourishment, warmth, air, and light. Their nourishment they
derive from the soil, their warmth and air jointly from the soil and the
atmosphere, and their light from the sun.
2. Plants resemble animals in having an organic structure endowed with
life, and in requiring nourishment to enable them to continue to exist. They
absorb this nourishment through the small tubular fibres of their roots, in the
ANALOGY BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 3
same way as animals do theirs through the small tubes called laeteals, which
convey it from their stomachs to their lungs. Plants differ from animals in
being fixed to one spot, in having the principles of vitality and reproduc-
tion diffused over every part of their structure, and in thus being propagated
by division, as well as by ova or seeds ; in being without a brain or nervous
system, and, consequently, incapable of feeling ; and in light being as neces-
sary to their existence as air is to that of animals.
3. The soil in which a plant grows is, in general, as essential to it as the
stomach is to an animal. Food, before it can be absorbed into the system,
must be reduced into a pulpy mass, consisting partly of nutritious matter
soluble in water, and partly of refuse. This process, in regard to animals, is
performed in the stomach, and is called digestion; and when it is finished, the
lacteals suck the chyle from the mass, and convey it to the lungs, where it is
assimilated to the blood, and thence is distributed through the frame, while
the refuse is passed off in the form of excrement.
4. The food of plants is rotted, or undergoes the putrescent fermentation
or some other species of decomposition, (a process similar to digestion.) in
the soil ; and is there brought, by the addition of water and gases, to a
sufficient state of fluidity to enable the spongioles of the roots to absorb
from it the part necessary for the nourishment of the plant. The matter
absorbed is then carried up to the leaves, where it undergoes a process
similar to that to which the chyle is subjected in the lungs of animals, and
becomes the true sap of the plant, which contributes to its growth as blood
does to the growth of animals.
5. When a plant or an animal is in a state of disease, no application to
the leaves and branches of the one, or to the external members of the other,
will be of much use, if the soil or the stomach be neglected. The stem
and branches of a plant, and the external members of an animal, may be
injured, mutilated, and even diseased ; but if the soil of the plant and the
sto'mach of the animal be invigorated, and placed in a healthy state, the
whole plant or animal will soon recover from the injuries it had received,
so as to perform all the functions necessary to its existence. The first step,
therefore, in cultivating or in improving plants, is to improve the soil in
which they grow ; and in like manner the first step in improving animals is
to improve the quality and increase the quantity of their food.
G. In all vertebrate animals there is a part at the back of the neck,
between the spinal marrow and the brain, where a serious injury will occasion
immediate death. There is a corresponding point in plants, between the
root and the stem, which is called the neck, or collar ; and at this point
plants may be more readily injured than any where else. Most plants, also,
may be killed by covering this point too deeply with soil. In all seedling
plants, this neck or vital part is immediately beneath the point where the
seed-leaves originate ; and if the plant be cut over there when in a young
state, the part which is left in the ground will infallibly die. In old plants,
however, and particularly in herbaceous plants which have creeping stems,
and also in various kinds of trees and shrubs, the roots, after the plant has
attained a certain age, become furnished with adventitious buds ; and, when
the plant or tree is cut over by the collar, these dormant buds are called
into action, and throw up shoots, which are called suckers. No suckers,
however, are ever thrown up by the roots of a plant cut through at the
collar while in its seed-leaves. The branches of a tree may be all cut off
B2
4 ANALOGY BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS.
close to the trunk, and the roots also partially removed ; but, if the collar
remain uninjured, the plant, in suitable soil, and under favourable circum-
stances, will throw out new roots and shoots, and in time will completely
recover itself. On the other hand, if the collar is cut off, the stem or trunk
is left without roots, and the roots without a stem, or the power (hi general)
to throw up one.
7. There are some plants of the herbaceous kind (such as the horse-radish,
for example) that do not suffer, even if their collar should be buried two
feet, or even three feet ; but by far the greater number of plants (such as
the hepatica, the common daisy, the common grasses, &c.) are killed by
having the collar covered two or three inches ; and no thing is more injurious
to woody plants, whether large or small. It is easy to destroy a large tree
by heaping up earth round the base of its trunk ; and easy to prevent a small
one from growing, by lifting it and planting it six inches or a foot deeper than
it was before. Hence the great importance of not planting any plant deeper
in the soil than it was before taking it up ; and hence also the reason why
trees planted in deeply trenched ground, and especially fruit trees, often
disappoint the planter. In planting these trees the soil immediately under
and about them is more consolidated by treading arid watering than the soil
in the other parts of the plantation ; and hence it soon sinks below the general
level, to maintain which level the gardener fills up the depression every year,
till the collar of the tree becomes buried several inches beneath the surface. It
is said that all the peach plantations throughout the United States have been
for some years in a diseased state, without any person being able to account
for the circumstance, or point out a remedy, till one man discovered it to be
too deep planting. He proposed to divulge the secret to Congress for a million
of dollars; but while Congress were deliberating on the subject, the secret
was made public by Mr. Bridgeman, in a pamphlet published in 1838. The
soil in America, Mr. Bridgeman observes, is light ; and the trees, when
planted in it, if not staked, are apt to be blown aside, or even blown out of
the soil, by high winds. Hence, to avoid the trouble and expense of staking,
they are planted deeper in the soil, by which they are held firm, without the
aid of stakes, and this is the grand cause of unfruitfulness and disease in all
trees, more especially in the peach. This deep planting, Mr. Bridgeman
continues, is practised not only with fruit trees in America, but with all other
trees and plants whatever; and they are all injured more or less by it, ac-
cording as the soil is more or less compact.
8. The cause why plants are so much injured by burying the collar has
not, as far as we know, been physiologically and satisfactorily explained.
9. The next point of analogy between plants and animals which it may be
useful to notice is that between the lungs and the leaves. An animal can no
more live without its lungs than without its stomach. The stomach, as we
have seen, is necessary for turning the food into chyle, and the lungs for
turning that chyle into blood. Now, a plant can no more live and grow
without leaves than an animal can without lungs. The use of the lungs is
to expose the chyle to the action of the air, which they decompose, so that
its oxygen may unite with the chyle, and thus change it into blood. The
leaves of plants, which act to them as lungs, not only decompose air, but
light, in the process of elaborating the sap ; and hence plants can no more
live without light than without air or food, as light is necessary to turn
their food into sap, or, in other words, to bring it into the proper state for
ANALOGY BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 5
affording them nourishment. Hence, in the culture of plants, the great im-
portance of solar light. An important difference, however, between the cir-
culation of the sap in vegetables and that of the blood in animals is, that the
former have no heart.
10. Plants and animals agree in requiring a certain degree of temperature
to keep them alive ; and the warmth of this temperature differs greatly in
the different kinds both of plants and animals. Hence, the constitutional
temperature of any plant to be cultivated being known, that temperature
must be maintained by art ; either by a suitable situation in the open air,
or by its culture within a structure which admits the light, and is capable
of having its atmosphere heated to any required degree. The temperature
which any plant requires is ascertained by its geographical position in a wild
state, making allowance for the difference produced in the habits of the plant
by cultivation.
11. Plants agree with animals in requiring periodical times of rest. In
animals, these periods are, for the most part, of short intervals of not more
than a day ; but, in plants they are commonly at long intervals, mostly of
several months. In warm climates, the dormant period of plants commences
with the dry season, and continues till the recurrence of the periodical rains,
which are peculiar to the tropical regions. In temperate countries, the dor-
mant season in plants commences with the cold of winter, and continues till
the recurrence of spring. When plants are in a dormant state, they com-
monly lose their leaves, and, consequently, at that season, they are unable to
make use of the nourishment applied to their roots ; and hence the injury
done to them when they arc stimulated with nourishment and warmth, so
as to occasion their growth during the period at which they ought to be at
rest. Hence, also, arises the injury which plants receive, and especially
bulbs, if the soil about them be kept moist by water when they are in a
dormant state. Plants having no feeling, in the common sense in which the
word is used, can neither experience pleasure nor pain ; but they resent
injuries, either negative or positive, by slow growth, or by becoming diseased.
By their being fixed to the spot where they grow, they necessarily depend for
their food, heat, air, and light, on the circumstances peculiar to that spot ;
and, hence, to increase their growth beyond what it would be if left to
nature, additional food must be brought to them, and the warmth, airiness,
and lightness of the situation increased. Hence, what is called vegetable
culture, which, with plants in general, consists in stirring the soil, adding
manure to it, regulating the supply of water by draining or irrigation, shel-
tering from the colder winds, and exposing to the direct influence of the sun's
rays. If we imagine any one of these points attended to, and not the others,
the plant will not thrive. Stirring the soil, and mixing it writh manure, will
be of little use, if that soil be liable to be continually saturated with mois-
ture, either from its retentive nature, from springs from below, or from
continued rains from above ; or if it be continually without, or with very
little, moisture, from its porous nature, the want of moisture in the subsoil,
and the want of rain and dews from the atmosphere. Improving the soil
without improving the climate (that is, without communicating a propor-
tionate degree of warmth and light), will increase the bulk of the plant, but
without proportionately bringing its different parts to maturity. For ex-
ample, we will suppose two plantations of trees planted at the same time,
on similar soil, and in the same climate ; that in the case of the one plantation
6 ANALOGY BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS.
the soil was trenched and manured, and in the other not ; and that the trees
were planted in equal numbers in both plantations, and at the same dis-
tances. The trees in the prepared soil would grow rapidly ; and in the un-
prepared soil, slowly. After a certain number of years (say twenty), we
shall suppose .both plantations cut down — when the timber produced by
that which had grown slowly, would be found hard, and of good quality ;
while that produced by the plantation which had grown rapidly, would be
found soft, spongy, and when employed in construction, comparatively of
short duration. The reason is, that in this last case the rate of nourishment
to the roots exceeded the natural proportion which nature requires in plants,
between the supply of food to the roots, and of light and air to the leaves.
Had the trees in the prepared soil been thinned out, as they advanced, so
as never to allow their branches to do more than barely touch each other,
they would have produced more timber than the trees in the unprepared
soil, and that timber would have been of equal firmness and duration with
timber of slower growth. It ought, therefore, to be strongly impressed on
the minds of amateur cultivators, that though nourishment of the root will
produce bulk of the top, or at least length of top, yet that it is only by
abundance of light and air, that quality can be secured at the same time.
12. One very remarkable point of difference between animals and plants,
is, that which has been before alluded to, viz., the much greater provision
which nature has made for the propagation of the latter than of the former.
Plants not only produce immense quantities of seeds, which are distributed
by the winds and waters, by animals, and by various causes ; but they ex-
tend themselves by shoots, which run on or under the surface of the ground,
as in the case of the strawberry, the raspberry, &c. ; and they produce buds,
each of which, by human art, can be rendered equivalent to a seed, either
by planting it (with a small portion of the plant from which it is taken) at
once in the ground, or by inserting it in another plant of the same family.
Hence, the great facility with which plants are multiplied both by nature
and art ; with the exception of a few, in which the process of propagation by
artificial means is comparatively difficult.
13. Another remarkable difference, also before alluded to, between plants
and animals, is, the absolute necessity of light to plants during the whole
period of their existence. There are many animals of the lower description,
such as worms, to which light, so far from being necessary, is injurious; and
there are instances of even the more perfect animals having lived for several
years without the presence of light, either natural or artificial. Light is not
necessary for either the functions of the stomach, brain, or lungs, in animals ;
but in plants, though it is equally unnecessary for the functions of the ger-
minating seed, the root, and the collar, it is essentially so for those of the leaves ;
and the leaves are necessary to the elaboration of the sap, and, consequently to
the nourishment of the plant. A plant, therefore, from which the leaves are con-
tinually stripped as soon as they are produced, soon ceases to live. Small and
weak plants, from which the leaves are taken off as they are produced, will die
in a single season ; and this practice, continued for two seasons, will kill, or
nearly so, the largest tree. If, instead of stripping a plant of its leaves, the
leaves are produced in the absence of light, and light never admitted to them,
the effect will be precisely the same. Seeds germinated, or plants struck from
cuttings, in the dark, will not exist a single season ; nor will trees, or tubers,
such as potatoes, placed in an apartment from which all light is excluded.
ANALOGY BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 7
live more than two seasons. Hence, the importance of light to plants can
scarcely be overrated ; for, while it has been proved that plants, even of the
most perfect kind, will live for many months, or even years, in glass cases
in which very little change of air has taken place, there is no instance of
plants, even of the lowest kind, such as ferns and mosses, living for any
length of time without light. Without light there can be no green in leaves,
no colour in flowers, and neither colour nor flavour in fruits.
14. Plants agree with animals in having a sexual system ; but they differ
from animals in having for the most part both sexes in the same individual.
In the improvement of plants, as in the improvement of animals, the sexual
system is a powerful agent ; and what is called cross-breeding is employed
with as great advantage in the vegetable as in the animal kingdom. It is
remarkable, that the general laws and results by which the process of cross-
breeding in both kingdoms is regulated, are the same ; the two parents must
be two varieties of the same or nearly allied species,, and their qualities may be
different, but must not be opposite ; the preponderating influence, in point of
character, is also with the male, and in point of bulk and hardiness with the
female, as it is in animals. Many of the finest varieties of fruits, culinary
vegetables, cereal grains, and grasses, have been produced by cross -breeding.
When cross-breeding is effected between what are considered different
species, the offspring is a mule, or hybrid, which, in most cases, is incapable
of maturing seeds, and generally, in the course of a few years, degenerates,
or reverts to its original parentage. The purple laburnum, which was
raised from a seed of the common laburnum, fertilised by Cytisus purpureus,
is an example of a true hybrid. The flowers partake of the colour of that
of both parents ; and the plant, for two or three years, produced only flowers
of this kind, which were never succeeded by seeds ; but in the sixth year,
in some plants, and seventh and eighth in others, branches of Cytisus pur-
pureus were produced on some parts of the tree, and branches of the com-
mon yellowr laburnum on others, the latter bearing seed. (See Gard. Mag.,
vol. xii. p. 225; and Arb. Brit., vol i. p. 590.) There are, however, instances
of mules or true hybrids producing fertile seeds ; for example, Epiphyllum
Mastersise, raised between Epiphyllum speciosum and Cereus speciosissi-
mum, frequently produces perfect seeds, from which plants have been raised
partaking of all the characters of the parent hybrid plant.
15. It would appear, from the case of the purple Laburnum, that a true
mule or hybrid cannot always be propagated with certainty, even by por-
tions of the plant, or by what is called extension ; since it never can be
certain whether the portion taken off for propagation will produce the mule
or one of the parents. As it is uncertain what are, and what are not, very
distinct species, many of the plants originated by cross-breeding, and con-
sidered mules, may in reality not be so ; and may, consequently, prove per-
manent and improved varieties. Some mules, also, such as that between
the sweetwilliam and the common pink, are much less liable to degenerate
than others. As some of the most beautiful and useful plants in cultivation
are cross-bred varieties or mules, particularly among Geraniums, Heaths,
Roses, Gloxinise, &c., the subject well deserves the attention of the amateur,
who will find it a source of useful amusement and recreation.
16. Plants agree with animals in the offspring, when it is raised from seed,
bearing a general resemblance to the parent ; but as, in every family, the
children of the same parent differ individually in features, temper, disposition,
8 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS.
&c., so, among seedling plants, from the same seed-pod, no two plants will
be found exactly alike ; and some will occasionally differ considerably from
all the rest. Nevertheless, it is an undoubted fact, that all seedling plants
not only possess the character of the species from which they have sprung,
but even, in by far the greater number of cases, some of the peculiarities of
the individual. The seeds of any kind of cultivated apple, for example,
will produce plants, the fruit of all of which will more or less resemble that
of the parent ; though perhaps some one or two among a hundred may be
considerably different. Hence, by selecting from beds of seedling plants those
which are in any way remarkably differert from the rest, new varieties are
procured ; and, till within the last half century, (when artificial cross-
breeding began to be practised by gardeners,) this was the only way in which
an improved variety of any species of plant was procured. If the seeds of
varieties did not produce plants closely resembling their parents, how could
all the improved varieties of culinary, agricultural, and floricultural plants,
be perpetuated ? That the same law which governs herbaceous plants holds
good in trees and shrubs cannot be doubted ; and if the seeds of a variegated
tulip are more likely to produce plants which shall have variegated flowers
than those of a tulip of only one colour, so we should say the berries of a
variegated holly are more likely to produce plants with variegated leaves
than those of a green-leaved holly. If this law did not hold good in ligneous
as well as in herbaceous plants, how are we to account for the different
varieties of Hibiscus syriacus coming true from seed ?
17. Plants, like animals, are subject to various diseases, as well as to be
preyed on by insects, most of which live on plants till they have completed
their larva state. Plants are also injured by being crowded by other plants,
either of the same or of different species. When these spring up naturally
around the cultivated plants, they are called weeds, and the cultivated
plant is cleared from them by weeding ; as it is in the case of being crowded
by its own species, or by other cultivated plants, by thinning. Plants are
also injured by epiphytes, which grow on the outer bark, such as mosses and
lichens ; and by parasites, which root into their living stems and branches,
such as the mistletoe, &c.
18. The life of plants, like that of animals, is limited, but varies in regard
to duration. Some plants vegetate, flower, ripen seed, and die, in the course
of a few months, and these are called annuals ; while others, such as the oak
and some other trees, are known to live upwards of a thousand years.
In both plants and animals decay commences the moment life is extinct ;
and in both they are ultimately resolved, first, into a pulpy or other homo-
geneous mass, fit for manures, and ultimately into certain gases, salts, and
earths. After death, the decay both of animals and plants may be retarded
by the same means; viz., drying, exclusion from the air, or saturating with
saline or antiseptic substances.
SECT. II. — Classification of Plants ', with a View to Horticulture.
19. The number of plants is so immense, and the diversity of their ap-
pearance so great, that without some kind of classification or arrangement
it would scarcely be possible either to receive or retain any distinct notions
respecting them. In communicating some positive knowledge of plants,
therefore, the first step is to show the mode of simplifying this knowledge
by throwing plants into classes, and other divisions or groups.
CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. 9
20. Plants have been classed according to the Linnean or Artificial System,
and according to the Jussieuan or Natural System ; but the latter alone is
of any use in a work like the present. By the Natural System plants are
thrown into easily recognised groups, bearing a general resemblance, both in
exterior appearance and in internal properties, and for the most part also
requiring the same kind of culture. Hence we are enabled to speak of
plants in masses, which greatly facilitates the discovery and recollection of
their names, the acquiring of knowledge respecting them, and the communi-
cation of what we know of them to others.
21. All plants may be divided into three grand classes, founded on their
structure. The first class is called Dicotyledoneae, from the seedlings having
two or more seed-leaves, and also Exogenae, from the growth being produced
from the outside of the stem. The second class is called Monocotyledonae,
from the seeds producing only one seed-leaf, and also Endogenae, from the
growth being added from the inside of the stems. The third class is called
Acotyledoneae, from the seedling plants being without proper seed-leaves; Cel-
lulares, from their structure consisting entirely of cellular tissue ; and Aero-
gens, signifying increasing by additions to the extremity merely, and not by
the formation of new matter internally or externally, throughout their whole
length, as in endogens and exogens. We shall use only the terms Exogens,
Endogens, and Acrogens.
22. Exogens are flowering plants, vascular in their structure, furnished
with woody fibre and spiral vessels ; with stems mostly having distinct layers
of wood and bark, and having pith ; the leaves being with branching lateral
veins, and the seeds with two or more cotyledons. By far the greater num-
ber of European plants belong to this class, which is readily known, even
when a fragment of a leaf or a stem is obtained, by the reticulated venation
of the former, and the concentric circles of the latter.
23. Endogens are flowering plants with a vascular structure, furnished
with spiral vessels, and imperfectly formed woody fibre j they have leaves
with longitudinal or parallel veins, but never reticulated ; and seeds with
one cotyledon only, or if two, they are not placed opposite and even with
each other, as in exogens, but one of them is placed at the side of the other
in the disposition which botanists call alternate. This class includes all the
immense order of grasses, and also hyacinths, tulips, narcissi, crocuses, irises,
and most bulbs ; the well-known yucca or Adam's needle, and all palms.
From a single fragment of the stem or leaf of an endogen, the class to which
it belongs can be recognised with as great ease as in the case of exogens.
24. Acrogens are flowerless plants with a cellular structure, consisting
either of cellular tissue alone, as in lichens and mosses, or with tissue and
some few imperfect vessels, as in ferns. They grow by additions to the
upper extremity only, as the name implies. Their seed is produced without
apparent flowers ; it is not furnished with cotyledons, and it grows from any
part of the surface of the plant ; on the under side of the leaf, as in most
ferns, on the edges of the foliaceous thallus of lichens, and from the extre-
mities on the sides of mosses. This class of plants is easily recognised by
the general observer ; lichens, mosses, and fungi, being universal, and ferns
frequent and readily recognised by the markings on the backs of their leaves.
25. Of these three classes of plants, the exogens are unquestionably the
highest in the scale of organisation even to the general observer. The leaves
of the endogens, at least of temperate climates, are almost all simple, and
have little or no variety in their venation or margins. Those of the mime-
10 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS.
rous species which constitute our bulbous flowers have all ribbon-like leaves,
differing in little except hi length and breadth ; and their floral envelopes,
though splendid in point of colour, are generally more simple than those of
exogens, being often of one piece or of one series of pieces ; and there is also
very little variety in their fruit. Compared with acrogens, however,
endogens are still high in the scale.
26. To be able to refer any plant that may be met with to the class to
which it belongs, is already a grand and useful step in the progress of bota-
nical knowledge ; and in the practice both of botanising and of vegetable
culture, it is of more real use than a knowledge of the whole system of
Linnaeus. The moment one botanist or gardener tells another that a plant
is an exogen, he forms a perfect idea of its structure, and even some
idea of its culture; because the leaves of exogens are more numerous
than those of endogens, and hence, with the exception of the grasses,
they suffer less from transplanting and mutilation. The leaves of
endogens, on the other hand, as of all the bulbous plants, are compara-
tively few, and therefore all of them require to be preserved unin-
jured. If they are cut off, either in their growing state or when fully
formed, they are not renewed the same season ; and the bulb not being
nourished by them, will not flower the following year. Exogens, on the
other hand, may have their leaves cut off without much injury, especially
in the early part of the season, as they have an indefinite power of renewing
them, and consequently, what would render an endogen floweiiess the fol-
lowing year, would have little or no effect on an exogen. Grasses, however,
are an order of endogens which possess the same properties of renewing their
foliage as exogens, and hence a grassy surface may be cropped by cattle, or
mown with the scythe all the summer, and yet live and thrive. But sup-
pose a lawn composed of plants of hyacinth, tulip, narcissus, or crocus, the
leaves of which are not unlike those of the grasses, to be mown when the
leaves were fully grown, in that case the plants would not produce another
leaf that season, and instead of a green lawn we should have the naked earth
till the following spring.
27. These three grand classes of plants are divided into orders and tribes,
genera, species, and varieties. The orders of plants indigenous or cultivated,
in Britain, amount to upwards of 200, and the tribes to perhaps a third of
that amount. The genera amount to upwards of 3,700, and the species to
up wards of 30,700. (Loud. Hort. Brit.) The varieties of botanists are perhaps
1,000 ; and those of culinary vegetables, fruits, roses, and florists' flowers, may
amountt o perhaps 10,000. Now, though it is not to be expected that any
individual can know, and bear in his mind the names of one-tenth of
these plants, yet it is extremely desirable that he should be able to speak of
any one of them, when he meets with it, whether it has been previously
seen by him or not. For example, a very slight degree of attention to a
plant seen for the first time, will enable any one to determine to which of
the three grand divisions it belongs. Next, in each grand division there are
two or three of what may be called popular orders, which orders any person
may recognise almost at sight ; and to these orders belong fully half the
plants which are commonly met with in Britain, either in a cultivated or a
wild state. A knowledge of the grand divisions of these popular orders,
therefore, will be a grand step gained, and give the gardener or amateur a
notion of a great number of plants. The grand divisions of Exogens are
Thalamifloree, Calyciflorse, Corollaeflorae, and Monochlamydeae.
CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. 11
THALAMIFLOR^E.
28. This is one of the subdivisions of Exogens, which is characterised by
the petals of the flowers being distinct, and by the stamens being fixed to
the receptacle. There are fifty-eight orders described under this subclass,
in our Hortus Britannicus, of which those which will be most readily
recognised by a general observer, or a beginner, are, — Ranunculacese, Cru-
ciferae, Malvaceae, and Geraniaceae.
29. Ranunculacece. — Calyx with deciduous sepals; petals, 3-15; stamens
numerous ; carpels numerous and generally distinct ; herbaceous plants, and
a few of them suffruticose shrubs, natives of the temperate regions of both
hemispheres ; leaves alternate or opposite, generally lobed or much divided ;
flowers often large and showy ; properties, acridity and causticity. Familiar
examples of this order are, the Clematis, Anemone, Hepatica, Ranunculus,
Hellebore, Columbine, Larkspur, Monkshood, and Peony.
30. Cruciferce. — Sepals and petals 4 each ; the sepals deciduous, and the
petals always arranged in the form of a cross. Stamens 4 long and 2 short ;
stigmas 2 ; fruit, a pod with seeds in a double line. Herbaceous plants,
mostly annuals and biennials, natives of most parts of the world. Leaves
alternate, all simple, and not much cut. Flowers yellow or white, rarely
purple. Properties, antiscorbutic and stimulant, combined with acridity.
Familiar examples are the Common Stock, the Wallflower, Honesty, Shep-
herd's Purse, Rocket, Cress, Cabbage, Mustard, Sea Kale, and Radish.
31. Malvaceae. — Sepals and petals five each; the sepals generally with
bracts upon them ; the petals twisted before expansion, and unfolding
spirally ; the stamens numerous and united together, forming a cylinder
round the pistillum ; the fruit a ring of carpels, each single-seeded. Herba-
ceous plants, trees, or shrubs, natives of every part of the world. Leaves
alternate, stipulate, more or less divided. Flowers for the most part showy.
Properties, mucilaginous and wholesome. Familiar examples are, the Mallow,
the Hollyhock, the Lavatera, the Althaea frutex, and the Cotton plant.
32. GeraniacecB. — Sepals 5; petals 5; stamens 5-10, united together ; car-
pels 5, united to a long elastic style attached at the top to the beak of the
receptacle. Herbaceous plants or shrubs with stems tumid and separable at
the joints ; natives of various parts of the world ; and the more showy species
almost everywhere cultivated. Leaves simple, either opposite or alternate,
often lobed and divided ; frequently stipulate. Flowers showy and bright-
coloured. Properties, astringent and aromatic or resinous. Familiar ex-
amples are, Geranium, Erodium, and Pelargonium.
33. Other orders belonging to this division, are, —
Magnoliacece^ containing the Magnolia and other trees and shrubs, (of
which, however, there are very few,) bearing a close resemblance to this
well-known ornamental tree. JBerberidaceee — The Barberry, and similar
shrubs. Nymphceacece — The Water-lily, and similar plants. Papaveracece
—Plants with their flowers and fruits of the general structure of the poppy.
Fwnariacece — Plants resembling the common Fumitory. Resedacece — Mig-
nonette, and similar plants. Cistacece — Cistus-like plants ; easily recognised
by their flowers, and for the most part by their rough leaves. Violariacece
— Violet-like plants. Caryophyttacece. — Plants bearing a general resem-
blance to the pink. Alsinacece — Chickweed-looking plants. Linacece —
Plants resembling the common Flax. Tiliacea — The Lime trees. Camel-
12 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS.
liacece — The Camellias, including the Tea plant. Aurantiacea — The Orange
trees. Hypericacece — Plants resembling and agreeing in characters with
the St. John's Wort. Aceracece — Trees and shrubs resembling the Maple
and Sycamore. Hippocastanacece — The Horse-chesnuts. Tropeolacece —
The Indian Cress species. Balsamacece. — The Balsams.
There are a number of these orders such Tiliaceae, Camelliaceae, Acer-
aceas, Hippocastanacese, &c., which include only one or two genera; and
hence, while acquiring a knowledge of the order, a knowledge of the genera
is obtained at the same time. To recognise these orders, it is necessary for
a beginner to see the flowers ; but after a little experience, most of them
may be discovered by the leaves.
CALYCIFLOR^.
34. This second subdivision of exogens consists of plants having several
petals with stamens attached to the calyx. It includes about sixty orders, of
which the more remarkable are, Leguminosse, Rosacese, Cactacese, Umbel-
lacese, Compositae, and Ericaceae.
35. Leguminosce. — Sepals and petals five each; the petals papilionaceous,
or arranged somewhat like the wings of a butterfly ; stamens ten, mostly
diadelphous, that is, in two bundles ; fruit superior, that is, formed above
the calyx, and generally becoming a pod. This is one of the most ex-
tensive orders of plants, consisting of herbs, shrubs, or trees ; natives of
most parts of the world. Leaves generally compound, alternate, stipulate,
with the petiole tumid at the base. Flowers in most species yellow, showy.
Properties farinaceous, resinous, and furnishing various dyes. Almost all the
trees are either useful or ornamental, and many of the herbs are valuable
agricultural and garden plants. Familiar examples, are the common Furze,
Broom, Genista, Cytisus, Clover, Lucerne, Melilot, Indigo, Liquorice,
Locust Tree of America, Acacia, Mimosa, Bladder- Senna, Astragalus, Saint-
foin, the Tare, Bean, Vetch, Pea, Kidney-bean, Lupine, and Judas Tree.
There is scarcely any person who does not know one or other of these
plants.
36. Rosacece. — Sepals and petals four to five each ; stamens numerous ;
carpels numerous; distinct, as in the bramble, or enclosed in a fleshy calyx,
as in the rose. Trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, natives of every part
of the world ; many of them producing valuable fruits, and most of them
having showy, and in many cases fragrant flowers. Leaves alternate, stipu-
late, simple, or compound. Flowers large, showy, often of bright colours.
Properties, astringency, gum, and hydrocyanic acid. Familiar examples are,
the Almond, Peach, Apricot, Plum, and Cherry, which form a sub -order
called Amygdaleae, the fruit and leaves of all the species of which contain Hy-
drocyanic or Prussic Acid. The common Spiraea frutex and the yellow-flowered
Corchorus are examples of another tribe ; and the Raspberry, the Strawberry,
the Potentilla, and the herb Agrimony, exemplify a third tribe. The Ladies'
Mantle and the Burnet also represent a tribe ; the Rose forms a tribe by
itself ; and the Hawthorn, Quince, Medlar, Apple, and Pear, represent the
tribe Pomacese.
37. Umbelldcece. — Sepals, petals, and stamens, five each ; styles, two ;
fruit achenia or pendent seeds; flowers in umbels. Herbaceous plants,
with fistular furrowed stems, natives chiefly of the northern parts of the
northern hemisphere, Leaves alternate or opposite, usually divided or com-
CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. 13
pound ; rarely simple, sheathing at the base. Flowers in umbels, white,
pink, blue, or yellow, not in general very showy ; the umbel surrounded by
an involucre. Properties of the leaves, stems, and roots, frequently poisonous,
as in the Hemlock, water Parsnep, &c. ; but sometimes wholesome, as in the
Parsley, Carrot, Parsnep, &c. ; the properties of the fruit are usually warm,
aromatic, and wholesome; gum is produced by some species. Familiar
examples are, the Hemlock, Parsley, Caraway, Celery (the leaves of which
are rendered wholesome by blanching), Angelica, Asafoetida, Fennel, ParsrL
nep, Cow Parsnep, Carrot, Chervil, and Coriander. Every one is familiar
with some plant or other of this order, which may be known from all
others by the Umbels alone.
38. Composites. — Flowers compound, that is, numbers set closely together
on a plate or disk ; anthers united ; seeds solitary, inferior, and mostly
crowned with a pappus or plume. Herbaceous plants, rarely shrubs; natives
of most parts of the world. Leaves usually simple, though often much
divided, alternate, or opposite, without stipules. Stamens frequently showy,
for the most part yellow. Properties various ; in some astringent, in others
resinous, mucilaginous, bitter, diuretic, emetic, &c. Familiar examples are,
the Dandelion, the Lettuce, the Sow Thistle, the Endive, the Artichoke,
the Burdock, the Thistle, the Everlasting, the Aster, the Golden Rod, the
Daisy, the Groundsel, the Ragwort, the Marigold, the Chrysanthemum,
the Chamomile, Tansy, Southernwood, Milfoil, and the Dahlia. All who
have seen the latter flower and the common Daisy, may distinguish the plants
of this order at a glance as readily as in the case of Legumin6sae or Umbel-
laceae.
39. Ericaceae. — Calyx and corolla four to five cleft ; stamens eight to ten ;
the latter inserted under the ovary ; anthers opening by pores ; fruit four or
five celled, a many-seeded capsule, or a berry. Shrubs or under shrubs,
natives of Europe, North and South America, Asia, and very abundant in
Africa, more especially in the neighbourhood of the Cape of Good Hope.
Leaves simple, mostly evergreen, without stipules, riged, entire, whorled or
opposite, frequently small and linear. Flowers usually bright coloured and
very showy. Properties astringent and diuretic, and in some poisonous.
Familiar examples are, the Arbutus, Andromeda, Heath, Kalmia, Rhodo-
dendron, and Azalea. A beginner will more readily recognise this order
by examining the flowers and fruit, than by the general aspect and habit of
the plant.
40. Other orders belonging to this division, which are easily recognised by
those who know the plant after which the order takes its name, are the fol-
lowing : — Rhamn^ceae, Calycanthaceae, Granat^ceae, Onagraceae (including
the CEnotheraand Fuchsias), Philadelphacese, Myrtaceae, Cucurbitaceas, Pas-
sifloraceae, Turneriaceae, Cactaceae, Crassulaceae, Grossulaceae, Saxifragaceae,
Araliaceae, Caprifoliaceae, Lobeliaceae, Campanulaceae, Gesneriacew, and
various others. To recognise these orders it is necessary, in most cases, to
see the flowers ; but in the case of the Umbellaceae, as already observed, the
order may be recognised by the appearance of the flower-stems ; and in Cac-
taceae by the stems, and the entire plant. A number of the orders contain
only one or two genera ; and though the list has a formidable appearance
on paper, yet in the garden the plants of several of the orders occupy but
comparatively a small space.
14 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS.
CoROLL.EFLOR-Si.
40. The characteristic of this division is — petals united ; stamens fixed to
the corolla. The most important orders are Scrophulariaceae and Labiaceae :
both very readily distinguished.
41. Scrophulariacece. — Calyx and corolla irregularly four to five cleft;
stamens two to four ; fruit, a two-celled, many-seeded capsule. Herbs,
undershrubs, and occasionally shrubs ; natives of, and found in abundance
in, all parts of the world. Leaves simple, opposite, whorled or alternate,
with or without stipules. Flowers axillary or racemose, often showy. Pro-
perties, acridity and bitterness ; sometimes purgative or emetic. Familiar
examples are, Buddlea, Snapdragon, Scrophularia, Foxglove, Eyebright,
Calceolaria, Schizanthus, and Veronica.
42. LabiacecB. — Calyx tubular, five to ten parted; corolla lipped; sta-
mens two to four ; seeds four together, enclosed in a general seed-vessel,
superior ; flowers whorled. Herbaceous plants or undershrubs with four-
cornered stems and opposite ramifications ; natives principally of the tempe-
rate regions of both hemispheres. Leaves simple or compound, opposite
without stipules; abounding in pores filled with aromatic oil. Flowers
sessile, in axillary cymes. Properties tonic, cordial, and stomachic. Familiar
examples are, Mint, Savory, Thyme, Pennyroyal, Hyssop, Germander,
Rosemary, Day-nettle, Betony, Ground Ivy, Horehound, Lavender, Balm of
Gilead, Balin, and Sage.
43. Other orders in this subdivision are : — Epacridaceae, Cape and Aus-
tralian shrubs resembling Epacris, and frequent in greenhouses, flowering in
the winter. Myrsinacae, Jasminacse, Asclepiadaceae, Gentianacese, Bigno-
niceae, Cobaeaceae, Polemoniaceae, Convolvulaceae, Boraginaceae, Hydrophyl-
laceae, Solanaceae,VerbenaceaB, Acanthaceae, Primulaceae, and various others.
MONOCHLAMYDE^I.
44. Calyx and corolla not distinct ; that is, the flowers have only a single
envelope. The principal orders are Amentaceae and Coniferae.
45. Amentacece. — Flowers monoecious ; that is, the male and female in
separate catkins, but borne on the same plant; or dioecious, that is, the male
and female on different plants. The stameniferous flowers in drooping catkins ;
fruitsolitary, or aggregate ; in some one-celled, enclosed in a sheathed capsule,
as in the Oak, Chestnut, Beech, Hazel, and Hornbeam ; in others with the
fruit small and tufted with fine hairs, as in the Willow and Poplar ; and in
others two-celled, with small seeds not enclosed in the receptacle, and not
clothed with hairs, as in the Birch and Alder. Trees, and some shrubs ;
natives chiefly of the temperate regions of both hemispheres. Leaves
simple ; flowers not showy.
46. Conifera. — Flowers in catkins generally erect ; fruit a cone, as in
Pines and Firs ; sometimes with scales compressed so as to resemble a berry,
as in the Juniper and Yew. Seeds naked. Trees, and some shrubs, natives of
every part of the world ; often called resiniferous trees. Every one has seen
a Pine, a Fir, or a Cedar, and their cones ; and the fruit of the Juniper and
the Yew are not uncommon. The Coniferae are frequently spoken of as in
two divisions ; the one the Abietinae, or Pine and Fir tribe ; and the other
the Cupressinae, or the Cypress and Juniper tribe.
47. Other orders belonging to this division are Plantaginese, plants more
CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. 15
or less resembling the Plantago, or common Plantain. Amaranthaceae,
Chenopodiaceae, Begoniaceae, Polygonaceae, Lamaceae, Proteaceae, Thyme-
leaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Urticaceae, Ulmaceae, Juglandaceae, Empetraceae. Of
these the Coniferae may generally be known by their foliage ; but the others,
for the most part, require to be seen in flower, at least by the beginner.
ENDOGENS.
48. Endogens have no general subdivisions like the exogens ; but their
principal orders, with a view to the general observer, are Orchidaceae, Scita-
minacese, IridaceaB, Amaryllidaceae, Asphodelaceae, Tulipaceae, Palmaceae,
and Graminaceae.
49. Orchidacece. — Flowers of six sepals, irregular ; stamen and style
united. Herbaceous plants, often with the stems and leaves perennial ;
many of them epiphytes, that is, growing on the trunks and branches of
trees. Leaves simple, quite entire, often articulated with the stem. The
flowers of this order are so remarkable in their external appearance, that
when once seen they are easily repognised, either hi the indigenous Orchises
of British marshes and chalky downs which grow in the soil ; or in the
tropical species kept in stoves, which for the most part grow on the bark of
the trunk and branches of trees.
50. Scitaminacece. — Stem formed of the cohering bases of the leaves ; never
branching. Leaves simple, sheathing one another on the stem. Flowers in
spikes, racemes, or panicles, with numerous bracts. Tropical herbaceous
plants, of which the following are examples : the Ginger, the Indian Shot,
Alpinia, Hedychium, Plantains, and Bananas.
51. IridacecB. — Flowers superior ; stamens, three distinct, their anthers
turned outwards. Herbaceous plants, chiefly bulbs, natives of the Cape of
Good Hope, but many of them also of Europe. Leaves ensiform, equitant,
or alike on both sides. Flowers terminal, hi spikes, corymbs, or panicles ;
bright-coloured, large, and showy. Familiar examples are : Iris, Ixia, the
Tiger Flower, Gladiolus, and Crocus. The latter flower is familiar to
every one.
62. Amaryllidacece. — Flowers superior; stamens six, distinct ; their
anthers turned inwards. Bulbous-rooted herbaceous plants, natives of most
parts of the world, with uniform leaves having parallel veins. Flowers with
sheath-like bracts, large, bright-coloured, and showy. Familiar examples
are : the Amaryllis, Crinum, Bloodflower, Hypoxis, Narcissus, Snowdrop,
Summer Snowflake, and Alstro3meria.
53. Llliacece. — Flowers inferior, of six divisions ; stamens, six. Her-
baceous plants with bulbous roots, natives of the temperate parts of the
northern hemisphere. Familiar examples are : the Lily, the Scilla, the
Hyacinth, Fritillary, Dog's-tooth Violet, Tulip, Star of Bethlehem, As-
phodel, Butcher's Broom, Solomon's Seal, and Lily of the Valley. The
Tulip and the Lily are familiar to every one.
54. Palmacece. — Flowers enclosed by a sheath, six- parted ; stamens, six ;
fruit fleshy or baccate. Trees, sometimes low plants ; always with simple
stems, seldom if ever branched, and having the leaves in clusters at the top
of the stem. Leaves large, pinnated or fan-shaped, folded before expansion ;
natives of tropical climates, and in Britain only to be seen in hothouses.
Familiar examples are, the Fan Palm, the Date, the Sago Palm, and the
Zamia.
16 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS.
55. Graminacea. — Plants with hollow, round stems, and mostly ever-
green leaves. Sheaths of the leaves split on one side. Herbaceous plants,
and sometimes trees and shrubs, natives of every part of the world, and
familiar to all.
56. Other orders belonging to Endogens are : Alisimacese or Water Plan-
tain-looking plants, natives of marshes or standing water. Butomaceae, the
flowering Rush, the most ornamental of British water plants; Pistiaceae, the
Duckweed ; Dioscoraceae, the Yam; Tamaceae, the black Bryony, a twining
plant occasionally found in hedges ; Smilaceae, the Smilaxes ; Bromeliaceae,
the Pine Apple ; Commelinacese, Spider Wort ; Typhinaceae, Cat's Tail ;
Aroidaceae, the Arums ; Juncaceae, the Rushes ; and Cyperaceae, the Sedges,
which are distinguished from the proper grasses by having solid stems.
ACROGENS.
57. Acrogens, or vegetables which grow from their upper extremities,
contain the following principal Orders : Filices, Musci, Lichenes, Algae, and
Fungi.
58. Filices. — Plants often consisting of a single leaf called a frond, mostly
without steins ; the leaves are rolled up before expansion, and with equal-
sized veins. Herbs, and sometimes trees, natives of every part of the world
in moist shady situations. Familiar examples are : the common Polypody
of the hedges, which is found also on pollards and large trees in moist situ-
ations, Maidenhair, the Brake, the Hart's Tongue, the Osmunda, the Ad-
der's Tongue, and the Moonwort.
59. Musci. — Leafy cellular plants, with fruit in covered capsules.
60. Lichenes — Frondose plants with seeds in receptacles of various kinds,
of the same substance as the frond.
61. Algae. — Cellular water plants, chiefly found in the sea ; bearing fruit
in bladders either attached to, or imbedded in, the surface of the frond or
leaf-like plate. A common example of this order is the green hair-like
Conferva, found in ditches and stagnant waters.
62. Fungi. — Succulent masses without leaves, veins, or fronds, and
bearing their sporules, or substitutes for seed, in tubular cells. Familiar
examples are the common Mushroom and Toadstool.
63. Other orders of Acrogens are Equisetacese, or plants resembling the
common Equisetum or Horsetail, which to general observers is distinguished
by its terminal catkin from the Mare's- tail, in which the flowers are axillary.
Characeae or floating water plants, consisting of a leaf and root ; and Lyco-
podiaceae, which are moss-looking plants, bearing a general resemblance to
the common club moss. All these orders may be recognised without refer-
ence to flowers or fruit, and they are chiefly of botanical interest.
64. If the reader has profited from the preceding part of this section in
the manner which we have wished him to do, he will have learnt, when
endeavouring to describe a plant which he has seen, to another person who
has not seen it ; not to begin with the leaves and flowers and similar details,
bnt with the general appearance of the plants, and the resemblance which it
has to known plants, either single species or orders, tribes, or genera. It is
in general of far more importance to be able to determine the order to which
a plant belongs than its mere generic and specific name ; unless, indeed, the
knowledge of this serves as a key to books from which the natural order
may be learned, and consequently something of the properties of the plant
CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. 17
ascertained. We therefore repeat our recommendation to grown-up pupils
to begin their study of plants by looking at them in masses or groups ; after
which they may correct and render more definite the knowledge thus
acquired, by a study of all the separate parts of plants. In like manner, if
we were to recommend what we consider the best mode of getting a know-
ledge of grammar, we should begin with sentences ; or of the exterior effect
of buildings, we should recommend, first, attention to the outline and the
general masses ; and next, an examination of the doors, windows, cornices,
and other details ; and finally of the bricks or stones of the walls, and
the slates or tiles of the roof. To a young person, on the other hand,
we should recommend the contrary mode, in botany, in grammar, and in
architecture.
65. Besides characterising plants according to the natural orders to which
they belong ; when cultivators are speaking of plants with a view to their
art, they employ a number of terms which, though not rigidly scientific,
are all more or less useful, as enabling us to speak of plants in groups or
masses. The principal of these are as follow :
66. Evergreens. — Plants which retain their leaves green throughout the
winter. The principal British evergreen trees, are the Coniferse, the Ever-
green Oak, and the Holly ; but there are many evergreen shrubs. Evergreen
herbaceous plants are not very numerous ; but we have the Pink, Carnation,
Sweetwilliam, many of the Saxifrages. Silenes, the perennial flax, some
Campanulas, and all the perennial grasses.
67. Subevergreens. — Plants which retain their leaves green through the
winter, and drop them in spring, so that they are for two or three weeks
without leaves. The principal trees are the varieties of the Lucombe and
Fulham Oak, Turner's Oak, Quercus pseudo-suber, and one or two others.
Of shrubs there are a number ; such as Buddlea globosa, Aristotelia Macqui,
Photinia serrulata, Cotoneaster frigida, some kinds of Genista, Piptanthus
nepalensis, Ribes glu tine-sum, &c. Subevergreen herbaceous plants are : (Eno-
thera biennis and several other species, Pentstemon, Chelone, Asters, &c.
68. Persistent-leaved plants are such as retain their leaves after they have
withered and become brown, till the spring. Examples of trees are, the
Beech, Hornbeam, and Turkey Oak when young, Quercus Tauzin, and some-
times the common Oak ; and there are one or two shrubs, such as Rhus
Cotinus, and some herbaceous plants, such as Pulsatilla.
69. Deciduous-leaved plants are those that drop their leaves in the autumn,
which is the case with the great majority of plants, whether trees, shrubs,
or herbs, in all extra tropical countries.
70. Ligneous plants are such as have woody stems and branches.
71. Suffruticose plants are such as have stems intermediate between woody
and herbaceous ; as, for example, the tree Peony, the Sage, the Carnation,
the tree Lavatera, &c.
72. Trees, when young, are scarcely to be distinguished from shrubs, both
coming up with a single stem ; but a tree, if left to itself, ultimately becomes
a plant with a single erect stem, and a branchy head. Thus the common
mountain Ash, though it seldom grows above thirty feet high, is a perfect
tree ; while the common Laurel, which will attain the height of forty or
fifty feet much sooner than the mountain Ash will thirty feet, never has an
erect stem, and has generally several stems rising together. It is therefore
considered a shrub. Trees are commonly divided into large, small, and
c
18 STRUCTURE OF PLANTS.
middle-sized. Most fruit trees are considered low trees; trees between
thirty and fifty feet are middle-sized; and those of greater height large.
73. Shrubs are either large, as when they exceed twenty feet; small,
if under four feet ; or undershrubs if under two feet, such as the Thyme
and Rosemary, and many Heaths. Shrubs climb by twining, as exemplified
in the Honeysuckle ; by clasping with tendrils or leaves, as in the vine, the
five-leaved ivy, and the Clematis ; or by elongation, as in the Lycium and
Solanum dulcamara ; or by attachment of the rootlets, as in the common Ivy.
Shrubs are also distinguished as trailers when the shoots lie along the ground
without rooting into it ; as stoloniferous, when the shoots ramble along the
ground, and root into it at certain distances, as in the Bramble ; or creeping,
when they root at every joint, as in some species of Rhus ; and as recum-
bent, when the shoots recline without spreading or rooting, as in many
species of Cytisus.
Herbaceous plants may also be similarly divided.
With reference to their habits, plants are called Alpines, or hill plants, or
mountain, marsh, aquatic, bog, heath, wood, copse, hedge, meadow, or
pasture plants. With respect to soil, a very common division is into peat-
earth plants or American border plants (from the soil for American plants
being generally peat), and common garden soil plants.
Herbaceous plants are also distinguished as florists' flowers, such as the
Auricula, Tulip, Hyacinth, &c., which have been long cultivated by florists,
who have laid down canons or rules, by which the merits of flowers are to be
tested ; border flowers, or such as are adapted for growing in a miscellaneous
ornamental border ; botanic plants, or such as are chiefly interesting to
botanists ; shrubbery flowers, or such large coarse-growing species as are
adapted for growing among shrubs ; rockwork plants, or such as from their
native habitation, and low compact habit of growth, are considered as adapted
for rockwork ; and pot plants, or such as for the same qualities are adapted
for growing in pots. There are also lawn plants, or such as are adapted for
growing singly on a lawn, as the Peony ; and covering plants, such as the
Verbena Melindres, which are adapted for covering beds and parterres with
masses of flowers of the same colour. The common divisions of herbaceous
plants into annual, biennial, perennial, bulbous, tuberous, ramose-rooted,
and fibrous-rooted, it is unnecessary here to describe.
74. The uses of plants have given rise to several divisions ; such as horti-
cultural plants, agricultural, culinary, medicinal, tinctorial, pomological, and
other edible fruit-bearing plants ; graniverous, pasturage, and herbage
plants ; hedge plants, or such ligneous species as are adapted for growing as
hedges ; copsewood plants, or such as shoot up freely from the stool or collar
•when cut down, and are consequently adapted for copsewoods ; seaside plants,
or such as are adapted for standing the sea-breeze, &c.
75. Plants are also distinguished as having variegated foliage; anomalous
foliage, in which plants having naturally simple or entire leaves, exhibit
them occasionally much divided, as in the Fern-leaved Beech, Cut-leaved
Lime, &c. ; as having double flowers, which, in the earlier ages of gardening,
was considered the greatest beauty which a plant could have; as being
dwarfs, or lower than the normal size ; or tall, as being higher than the
normal size. Considered with reference to climate, plants are described as
hardy, growing hi the open air without protection ; half-hardy, requiring
some kind of protection ; frame, requiring the protection of glass without
STRUCTURE OF PLANTS. 19
heat ; greenhouse plants, requiring glass with heat ; and hothouse plants,
which may be either dry stove plants, such as Cacti, Aloes, Crassulas, &c.,
which require a high degree of heat with a dry atmosphere, or damp stove
plants, such as the Orchidacese, which require a high degree of moist heat.
SECT. III. — Nomenclature of Plants with a view to Horticulture.
76. The principles on which plants are named ought to be known to the
young gardener and the amateur ; partly because they ought not to be
entirely ignorant of anything closely connected with their pursuit, and
partly because the names of plants sometimes indicate ideas respecting
their nature and culture. The names of the grand divisions, as we have
already seen, are compounded of Greek words, expressive of the structure
or character of the division or subdivision. The names of the orders are, for
the most part, without meaning in themselves, further than as being the
names of certain genera which are considered as the types of the orders, all
the plants of which have a close general resemblance to that genus in struc-
ture and properties. The same may be said of the names of tribes.
77. The names of the genera of plants, are chiefly compounded of Greek
words signifying something respecting the plant, as Chionanthus, snow- flower,
from the snowy whiteness of the blossoms, or Gypsophila, because the plant
loves chalky soil ; or they are commemorative of individuals, as Smithta, after
Sir James Smith. Occasionally, but rarely, they are named after countries
or a people, as in Armeniaca from Armenia, and Araucaria from the Arauca-
rians, a people of Chili. By far the greater number of generic names are after
persons, and those in this volume, and in all our other works, are distinguished
by having the letters additional to the name in italics, as explained with
other matters at the end of the Preface. Specific names are generally Latin
adjectives, expressing some obvious quality of the plant ; or proper names
used adjectively, to signify the change that has taken place in removing the
species from the genus, of which the adjective was the name ; as for example,
Veronica Chamsedrys, indicates that Chamaedrys was formerly the generic
name of that species of Veronica. Commemorative names are also used as
specific names, sometimes in the genitive case, as Verbena Drummondi, in-
dicating that the plant was discovered or originated by Mr. Drummond ; or
with the addition of ana as Verbena Tweedicma, indicating that the plant
was named in honour of Mr. Tweedie. Specific names also often indicate
the situation or the county where the plant is found naturally, as palustris
growing in marshes, or Edinburgeiisis growing about Edinburgh.
78. The names of varieties of plants given by Botanists follow the same
laws as those of species ; but the names given by horticulturists and florists
are sometimes indicative of properties, as large, small, &c. ; but for the most
part fanciful, and sometimes whimsical. In general, the names of culinary
vegetables and fruits bear the name of the person who raised them, with the
place where they were raised, with or without the addition of some adjective
expressing their properties, as Forest's Large Upsal Cabbage, Reid's New
Golden Pippin, &c. The names applied to varieties of gooseberries, florists'
flowers, and roses, are for the most part given in honour of individuals ; some-
times they indicate a quality, as Brown's Scarlet Verbena, and sometimes
they imply a superiority, or a challenge, as the Top-Sawyer gooseberry, or
Cox's Defiance Dahlia. The Dutch give their florists' flowers many high-
sounding titles, which appear at first sight ridiculous ; but in giving them
c2
20 STRUCTURE OF PLANTS.
they intend at once to compliment their patrons, and to describe something
of the nature of the flower, thus :— the letters W.,Y.,O.,R.,C.,P.,V.,B.,&c.,
when capitals, are understood to mean white, yellow, orange, red, crimson,
purple, violet, blue ; and hence, when a flower is named William the Con-
querer, or Wonder of Constantinople, its colours are understood to be white
and crimson ; Charming Phillis, crimson and purple ; British Rover, blue
and red, &c. It is always desirable to know the meaning of a name, or
even to know that it has no meaning ; in the former case some positive ideas
are obtained, and in both the memory is assisted.
SECT. IV. — Structure of Plants ', with a view to Horticulture.
79. The anatomy of a plant furnishes us with numerous component
parts, of which we can do little more than enumerate those more imme-
diately connected with the practice of horticulture.
80. Elementary Organs consist of cellular tissue, or transparent vesicles,
which adhere together so as to form a substance more or less compact,
and which, in the leaves, fills up the interstices between the veins, and
forms the parenchyma. Woody fibre is an elementary organ consisting of
elongated tubes, which are found more or less in most plants, and especially
in the wood and inner bark, among parenxjhymous matter. Spiral vessels —
consisting of elastic tissue, twisted spirally within & membrane — are found
in the medullary sheath, but rarely in the wood, hark, and root, and they
scarcely exist in acrogens. Plants furnished with them are called vascu-
lares ; a term which includes both exogens and endogens : and plants without
them are called cellulares, in which the acrogens are included. Other forms
of elementary tissue are — the ducts, which are transparent tubes, marked
with lines or dots ; the cuticle, which is a thin skin, covering the leaf ; and
the stomata, which are pores scattered over the cuticle, or epidermis of the
leaves. Grafting and budding are founded on the affinity of the elementary
organs in different species.
81. Compound organs are combinations of the elementary organs, and
consist of the axis and its appendages ; two words which comprise the whole
vegetable structure. The axis may be compared to the vertebral column of
animals, and is formed by the development of a seed, a bulb, or other germ,
or of a leaf-bud. An embryo is the origin of a plant contained within a
seed, and it differs from a bulb or bud in being produced by the agency of
sexes. When a seed or a bud is excited by its inherent vital action, the
tissue of which it is composed, and which has the power of generating new
tissue Oy the growth of one elementary vesicle out of another, developes
itself in three directions, upwards, downwards, and horizontally. The part
which descends is called the descending axis or root ; the opposite part the
ascending axis or stem ; and the horizontal elongations, which are chiefly
leaves and buds, are called the appendages of the stem.
82. The root begins to be formed before the stem ; from which it differs
anatomically, in the absence of spiral vessels, of pith, of buds, with certain
exceptions, and of stomata. The uses of roots are to fix plants in the soil,
and to absorb nutriment from it by their spongioles.
83. The stem is generated by the development of the plumule of the seed,
and increased by the development of leaf-buds. If a ring of bark be cut off
from the stem of an exogenous plant, below a branch or even at the base of
a growing shoot of the current year covered with leaves, or if a ligature be
STRUCTURE OF PLANTS.
21
made round the stem in a similar situation, the part of the stem above the
wound, or ligature, swells and increases in thickness, while that below it does
not ; a proof that in exogenous plants, the matter by which stems are thick-
ened, descends. Hence, when a shoot is cut through immediately below a
leaf-bud, the portion of the shoot left, dies back to the next bud. Hence,
also, has arisen the technical expression of " cut to the bud ;" which means,
that in pruning or cutting off a shoot, the section should be made so close
to a bud as that the wound may soon be healed over, and no stump left,
as is the case in gardens where trees have been carelessly pruned. The
greater the number of leaves on a shoot, or of leaf-buds on a stem or branch,
the greater will be the diameter of the parts below the leaves, buds, or
branches, and the contrary.
84. Stems are either exogenous, growing from the outside ; endogenous,
growing from the interior ; or acrogenous, growing by elongation or dila-
tion, and mostly without buds. Exogenous stems consist of the pith, a
fungus-like matter, occupying the small cylindric space in the centre of the
stem, and never increasing in diameter ; of the medullary sheath, consisting
of a thin cylinder of spiral vessels and ducts, immediately surrounding the
pith j and of the wood, which surrounds the medullary sheath, in the form
of concentric layers, which layers are penetrated by projections from the
pith called medullary rays. In general every concentric layer requires a
year for its production ; and hence the age of a tree may be known by the
number of rings shown in the section of the main stem. In woody stems of
several years' growth, the interior of the wood is rendered hard by the
deposition of secreted matter, and is called heartwood ; while the more
recent exterior layers are known as soft wood or alburnum.
85. The bark surrounds the young wood, and like it consists of concentric
layers, one being added yearly on the inside, between the previously ex-
isting bark and the alburnum. Every layer of bark consists of woody fibre,
and ducts covered with parenchymous matter, the two former constituting
the liber, or inner bark, and the latter the cellular integument, epidermis,
or outer bark. The uses of the bark are to protect the alburnum, to serve
as a channel for the descending sap, and sometimes as a medium for the
deposition of the peculiar properties of plants.
86. The medullary rays or plates consist of compressed vertical parallelo-
grams of cellular tissue, which connect together the different layers of wood,
and serve, at least in trees that are without dead wood in the centre of their
stems, as a communication between the pith and the bark. Between the
liber and the alburnum, a viscid secretion is found in spring, which renders
trees easily disbarked at that season, and this secretion is called cambium.
It has been supposed to nourish the descending fibres of the buds, and to
originate medullary rays.
87. Endogenous plants have stems, which offer no distinction of pith,
medullary rays, wood, and bark ; the whole structure being composed of
bundles of vascular tissue among a mass of cellular tissue, surrounded by a
zone of cellular tissue and woody fibre : but as this exterior zone is not sepa-
rable from what it encloses by any natural division, it is consequently not bark.
Endogenous stems increase by the successive descent of new bundles of
vascular tissue into the cellular tissue towards the centre of the stem, and
these bundles of tissue gradually distend those previously formed, by
which means the diameter of the stem is slowly increased in thickness, and
its circumference in hardness. After this hardness has reached a certain
22 STRUCTURE OF PLANTS.
point, it can no longer be distended, and the diameter ceases to increase.
Hence, generally, the life of an endogenous tree seems more limited than that
of an exogen ; because it is well known that trees of the latter kind will
live for an indefinite period, and even for centuries, after the interior of the
trunks have become entirely rotten, and their circumference separated so as
to form vertical sections, or fragments of trunks, with rotten wood on one
side, and living bark and growing shoots on the other ; the increase both of
bark and wood still going on. Endogens differ from exogens in commonly
developing only a terminal bud, as in Palms, in which case the stem is of
the same thickness throughout, and cylindrical ; but when several buds deve-
lope themselves, as in the stem of the Asparagus, and in that of the Bamboo,
the stem becomes conical like the stems of exogens.
88. Though the normal direction of stems and branches is upwards, or
at all events, above the surface of the ground, yet there are exceptions in the
case of creeping roots, as in the Everlasting Pea ; in rhizomas, which are un-
derground stems, as in the water-lily, and the common reed ; in tubers
which are stems under the surface, as in the potato ; and in corms, as in the
crocus, the root of which, though commonly called a bulb, is, botanically, a
dilated stem.
89. JVodiy or knots, are the places where buds are formed, and internodi
the spaces between them. Whatever is produced by a leaf bud is a branch,
which, when in a growing state, is called a shoot. Leaf-buds sometimes are
imperfectly developed so as to form a spine, with or without leaves, as in the
common hawthorn; and such spines are therefore imperfectly developed
branches. All growths from the stems which are not the evolutions of leaf
buds, as for example the prickles, are modifications of the cellular matter,
and of the epidermis of the bark. The uses of prickles to the plant appear
imperfectly understood.
90. Buds are either leaf-buds or flower-buds, and the former are either
regular or adventitious. Regular leaf-buds are only found in the axils of
the leaves, or in the axils of their modifications. Hence as scales, stipules,
bracts, sepals, petals, stamens, and carpellas, are considered as metamor-
phosed leaves, adventitious buds are believed to exist on their axils ; though
they are rarely developed in a state of nature and only sometimes by artifi-
cial processes. Regular buds alone develope themselves untouched by art
or accident ; and hence, whatever may be the arrangement of the buds,
the same will be that of the branches. Adventitious leaf-buds are found
surrounding the bases of regular leaf-buds, and in general where there is
an anastomosis of woody fibre. They are found in the roots of a number
of plants, and sometimes on the margin of leaves, or at the base of their
petioles ; they are never visible either on the root or stem till they begin to
develope themselves and burst through the bark.
91. Leaves are expansions of the bark, and only found at the nodi of the
stem. They are developed as the stem advances in growth, one above and
after another, opposite, alternate, or verticillate, and in each of these modes
with greater or less regularity. A complete leaf consists of a petiole or foot-
stalk, a lamina or disk, and a pair of stipula or small side leaves at the base
of the petiole. The lamina is sometimes wanting or changed in shape, and
sometimes the petiole is extended, and instead of terminating in a lamina, it
assumes a cylindrical wirelike figure, and becomes a tendril. The veins of
leaves branch in all exogenous plants, with the exception of the Coniferae and
Cycadeae orders, the stems of which have an exogenous structure, while the
STRUCTURE OF PLANTS. 23
veins are parallel, like those of endogens. The veins of a leaf are in two
strata, the one forming the upper, and the other the under surface ; the
former conveying the juices from the stem for elaboration, and the latter
returning them when elaborated. Simple leaves have undivided laminae, or
laminae divided, but not articulated ; in the latter case it is a compound leaf,
as in the Mimosa, and in what would, at first appearance, seem a simple leaf,
the Orange. Some leaves have a power of producing leaf-buds, but com-
monly not till they have dropped off and lain some time on moist ground, as
in Bryophyllum, Malaxis, and some tropical ferns.
92. Hairs are minute expansions of tissue, found occasionally in all parts
of the plant above ground, but chiefly on the under surface, and they are in-
tended for the purposes of secretion, for the control of evaporation, and for
the protection of the surface on which they are placed.
93. flower-buds consist of floral envelopes and sexes, and they either pro-
ceed from the axilla of common leaves, or from those of bracts or floral
leaves. The floral envelopes are connected with the stem by a peduncle.
The modes in which flower-buds are arranged on a stem, which are various,
are called the forms of inflorescence ; and the order in which they expand is
called the order of expansion.
94. Inflorescence is the ramification of that part of the plant bearing the
flowers, and it is in general either terminal, that is, at the end of the branch ;
or axillary, proceeding from the axils of the leaves. Both these kinds of inflo-
rescence assume a great many different forms which cannot be here detailed.
95. The floral envelopes consist of the calyx and corolla, both of which are
generally present, but sometimes only one, which in that case is considered
the calyx ; and sometimes both are wanting, as in apetalous flowers. The
divisions of the calyx are called sepals, and those of the corolla petals.
96. The sexes of plants consist of the male organs, or stamens, and the
female organs, or pistillum, with a process, usually an annular elevation,
which occurs between them, referred by former botanists to the nectary, but
now called the disk. The pistillum occupies the centre of the flower within
the stamens, and it consists of three parts, the ovarium, the style, and
the stigma. The ovarium is the lowest part, and encloses the ovula or
young seeds, in one or more vacuities called cells ; the stigma is the summit
of the pistillum, which is connected with the ovarium by the style. This
last part is sometimes wanting, but the ovarium and stigma are always
present. Those parts of the pistillum which remain, and continue growing
after the floral envelopes and the stamens have decayed, are called carpels,
which are sometimes united, as in the Poppy, and sometimes separated, as in
the Ranunculus.
97. The ovulum is the infant seed united to the interior of the carpella, by
the placenta, to which it is attached by the funiculus, podosperm, or
umbilical cord.
98. The fruit, in a strict botanical sense, is the mature pistillum, but in
a less strict sense, it is applied to the pistillum and floral envelopes, taken
together and united in one general mass. All fruit, excepting those of the
Conifers and Cycadeae, which have no ovarium, indicate upon their surface
some traces of a style, and wherever this is the case, what are apparently
and commonly called seeds, as the grains of corn and other grasses, are pro-
perly fruits. When the pistillum has become mature fruit, what was the
ovarium takes the name of pericarpium.
24 FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS.
99. Fruits are either simple, proceeding from a single flower, as in the
poppy, rose, strawberry, apple, &e., or compound, formed out of several
flowers, as in the mulberry, the fig, and all the Coniferse. When simple
fruits are formed of a single carpellum, they are called follicles, as in the
peony ; legumes, as in the pea ; drupes, as in the peach ; akenia, as in the
strawberry; cariopsis, as in corn ; or utricles, as in the chenopodium. The
capsule is a many-celled dry pericarpium, as in the poppy ; the silique is a
pod, consisting of two or four carpella, as in the cabbage tribe, and all the
Cruciferaa. The nut or gland is a dry, bony, one-celled fruit, enclosed in an
involucrum, cupula, or cup, as in the oak ; the berry is a succulent fruit,
the seeds of which lose their adhesion when ripe, and lie loose in the pulp,
as in the grape and the gooseberry ; the orange is also a berry separable into
an epicarp, or outer skin, and endocarp or central part in which the seeds
are fixed, and a sarcocarp or fleshy substance between the epicarp and the
endocarp ; the pome consisting of two or more inferior carpella united, as in
the apple ; and the pepo is a pulpy fruit in which the seeds are embedded,
but their point of attachment never lost, as in the cucumber. Of all these
fruits, the most remarkable are the pine-apple, which is a spike of inferior
flowers grown together into a fleshy mass; the fig, which is the fleshy hollow
dilated apex of a peduncle, in the interior of which the flowers are arranged,
each flower containing a one- seeded pericarpium; the cone of the Abietinae
is an indurated amentum ; and when reduced in size, and its scales so firmly
adhering as almost to resemble a berry, it is called a galbulus, as in Thuja
and Juniperus.
100. The seed is a mature ovulum, and consists of the integument or testa,
the albumen or perisperm, and the embryo, which consists of the cotyle-
dons, the radicle, the plumula, and the collar or neck. As all ovula are
enclosed within an ovarium, and all seeds are matured ovula ; hence there
can be no such thing as naked seed, excepting in Coniferae and Cycadese, in
which the ovula are destitute of every covering, and exposed naked to the
influence of the pollen. In consequence of some ovula rupturing the ovarium
in the course of their growth, the seeds become naked, as in Leontice thalic-
troides ; while in some, as in Reseda, the ovula are imperfectly protected by
the ovarium, and in that case also the seeds are naked. When a seed
is separated from the placenta, and the umbilical cord is removed, a scar
appears on the point where it was attached, which is called the hilum
or umbilicus. It is very distinct in the common bean, and in all the Legu-
minosse. The hilum always represents the base of the seed, or that part
whence the roots proceed ; and hence it ought to be placed undermost when
the seed is committed to the soil. In curved seeds, however, as in the
Mignonette, the apex and base are brought together ; and in sowing such
seeds they should be laid on their side. There is much to study on the
subject of seeds, both with a view to a scientific knowledge of plants and to
their culture, and we must therefore recommend the reader to study either
Lindley's Outlines of the First Principles of Botany, or his Introduction to
Botany, 3rd edit., 1839; the last being by far the most complete work of
the kind extant.
SECT. V. — Functions of Plants with reference to Horticulture.
101. The development of a plant takes place in consequence of the elas-
ticity, excitability, and hygroscopicity of its tissue ; and it requires the,
FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS. 25
presence : 1. of "substances containing carbon and nitrogen, and capable of
yielding these elements to the growing plant ; 2. of water and its elements ;
and 3, of a soil to furnish the inorganic matters, which are likewise essential
to vegetable life." (Liebig, p. 4.) A summary view of the whole process
of vegetable development is thus given by Professor Henslow : " Plants
absorb their nutriment by their roots; this nutriment is then conveyed
through the stem into the leaves ; there it is subjected to a process by which~
a large proportion of water is discharged ; the rest is submitted to the action
of the atmosphere, and carbonic acid is first generated and then decomposed
by the action of light. Carbon is now fixed under the form of a nutri-
tive material, which is conveyed back into the system ; and this material
is farther elaborated for the development of all parts of the structure, and
for the preparation of certain secreted matters which are either retained
within or ejected from the plant." (Descriptive and Physiological Botany,
p. 176.) This short passage comprehends the essence of all that can be said
on the subject of vegetable development ; but for the purposes of horticul-
ture it will be useful to go more into detail and to consider vegetable de-
velopment under the form of germination, growth, function of the leaves,
action of the flowers, and maturation of the fruit and seed.
102. Germination. — The seed containing an embryo plant, its develop-
ment is effected by its being placed in suitable circumstances for that purpose.
These are moisture, warmth, the absence of light, and contact with air ; to
which may be added, with a view to cultivation, the presence of soil. The
undeveloped seed is principally composed of concentrated carbon, and in the
act of germination, this carbon, by the absorption of water, is converted into
mucilaginous matter, which is decomposed and rendered soluble by the
oxygen of the atmosphere. Thus it appears that the first act of germination
is to reverse the process of maturation ; and hence, the reason why all seeds,
if sown fresh, when they are nearly ripe, will germinate more speedily than
when fully ripe ; and when fully ripe, sooner if sown immediately than if
kept for months -or years. The soluble mucilage of the cotyledons supplies
the embryo plant with nourishment till it is able to extract food from the
soil, after which it absorbs this food from the soil, by the points of its
radicles./ Seeds will not germinate without the presence of oxygen. In
nitrogen, or in carbonic acid gas, if moistened with water, they will
swell, but not vegetate. Hence seeds excluded from the atmosphere and
from water, may be preserved from decay for an indefinite period ; but it
doese not follow that during the whole of this period they will retain
their vital principle. The presence of light is not only unnecessary to the
germination of seeds, but injurious, and hence in horticulture they are
always more or less buried in the soil, generally to a depth equivalent to
the diameter of the seed. The temperature required to germinate seeds,
varies from 32° to 80° or 90° ; and some seeds, such as those of the Robima
Pseud-acacia, and of some species of Australian Acacias, may be immersed in
water at the boiling point, and kept for some minutes in it without destroy-
ing vitality. The seeds of no plant will vegetate under 32°, because below
that degree water freezes, and consequently could not be absorbed by the
tissue of the seed. The common annual grass (Poa annua) will vegetate at,
or very slightly above, that temperature, as will the Chickweed, (Alsine
media,) the common Day Nettle, (Lamium rubrum,) and various others. The
process of malting barley is exactly the same as that of germinating a seed.
By moistening the barley, it swells, the starch of the cotyledon is changed
26 FUNCTIONS OP PLANTS.
into sugar, and being absorbed by the embryo, the radicle is protruded at
one end of the grain or seed, and the plumule or commencement of the stem
is elongated at the other.
103. Growth in plants is effected, not as in animals by the expansion of
all the parts of the embryo, but by additions to it. Thus roots and stems
lengthen by matter added to their extremities, and are thickened by layers
of matter deposited on their surface, in the case of exogenous plants ; and in
the interior of their stems and roots in the case of endogens. In the embryo,
the root first begins to move by the extension of all its parts, but imme-
diately after it is protruded into the soil, and the young stem is elevated
into the air, the root ceases to increase by the general distension of its tissue,
and grows by the addition of new matter to its point. Hence the extreme
delicacy of the points of young roots, which, like all the newly formed parts
of vegetable matter, are extremely hygrometrical, absorbing water like a
sponge, and hence are called spongelets or spongioles. Roots, from their
organic structure, are not permeable by water throughout their whole
length, and it is only by means of the spongioles at the extremities of the
small fibres that they absorb nourishment. In general, the buds of plants
have a power of producing roots from their base, in a manner analogous to
seeds ; but much greater care is required on the part of the cultivator to
bring about this process, and with many plants it will not succeed. In
some, it may be effected by taking off a mature bud, and placing it in the
soil, like a seed; but in most plants, it is requisite to preserve a portion of
the stem along with the bud, as in striking vines by buds ; in others it is re-
quisite to have a plate of the bark, with or without a portion of the soft
wood, as in propagating by budding on the living plant ; and in some a leaf
or leaves are requisite. Roots are also protruded from all parts of the stems
of some plants, as of most kinds of Willow ; and from the joints immedi-
ately under the buds of most plants. On this last property depends the art
of propagating plants by cuttings, inserted in the soil. In some plants cuttings
of the matured wood without leaves will emit roots ; but in many others, and
indeed in most plants, roots are most freely produced from cuttings of unripe
or partially ripened wood, with the leaves on, and in a growing state. And
even hi those cases in which roots are produced from cuttings having no
leaves, if leaves are not speedily produced, the roots will decay, and the
cuttings will die. In short, the connexion between leaves and roots is as
intimate in cuttings, whether of stems, branches, or tubers, as it is between
the radicle and the plumule of the seed. A portion of the tuber of a Dahlia,
which has no bud, will produce roots, and we have known those to live and the
tuber to remain fresh for upwards of a year without leaves having been pro-
truded ; ultimately, however, the roots decayed, and the tubers soon after-
wards rotted. Though roots are most active, and most essential to the
progress of the plant hi the growing season, yet they continue to perform
their office even in the winter season, unless the soil which contains them
should be frozen. In this case they are much injured, and the spongioles are
ruptured and destroyed ; but when the growing season returns, new spongioles
are formed, commonly branching out from the fibres in a greater number
than before. This result is sometimes produced by overpowerful liquid
manures poured on the roots of plants, which destroy the spongioles, and
cause the fibres to throw out a greater number. As plants absorb their food
chiefly, and almost entirely, by their roots, and as it has been proved that in
general the spongioles have no power of selection, it follows that plants may
FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS. 27
he poisoned in the same manner as they are nourished ; and hence it has
been found that solutions of opium, mercury, arsenic, and even common
salt, presented to the roots of plants, will destroy their vital powers. In
general the roots of plants are not furnished with buds, and hence roots
cannot be used in propagation in the same manner as branches ; nevertheless,
there are numerous exceptions, and some extensive orders of plants, such
as the Rosaceae, Campanulaceae, Cruciferse, and some of the AmentacecR,
have roots abounding in adventitious buds, and if these roots are cut into por-
tions, and planted in the soil with the part of the root which was next the
stem uppermost, and their points exposed to the air, or very slightly covered,
they will produce plants. This, however, is never the case with the roots of
annuals or biennials; and hence, in Cruciferae, while the common Sea-kale
produces buds in abundance from the cuttings of the roots, the same thing
never takes place in the common Cabbage. The nature of plants in this
respect is very different ; for while the fasciculated tubercles of the Dah-
lia, if deprived of the plate which produces the buds, have no power of
originating fresh buds, yet the tubers of the common Paeony so treated,
produce them freely.
104. Every plant contains nitrogen in its albumen and gluten, and it has
been found that this elementary principle abounds in a particular manner in
the spongioles of the roots, and in all the newly-formed parts of plants, and
that those seeds germinate the earliest which contain the largest quantity of
nitrogen. Hence the great value of animal manures to plants, all of which
contain nitrogen ; but especially those of carnivorous animals. (Lieb. p. 190.)
105. The stem of plants is not protruded so early as the root ; but as soon
as the latter is in a state of action, and has penetrated a few inches into the
soil, the seed-leaves appear above the surface, and from the centre of these
is originated the stem. Both the roots and stems of plants, when first
originated from seed, are perpendicular to the earth's surface, or in other
words, they extend in the direction of radii from the earth's centre. The
root, which penetrates downwards, always avoids light, and the stem, which
rises upwards, as constantly seeks the light, and avoids darkness. There
are some apparent exceptions to this law ; as, for example, in the Mistletoe,
the seeds of which, when deposited on the underside of a branch, send their
radicles upwards, and their stem downwards ; and this may perhaps also be
said of some orchideous epiphytes ; but in general, few laws are so universal
as that of the ascending and descending axis of a plant being always in the
direction of a radiating line from the centre of the earth.
106. The stem at first is a mere point, scarcely so large as to be recognised
as a bud ; but as soon as it feels the effect of the nutriment impelled into
it by the growing root, it becomes developed, enlarged, furnished with leaves,
and solidified. From being a small portion of cellular tissue, possessing
neither strength nor tenacity, it becomes by the formation of woody matter,
a slender rod or shoot, sufficiently firm and tough to require an effort to sepa-
rate it from the root ; and, in a short time, it adheres to the latter so firmly
as when drawn up forcibly to pull the entire plant out of the soil.
107. Before the formation of leaves on the stem, it is quite succulent, and
without woody fibre; but as soon as the leaves appear, woody matter is de-
posited in the form of tubes of extreme fineness, which originating in the
leaves, pass downwards through the cellular tissue, and are incorporated with
it, so as to add to its bulk, strength, and flexibility. The first woody matter
28 FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS.
arises from the base of the seed-leaves, and is in general in very small
quantity ; but as soon as the proper leaves appear, the quantity of woody
matter formed is considerable, even during the first growing season.
When this woody matter first penetrates the cellular tissue of the infant
stem, it forms a little circle within its circumference, and thus separates the
interior of the stem into two parts. These parts are the bark or exterior
portion, and the pith or central part ; and between these, at least in all
exogens, there is a third portion which constitutes the wood.
108. Organically, the stem may be said to consist of two parts — the
cellular tissue, which is not, from its nature, capable of increasing by growth
more in one direction than in another, and the woody fibres which are trans-
mitted from the leaves through the stem, and down into the roots. In
speaking of the construction of stems, the cellular tissue, in them, is called
the horizontal system ; and the woody fibres, as they increase longitudinally
by the addition of new fibres or tubes having the same lengthened direction
as themselves, are called the perpendicular system.
109. Wood, in exogenous plants, consists chiefly of the perpendicular sys-
tem, while the pith hi the centre of the stem, and the bark on its circum-
ference, are chiefly formed of the horizontal system. The bark communi-
cates with the pith by the continuation of the cellular tissue through the
woody fibres ; and the cellular tissue seen among these woody fibres in the
section of a tree made smooth by the plane, is called the medullary rays,
from the pith in plants being supposed analogous to the medulla of animals.
Hence the section of the trunk of a tree has been compared to a piece of
cloth ; the horizontal system, or medullary rays, representing the woof,
and the woody system the warp.
' 110. When a stem is injured by the removal of a portion of the bark of
such a depth as to reach the wood, the wound is healed over ; first, by the
cellular matter oozing out of the last formed wood, and granulating on the
surface ; and secondly, by this cellular matter being penetrated by the fibres
of the perpendicular system. Rings of bark are frequently cut from the
stems of trees for the purpose of checking the returning sap, either to cause
the tree to produce blossoms, or for the purpose of inducing the stem or
branch to throw out roots along the upper edge of the part from which the
bark has been taken. The immediate effect of the process is the protrusion
of granulated matter, or cellular tissue, along both sides of the wound, but
especially on the upper side. Now, if the wound be surrounded with a
quantity of moss, tied firmly on, and kept moist, the perpendicular system,
or ligneous fibre, will penetrate through the granulated matter, and become
roots ; while no roots whatever will be protruded from the granulated matter
on the under side of the wound ; thus proving, firstly, the truth of the
.theory of the perpendicular system ; and secondly, that roots, in growing
plants, are formed by the protrusion of woody fibre through cellular matter.
The first process of nature, when a cutting is formed and planted in the soil,
is to protrude cellular matter round the edges of the section of its lower
extremity ; this protruded matter, or callosity, as it is termed by cultivators,
sometimes remains for several months before it undergoes any change ; but
ultimately, if the cutting succeeds, the perpendicular system passes through
it and appears in the form of roots, and the cutting is established as a plant.
If a cutting be planted in the soil in an inverted position, though the
portion in the soil be cut and prepared as in cuttings treated in the usual
FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS. 29
manner, yet in general it will neither produce a callosity nor roots ; though
there are some exceptions, as in the willow tribe, and of these if the cutting is
prepared at both ends, and laid horizontally in the soil, then at both ends
callosities, and ultimately roots, will be formed. Hence a shoot of a willow
inserted in the ground at both ends, being bent for that purpose, so as to
form an arch, will root at both ends ; but this is a result that will happen in
the case of very few plants.
111. The bark consists of two parts; the outer bark, formed entirely of
cellular matter, and resting on the liber or inner bark ; and the inner bark,
which consists partly of woody, and partly of cellular matter. The latter
ultimately becomes wood, and the former ultimately hardens, cracks, and
sometimes falls off. No wound in the outer bark can be healed or filled up,
but the reverse is the case with wounds in the alburnum. The wood in all
exogenous plants of the tree kind is distinguishable into the heart wood, or
that which is mature, and the soft wood or alburnum, which is wood in a
young and growing state. The heart wood is for the most part of a darker
colour than the soft or young wood, which is generally white, till by age its
tubes and vessels become thickened with matter deposited by the sap in its
ascent to the leaves, when it darkens in colour, at least in most trees. When
the sap absorbed by the spongioles enters the solid matter of the plant, it
passes upwards through the alburnum to the leaves, and being elaborated
there, it descends through the liber, communicating horizontally by means
of the medullary rays, with both the old and the young wood. Wherever
it penetrates, it deposits cellular matter, till at last in the old wood the pores
become completely filled up and hardened.
112. The stems of all plants, and especially of exogenous trees, have,
beginning at the centre, pith, old wood, medullary rays, alburnum, liber or
inner bark, and outer bark. The medullary rays connect all the parts of
the section of a stem, or branches, horizontally ; and the ligneous fibres,
which penetrate all the parts excepting the pith, connect them longitudi-
nally, and complete the vegetable structure. In all plants whatever these
parts exist ; but in many herbaceous plants, especially annuals, and others of
short duration, they are not easily defined ; the wood, alburnum, and liber,
often appearing in one homogeneous body ; and the bark and the pith
only being quite distinct. The root stem differs from the stem above
ground in being without pith, without visible buds, and without an outer
bark : or at all events without a bark which cracks and decays, like that of
the stems and branches. There are exceptions in the case of some root
stocks of herbaceous plants, such as those of the Colchicum and the
Crocus ; but nevertheless this holds true in the underground stems or tubers
of the Potato, in the fasciculated tubercles of the Dahlia, and in most other
tuberous-rooted plants.
113. Leaves are formed on the surface of stems at certain distances, and
in a certain order in each species of plant ; and at the base of the petiole of
each leaf, there is a bud either visible or latent ; in either case ready to be
called into action and produce a new stem, shoot, or branch, when the neces-
sary excitement is given. If the leaves are removed from a growing stem as
soon as they appear, no buds are formed in their axils ; or if the germs of
them have existed there, they die for want of the nourishment of the leaf.
Hence, by taking off every leaf as soon as it is protruded from an over
vigorous-growing shoot of the current year, that shoot may be prevented
30 FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS.
from maturing its buds and wood, and consequently deprived of the power of
growing vigorously the following season ; and this is found a better mode
of treating excessively luxuriant trees than cutting off such over- vigorous
shoots, which would only throw more vigour into the heart of the tree.
By taking off the incipient leaves the tree is allowed to exhaust itself of all
its superfluous force. See Beaton in Gard. Mag. 1837, p. 203.
114. In general, buds are rarely found except in the axils of the leaves; but
occasionally they are formed in the spaces of the stem between the leaves, more
or less distant from the base of the leaf, or from the joints whence leaves are pro-
duced. They are also, as we have before observed, sometimes found in roots,
though never visible in them to the naked eye ; and they are also produced
in some cases on leaves, as in Kalanchbe (Bryophyllum) crenata, and in Car-
damine hirsuta. Buds of this kind are said to be dormant or adventitious.
When the bud of any stem has been once matured, if rubbed off, one or
more other buds will arise from its base ; and this will take place though
the operation be repeated an indefinite number of times, provided the plant
be furnished with leaves in some other part of its stem above the point
whence the buds were rubbed off, so that the shoot or stem may be continued
in a growing state. Thus the regular visible buds of vines are frequently
cut entirely out, but still the adventitious buds throw out shoots with such
vigour, other circumstances being favourable, as to produce abundance of
fruit the same season.
115. Buds are of two kinds, leaf-buds and blossom-buds. It is only the
former that can produce shoots, or by which, under ordinary circumstances,
a plant can be propagated directly. But if a blossom-bud be taken off and
inserted in a living plant by the usual operation of budding, though only
blossoms will be produced the first year, yet the dormant leaf-buds will the
second year produce shoots. In practice this does not hold good alike in all
plants, but it is the case with many of the Rosaceae, for example in the
Peach. The nodule is a concretion of embryo buds found in the bark .of
various trees, and especially of the common Elm, the Birch, some of the
Poplars, and the Olive; and by fragments of which these trees may be
propagated.
110. All bulbs are buds, and the scales of which they are composed are
abortive or imperfectly developed leaves ; consequently, as at the base of
every leaf there is a bud, so must there be, at the base of every scale of
a bulb, a bud either regular or adventitious. Hence, by cutting over the
bulb of a common Hyacinth about the eighth of an inch above the plate to
which the scales are attached, a number of buds and young leaves will be
produced from between the bases of the scales, and by these buds the plant
may be increased.
117. The stem of a plant may be considered as the base, receptacle, or
habitation of the leaves and buds ; by means of which they are exposed to the
air and light, without being too much crowded, and are thus enabled to elabo-
rate the sap sent to them by the roots, and to form buds and seeds for the
continuation of their species. The watery matter absorbed by the spongioles
ascends the stem by the soft wood, dissolving in its ascent a part of the starch
or sugar which it finds there, and hence becoming denser as it ascends ; its
specific gravity increasing till it reaches the summit of the stem and branches.
As it ascends it enters the leaves, where it is elaborated in consequence of the
action of light on their upper surface, and it is then returned to the stem by
FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS. 31
the vessels in the under surface of the leaves, whence it descends to the roots,
not however by way of the alburnum, where it would meet with and inter-
rupt the ascending sap ; but by way of the inner bark, communicating hori-
zontally, as we have before observed, with the interior of the stem by means
of the medullary rays. Hence, the great importance of the alburnum and
the inner bark to plants ; the former in conveying sap from the root to the
leaves, and the latter in returning it from the leaves to the stem, branches,
and roots. Hence also we find that trees will live, and even thrive, with the
interior of their trunk entirely rotten, provided the alburnum, the inner
bark, and the leaves, are in a healthy state. The alburnum is constantly
changing into hard wood, and the inner bark as constantly into hard bark or
outer bark. As the heart wood when thoroughly hardened may be removed
without injury to the growth of the tree, so also may the thoroughly hard-
ened outer bark. The hard wood is to the tree what the bones are to an
animal, the chief source of mechanical support ; and the outer bark being a
non-conductor of heat, protects the inner bark and the alburnum from too
great cold, and in hot climates from too much heat, in the same manner as
the outer coverings of animals.
118. Though the sap of plants circulates in general by rising through the
alburnum, and descending through the inner bark, yet such is the effect of
vitality, and the simplicity of their structure, that the sap can be made both
to rise and fall by the alburnum, and to rise and fall also by the inner bark.
Instead of ascending from the roots to the branches, it can be made to enter
by the branches and descend to the roots. To prove the truth of the first of
these assertions, the trunk of a tree has been sawn through in opposite direc-
tions in such a manner that there could not, by any possibility, be direct
linear communication between the portions below and above the wound, and
yet the tree has lived. The wood of the shoot of a willow has been extracted
at the peeling season, and the shoot being supported by a stake, has grown,
and in the course of the first summer filled up the cavity left by the removal
of the wood. That the sap will both ascend and return, not merely by the
alburnum, but by wood of a considerable degree of age and hardness, is
proved, among other instances, by a Lime-tree in the royal gardens at Fon-
tainebleau, which continues to live and produce leaves every
year, though a large portion of the stem has been without
bark for thirty years. Fig. 1 is from a sketch made by
M. Poitcau, a scientific cultivator and physiologist, in
whose company we examined this tree in July, 1840. To
prove that the sap will enter by the branches and descend
to the leaves, take a ligneous plant growing in a pot, and
elevating it on a post between two trees of the same or
of allied kinds, inarch the extremity of a branch of each
tree into the plant in the pot, and in two years cease to
, supply water to the earth in the pot, and at last shake this
Part of the trunk of *A J c , , * ,
a Lime Tree grow- eartn awa^ from the 1>oots> mid leave tne Plant SusPended
ing at Fontaine- between the two trees. We have not seen this done, but
blcau in 1840. we have seen branches which had inosculated with other
branches cut through, and being left attached by the inosculation, live for
several years. Some curious experiments bearing on this subject, by Mr.
Niven of Dublin, will be found in the Gardeners Magazine, 1838, p. 161.
119. The cause of the motion of the sap is a subject which has occasioned
much discussion. The general opinion is, that it is in motion, to a certain
32 FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS.
extent, in winter as well as in summer ; but that an extraordinary absorp-
tion by the roots, and consequent ascent through the alburnum, takes place
with the development of the buds, in consequence of the stimulus of heat in
spring. The swelling of the buds, and the expansion of the leaves, decom-
pose a quantity of sap in the same manner as the swelling of the embryo of
the seed (102); a portion is fixed in the plant, and a portion given off into the
atmosphere ; and to supply the consumption thus occasioned, the office of the
spongioles of the roots is called into extraordinary action, and nature, always
stronger than strong enough, produces a superabundant supply.
120. The leaf of the plant is an organ of so much importance, that there
can be no growth beyond the first development of the seed without it. No
mode of treatment will compensate to a plant for the want of leaves, and the
most vigorous plant that exists may be destroyed in a short time by the
removal of all the leaves as soon as they appear. The important consequences
that result from this fact, are not sufficiently known to many gardeners, and
they require particularly to be impressed on the minds of amateurs. We
have seen in a preceding paragraph how trees may be weakened, and parti-
cular shoots killed, by the removal of leaves. The most powerful weeds, for
example, Perennial Thistles, Docks, Ferns, Rushes, and all similar plants,
may be killed in grass lands on the same principle ; that is, by the removal
of the leaves as soon as they appear, and before they are developed.
121. The normal form of a leaf consists of an expanded part called the
disk, and a narrow prolongation called the petiole (91); but some
leaves are solid and cylindrical, and others are so modified as to appear like
scales ; for example, in bulbs, the bracts in the fruit of the pine-apple,
spines in the common thorn, tendrils hi the vine ; and, consequently, all these
organs or appendages ought to have buds, either visible or adventitious, in
their axils. This is accordingly found to be the case. Shoots have been
produced where the tendrils of a vine have been cut off; and in the fruit of
the pine-apple, every bracteal leaf having a " pip" or flower in its axil, has
produced a sucker. (Cowel.) The disk of the leaf is considered as an ex-
pansion of the inner bark (91) ; its veins are the continuation of the ligneous
fibres of the bark, and its cellular substance of the horizontal system or
cellular tissue of the trunk. The woody tissue which forms the veins of
leaves, as already observed, is arranged in two layers ; one forming the
upper surface of the leaf, by which the sap is elaborated ; and the other, the
under surface, by which the elaborated sap is returned to the inner bark.
The two plates of layers may be readily seen in a leaf which has been ma-
tured, and afterwards anatomised, by the alternate action of water and the
atmosphere. The upper layer has its vessels in communication with the
interior of the stem, while the under layer communicates only with the
inner bark ; the upper one maintains a connexion with the soft wood, in
order to receive the sap from it, while the under one is connected with the
inner bark, in order to return the sap through it to the stem and roots.
122. The two plates of vessels and cellular matter which form the disk of
the leaf, are covered with a thin skin or epidermis. This epidermis, when
the leaf is beginning to expand, abounds with innumerable minute cavities
filled in that early stage with fluid ; but ultimately, when the leaf is fully
grown, these cavities become dry. In plants indigenous to moist and shady
places, the epidermis is thin; but in those growing naturally in hot, dry, ex-
posed situations, it is very hard and thick. It varies, indeed, not only with
FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS. 33
the natural habitations of plants, but with their natures. In all, whether
thick or thin, it is pierced with numerous pores, called stomata, which can-
not be seen with the naked eye, but through which the leaf inhales and
exhales gases, and perhaps watery matters. The stomata are generally
largest and most abundant in aquatic or marsh plants, or plants adapted by
nature for shady places, and which can procure at all times an ample supply
of liquid food ; and they are, on the contrary, fewest and least active, in
warm, open, airy situations, where liquid food is less abundant. Thus it
appears that the structure of a leaf being adapted to the particular situation
in which the plant naturally grows, it may serve to indicate what sort of
culture may be most suitable for plants of which we have previously known
but little. It is evident, however, that this criterion must be of rather
difficult application in practice, excepting by gardeners who are scientific
botanists, and have been in the habit of using powerful microscopes.
123. There are some plants which produce no leaves, or in which the
leaves are so small, and drop off so soon after they are formed as to leave
no traces of them on the bark. Instances of this kind are found in the
genera Cactus, Epiphyllum, Opuntia, Stapelia, and even, but in a much
less degree, in some species of Asparagus, Spartium, and Ge'nista. In
all such cases, the functions that are in other plants, performed by the
leaves, are performed in these plants by the bark. The functions of the
leaves, and of the green parts of the bark, and of the plant in general,
are to absorb carbonic acid, and with the aid of light and moisture, to appro-
priate its carbon. Carbonic acid may enter the plant by the roots, by the
leaf^ and by the green parts of its bark. When either of these parts is
exposed to the action of the sun, the carbonic acid is decomposed, oxygen is
given off, and the carbon is fixed in the leaf or bark. The escape of the
oxygen may be proved by immersing a leaf in water, and exposing it to the
sun. If a leaf be immersed in water in the shade, little or no air will be
given off, and that little will be found to be carbonic acid gas. Plants, it has
been found, decompose carbonic acid during the action of solar light on the
leaves during the day, and form it again in the shade and during night ;
and hence, in a healthy plant, the decomposition of carbonic acid and the
liberation of oxygen during the da}', and the absorption of oxygen and the
liberation of carbonic acid gas during the night, are perpetually going on
while the plant has leaves, or is in a growing state. The healthiness of a plant,
other circumstances being alike, is in proportion to the quantity of carbonic
acid decomposed during the day, and this will depend on the quantity of
light it receives during the same period. Plants which naturally grow in
shady situations form exceptions to this general principle ; probably, because
the powerful action of the sun on their leaves would cause them to perspire
water in too great abundance.
124. In conclusion, it may be observed, that all the matters assimilated
by plants, whether of a general kind, such as carbon, or of a specific nature,
such as acids and alkalies, resins, oils, &c., are effected by the action of
light on the leaves ; and hence, as we have said before (9), the treatment
of the leaves of plants is of far greater importance than the treatment of any
other part whatever.
125. The action of the leaf generally ceases when the part of the stem to
which it is attached is matured, or when the fruit which is nearest to it is
ripened. At that period the leaf commonly changes colour, ceases to decom-
34 FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS.
pose carbonic acid, and yielding to the chemical influence of the oxygen of
the atmosphere, it dies and drops off. Those leaves are called deciduous
(09), which fall off in the autumn after the maturation of the shoots of the
current year ; those are called persistent (68), which remain on in a withered
state till the following spring; and those evergreen (66), which remain
attached and green till the following summer, or later. Some of these
evergreen leaves, as for example in certain species of Coniferse, remain on
for several years.
126. The flowers of plants generally consist of the following parts : —
1st, The floral envelopes consisting of the calyx or exterior covering, which
is generally green ; and the corolla or interior covering, which is commonly
of some other colour than green ; 2d, The organs of reproduction, comprising
the stamens and pistil ; and 3d, The germen or rudiment of the fruit and
seed. In general, the calyx and the corolla are present in every flower, and
also both sexes are contained in the same flower. But there are numerous
exceptions ; some flowers having a calyx without a corolla, as in Atragene ;
others having the calyx coloured, so as to resemble a corolla, as in Fuchsia
and many bulbs; many being without any floral envelopes, as hi the Wil-
low ; and the sexes being, in many cases, on different plants, as in Maclura
and Salisburm, Populus and £alix. No flower in a natural state, how-
ever, is to be found in which there is not present one or other of the sexes,
excepting double flowers, which are monstrosities, and those of some hybrids,
which are anomalies.
127. The floral envelopes may be considered as making the nearest ap-
proach to common leaves ; and in many plants, particularly such as are in
a high state of cultivation, they assume the appearance of leaves ; as, for
example, in some varieties of Rose. In many plants the sexes are also
changed into leaves, and this is the mode in which most double flowers are
produced. Occasionally both the floral envelopes and the sexes are turned
into leaves, as is found occasionally in wet seasons in the flowers of the
common Parsley. In the earlier stages of the progress of gardening in
Britain, when few plants were introduced from foreign countries, the great
object of the curious cultivator was to produce double flowers, and other
monstrosities ; and hence we have double-flowered varieties of most of the
ornamental herbaceous plants that have been long in cultivation, and even of
some trees and shrubs, such as the double-blossomed cherry, double- blos-
somed hawthorn, double-blossomed peach, &c.
128. The art of causing plants to produce flowers sooner than they would
do naturally, is one of great importance to the cultivator. The principle on
which it is founded seems to be that of causing a greater accumulation of
nutritive matter in the particular part of the plant intended to produce
flowers than is natural to that part ; or in the case of annual plants, to con-
centrate the nutritive matter of the entire plant, by growing it in a dryer
soil than that which is natural to it. Hence by ringing any particular branch
of a tree, blossom-buds will be formed on the part of the branch above the
ring, while shoots more watery than usual will be formed below it. Hence,
also, by grafting a shoot from a seedling tree on the extremities of the
branches of a full-grown tree of the same species, blossoms will be produced
some years sooner than would have been the case had the branch remained
on its parent plant. In this way new kinds of fruit, raised from seed, may
be proved much sooner than if the seedling plants were left a sufficient
FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS. 35
number of years to produce blossoms. Sometimes blossoms are produced,
which from defect, or want of vigour, prove abortive ; and when this is the
case, by removing from the plant all the blossom-buds before they expand,
for one or more years in succession, more vigorous blossoms will be pro-
duced, and the production of fruit ensured. This is the reason why on fruit
trees, a defective crop is generally succeeded by an abundant one, and the
contrary ; and why double-blossomed trees or herbs, which yield no fruit,
produce abundance of blossoms every year.
129. The sexes consist of the stamens and pistils, of each of which there
are one or several, and often a great many in every flower. The use of the
stamens is to fertilise the rudimentary seeds which are contained in the
germen, or lower part of the pistillum. Fertilisation is effected by the pollen
of the anther applied to the stigma on the summit of the pistillum, hi conse-
quence of which an embryo plant, or ovulum (100), is generated in the
ovarium. In general the pistil of every flower is fertilised by pollen from the
stamens of the same flower ; but it occasionally happens in nature by the
action of bees or other insects, and in gardens by the instrumentality of man,
that the stigma of the flower of one species is fertilised by the pollen of the
flower of another species. The conditions of success are, for the most part,
that the two species should, at least, belong to the same genus, and in this
case the produce is said to be a hybrid. When it is effected by two varieties
of the same species, the plants produced are said to be crossbreds. The
latter generally produce fertile seed, but the former only sometimes.
130. The fruit succeeds to the flower, the germen or base of the pistillum
growing and increasing in size, after the floral envelopes and the stamens
have decayed and dropped off. In some cases, the calyx is retained till the
fruit is ripe, (but without increasing hi size,) when the fruit is said to be
inferior ; as in the Apple, where the remains of the calyx form what is called
the eye, in the upper part of the fruit : whereas in the Peach, and all supe-
rior fruits, only the upper part of the pistillum is seen in that position. The
superior fruit adheres to the shoot on which it grows by the base of the
pistillum alone, while the inferior fruit adheres to it by the base of the entire
flower. For this reason inferior fruits are supposed to be less likely to drop
off in consequence of frost during the blossoming season, or other adverse
causes, than superior fruits ; and hence, other circumstances being the same,
a crop of Apples, of Pears, Quinces, Haws, Hips, Medlars, Currants, Goose-
berries, Melons, and Cucumbers, ought to be more certain than a crop of
Strawberries, Raspberries, Peaches, Plums, Apricots, Cherries, Grapes, or
Figs.
131. So long as the fruit is green, it possesses to a certain extent the phy-
siological action of a leaf, and decomposes carbonic acid under the influence of
light ; but as soon as it begins to ripen, this action ceases, and the fruit is
wholly nourished by the sap elaborated by the leaves. Thus the fruit has,
in common vrith the leaves, the power of elaborating sap, and also the power
of attracting sap from the surrounding parts. Hence we see that where a
number of fruits are growing together, one or more of them attract the sap
or nutriment from all the rest, which in consequence drop off. As the food
of the fruit is prepared by the leaves under the influence of solar light, it
follows that the excellence of the fruit will depend chiefly on the excellence
of the leaves ; and that if the latter are not sufficiently developed, or not duly
exposed to the action of the sun's rays, or placed at too great a distance from
D2
36 FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS.
the fruit, the latter will be diminutive iu size, and imperfectly ripened, or may
drop off before attaining maturity. Hence the inferiority of fruits which
grow on naked branches, or even on branches where there is not a leaf close
to the fruit ; as in the case of a bunch of grapes, where the leaf immediately
above it has been cut off, or in that of a gooseberry, where the leaf imme-
diately above it has been eaten by a caterpillar. Hence it is evident that
the secretions formed by the fruit are principally derived from the matter
elaborated in the leaf or leaves next to it, and as the sap of all the leaves is
more or less abundant, according to the supply received from the roots, the
excellence of fruits depends ultimately on the condition of the roots, and the
condition, position, and exposition of the leaves. As a proof that the fruit
has a specific influence on the matter it contains, independently of the influ-
ence of the leaves, we have only to taste the leaf of an apple or a peach,
and compare it with the taste of the fruit. The sweetness of fruits under
ordinary circumstances is increased by warmth and light, and acidity is
increased by the opposite qualities. An abundant supply of water to plants
ripening their fruits, diminishes the intensity both of sweetness and acidity,
as well as of all other secretions ; and hence the advantage of withdrawing
water from plants in forcing -houses, or from fruit-bearing plants generally,
at the ripening season.
132. The grand object of nature in producing fruit is to nourish the seed,
and there appears to be no other intention with most fruits in a wild state ;
but the art of man has, by enlarging and improving fruits by culture, ren-
dered them in a superior degree suitable for his nourishment, without in
general rendering them less fit for the nourishment of the seed. As, how-
ever, in a wild state, the seeds of pulpy fruits must necessarily germinate in
the decayed mass of pulp after the fruit is dropped and rotted on the surface
of the ground, so in a state of high culture it has been recommended to
bury the whole of the fruit, as of a peach for example, with the seed, when
a young plant is intended to be produced. (Beaton.) As the fruit attracts
its food from the stem through the fruit-stalk, so the seed attracts its nourish-
ment from the interior part of the fruit ; and hence in all covered seeds, or
what are commonly called fruits, the seed never can be separated from its
envelope, without being destroyed, till it is perfectly ripe. Seeds in a
young state are found to be of a mucilaginous consistency, like gum ; but
as they ripen, more carbon is deposited, and the gummy mucilaginous sub-
stance assumes the condition of flour or starch, which ultimately becomes
nearly as hard as wood. This is a wise provision of nature for the preser-
vation of the seed. In the immature or mucilaginous state of the seed, heat
and moisture easily decompose it, and consequently unripe seeds do not keep
well ; though when seeds are sown, it is necessary, before they germinate,
that their solid part should be again decomposed and made soluble. Hence
well -ripened seeds are so much more easily preserved than those which are
imperfectly ripened ; and hence also the reason why unripe seeds, provided
only their embryo be perfected, will germinate more quickly than ripe seeds;
the starch of the ripe seed having to be again reduced to mucilage, before it
can become soluble food. (Lymburn.} All seeds, when ripe, are dry and firm,
and they retain their vitality a greater or lesser length of time according to
their natures. In general oily seeds are the most perishable, and starchy seeds
the most tenacious of life. There are, however, exceptions in the case of
oily seeds, as in the common Cabbage, the seeds of which will retain their
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OP PLANTS. 37
vitality for ten or twelve years. Melon and Cucumber seeds, which are
mucilaginous, may be kept for thirty or forty years; Kidney Beans for nearly
a century ; but not Scarlet Runners, which will not keep above two years ;
a remarkable circumstance, since the two species are so nearly allied as to
be considered by some to be only varieties. The seeds of many Leguminosse,
and particularly those of warm climates, where their carbon is concentrated
to the hardness even of wood, as in the Australian Acacias, wrill keep an
unknown period ; as a proof of which, all France continues to be supplied
with seeds of the common Sensitive Plant from a bag which was sent to
Paris, we believe, above sixty years ago. In general the younger and
more vigorous the seed, the stronger will be the plant produced, and
the contrary. Hence when it is wished to have plants of a vigorous-
growing species, of more concentrated growth than usual, seeds weaker
from being smaller and less abundantly nourished, or from being dried
by long keeping, are . chosen ; and when very vigorous plants are desired,
the largest and freshest seeds are selected. Thus in the case of plants pro-
ducing their flowers in corymbs, the seed is chosen from the summit of the
corymb, as the first flowers open there, which, as well as the seeds which
follow them, are always the largest. In general the first-formed flowers of
all plants are the strongest, and the seeds produced by them the largest and
most vigorous of growth.
133. In this section there is necessarily some repetitions of facts stated in
preceding parts of this chapter ; but it became necessary to do so in order to
connect the process of development with structure. The reader who is de-
sirous of studying the subject more in detail is recommended to consult
Lindley's Principles of Horticulture, and Lymburn, Beaton, and Niven, in
the Gardener s Magazine ; from which source, and our own observation and
experience, this section has been chiefly compiled.
SECT. VI. — The Geographical Distribution of Plants^ and their stations and
habitations., with reference to their Culture in Gardens.
134. By the geography of a plant is to be understood the latitude and
longitude in which it abounds in a wild state ; by its station or " habitat,"
the particular soil or situation in which it is found ; and by its habitation,
the particular range of country to which it is limited. In a general view,
the vegetation of the globe is distributed over its surface, varied according
to its latitude, its inequalities of elevation, and its differences in regard to
soils and moisture. The subject is of great importance to gardeners, because
the culture of all plants must necessarily be more or less founded on a know-
ledge of the climate and station in which they are found wild. In the
natural distribution of plants on the earth's surface, the different species
are found only in particular situations, which they prefer to others. Some
prefer exposure to the full influence of the light and air ; others the shade
of rocks or of trees ; some grow on mountains, some in plains, some in bogs
or marshes, some on the banks of rivers ; some in the running water of
rivers, others in the still water of lakes ; some in salt marshes, and others
in the sea. Each of these different localities, in any one country, is charac-
terised by a difference in physical circumstances ; such as more or less
elevation above the level of the sea ; a greater or less exposure to light ; a
soil more or less compact in texture ; abounding more or less in water ; or
composed of particular earths. All this is independent of temperature,
38 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.
which varies with the latitude and the elevation in which plants grow, and
considerably also with the nature of the soil, its condition with respect to
water, and its exposure and shelter. The degree of temperature required by
different plants varies exceedingly — from that of the cold regions of the
frigid zone, through the temperate regions of both hemispheres, to the torrid
zone. For the culture of the first description of plants, a shady situation,
and a soil kept constantly moist, in order that it may be kept continually
cool by evaporation, constitutes the artificial or garden station ; while to pro-
duce a garden station for plants of the warmer regions the various kinds of
artificial climates produced in plant houses are necessary. Hence the great
importance to cultivators of a knowledge of the natural stations of the plants
they cultivate, as well as of the structure and functions of plants generally.
It will, therefore, be useful to notice briefly the external circumstances
which influence the natural distribution of plants ; and these may be reduced
to temperature, light, water, soil, and the atmosphere.
135. Temperature has by far the most important influence on the distri-
bution of plants ; because it would appear, that each species is so constituted
as to thrive only within certain limits of heat and cold, and that any excess
beyond these limits is injurious to it. Hence the geographical boundary of
any species is restricted by the extremes of temperature which the plant
will bear, and yet bring its seeds to maturity.
136. The temperature of any place depends principally upon its latitude,
and its elevation above the sea. From the poles to the equator, the temper-
ature gradually increases ; and measuring from the level of the sea into the air,
the heat gradually decreases, till we arrive at a point, which is to be found
on the mountains of all countries, where water exists only in a state of ice
or snow. Hence, in forming an estimate of the temperature of any place,
the latitude of that place, and its elevation above the sea, are to be jointly
considered. From actual experiment, in the neighbourhood of London, by
Green the aeronaut, it has been found that when the air was 74° at the
surface of the earth, at an elevation of about 3000 feet, it was 70° ; at
10,000 feet, 69°; and at 11,293 feet, 38°. The difference in time between
making the first observation and the last was about 27'. According to De
Candolle, heat decreases in France at the rate of one degree of latitude for
every 540 feet of altitude ; so that the temperature of a place 3240 feet
above the level of the sea in 45° N. lat. equals that of a place in about 51ft
N. lat. on a level with the sea. In the middle of the temperate zone,
Humboldt found that the mean heat of the year diminished at the rate of
2° N. lat. for every 600 feet of altitude. From the powerful influence on
temperature produced by elevation, arises the great variety of plants which
are found between the base of a mountain and its summit ; though there are
a vast number of plants in all countries that will grow indifferently on
plains and on mountains as high up as plants will vegetate. There are
a few plants, however, that have their range of elevation and of latitude
comparatively limited ; as, for example, the Sweet Chestnut, the Olive, the
Mulberry, and the Fig.
137. According to Humboldt, the geographical parallels of latitude do not
indicate corresponding degrees of heat either in the old and new world, or in
the northern and southern hemispheres. In the former, heat diminishes
more rapidly as we recede from the equator ; and in the latter beyond the
parallel of 34°, corresponding latitudes indicate a greater degree of cold in
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.
39
summer, but of warmth in winter. Hence, Humboldt arrives at this con-
clusion : " That the lines of equal mean heat, which may be called isothermal,
are not parallel with the equator, but intersect the geographical parallels at
a variable angle." The mean annual heat of the same latitudes, in the new
and old worlds, are shown in the following table : —
Latitude.
Mean heat of the Year in the
Old World. New World.
Difference.
0°
80°
80o
GO
20
77
77
0
30
70
67
3
40
63
54
9
50
50
38
12
60
40
24
16
Thus it is found that the old world is warmer than the new, and that the
heat of America does not decrease from Florida to the Gulf of St. Lawrence
iu the same ratio that it does in Europe from Egypt to Scandinavia. In
general, the summer temperature of North America, as far as 40° N. lat.,
is about 4° higher than in Europe, under the same isothermal parallel ;
which accounts for Magnolias, Rhododendrons, Anonas, and other trees
extending so far to the north as latitude 36°, where the summer heat scarcely
differs from the mean annual heat of the equator.
138. A certain degree of difference is sometimes found in the vegetation
of a country according to its longitude ; but as this is occasioned almost
entirely by the nature of the face of the country, or its situation relatively
to the ocean, longitude by itself cannot be considered as having any influence
whatever either upon temperature or vegetation.
139. The mean heat of any situation does not enable us to judge of what
particular species of plants will live there ; for the mean temperature found
may be deduced from such extremes of heat and cold as would suit but few
plants, as in the case of certain northern regions ; or it may be made up
from moderate limits in which many plants will live ; as, for example, from
the summers and winters of Ireland, or of the sea-coast of the middle of
Europe. Thus the constitution of a plant which may be very well suited
to the mean temperature of a place, may not be adapted to its extreme dif-
ferences. Hence many plants which will live in the open air at Belfast,
would perish in the winters of Edinburgh ; and many which would live there,
owing to the dryness of the air, and the moderate degree of cold from the prox-
imity of the sea, would perish in Yorkshire, where the air is not only more
highly charged with moisture, but much colder. Hence the mean annual
temperature of any place is of much less consequence with respect to the
stations of plants, than the mean monthly temperature, and the extremes of
each month. In general, " the western parts of continents are more nearly
equable in their temperature throughout the year than the eastern, and the
southern hemisphere than the northern ; and evergreens are found to affect
the former, and deciduous trees the latter description of climate." (Henslow.)
In all those parts of the world where the sea never freezes, the temperature
is higher, and much more equable than the temperature of inland situations
in the same degree of latitude ; and hence plants which mature their fruit
or ripen their wood at Edinburgh in the open air, require protection at
40 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OP PLANTS.
Warsaw and Moscow, though these cities are nearly in the same parallel
of latitude as Edinburgh.
140. Among the physical circumstances which affect the distribution of
plants, the temperature of water merits notice. In many parts of the northern
regions, water exists during great part of the year in the form of ice ; and
hence, as it cannot be imbibed in that state by the roots, no plants can live
in such regions, excepting those lowest in the scale, such as lichens, &c. ; or
such annuals as flower and ripen their seeds during the summer of those
regions, though it does not extend longer than two or three months. Hence
barley and other corns can be ripened in the north of Sweden and Russia,
where no perennial or ligneous plants, equally tender, could live throughout
the year. In countries which are early in autumn covered with snow, many
herbaceous plants will live through the winter that could not exist without
this covering, which serves as an excellent non-conductor of heat. The
bark of trees is also a bad conductor ; and as the roots of trees penetrate
much deeper into the soil than frost, and as a slow circulation is carried on
in their trunks and branches throughout the whole winter, the sap they
contain is prevented from being frozen by the heat they obtain from the
subsoil. " The internal parts of large trees retain a temperature which is
about equal to that of the subsoil at one-half the depth of their roots."
(Henslow.) Whenever the sap in the vessels of a plant freezes, they become
ruptured and the plant dies ; and were it not for the supply of heat obtained
from the subsoil by the trees, and the protection of herbaceous plants by the
covering of snow, there could be neither trees nor perennial herbs in the
more northern regions of our hemisphere.
141. Supposing the temperature of the subsoil and of the trees growing
on the surface to be the same, then in high latitudes that temperature will be
higher than the atmosphere during winter ; and in low latitudes where the
atmosphere is of a high temperature, that of the trees will be lower during
summer ; for the bark, which by its non-conducting properties retains heat in
high latitudes, excludes it in low latitudes from penetrating into the wood of
the tree. Von Buch found that the temperature of the subsoil is principally
affected by the infiltration into it of the surface waters ; and hence, in the
frigid zones where the surface is in a state of ice or snow during winter, no
infiltration can take place ; and thus the mean heat of the subsoil in high
latitudes will be higher than the mean heat of the atmosphere. In those
latitudes, however, where the surface water seldom freezes, the infiltration
will continue during great part of the winter, and will reduce the mean
temperature of the subsoil below the mean temperature of the atmosphere.
In those countries in low latitudes where rain falls during the coolest
season of the year, the subsoil will be more cooled than in those places where
it falls both in hot and cold weather. " Hence the mean temperature of
springs throughout the central and northern parts of Europe, as far as Edin-
burgh, are much the same as the mean temperature of the air ; whilst from
the south of Europe to the tropic of Cancer, the difference is gradually in-
creasing in favour of the atmosphere ; but from the latitude of Edinburgh
northwards, the difference increases in favour of the subsoil. The conse-
quence is, that certain plants which naturally belong to the more temperate
parts of our zone, are enabled to extend themselves further north and south
than they could do if the mean temperature of the soil and air were every-
where the same." (Henslow.)
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS. 41
142. The temperature of the natural stations of plants is always such as
to enable the species to continue itself by seeds ; but as, in a state of culture,
plants can be propagated by various modes which do not require the pro-
duction of either flowers or fruits, it follows that in any given natural
station a great many plants may be cultivated by art, which could not
exist there in a state of nature ; and which, if introduced by art, and not
continued by the same power, would perish with the life of the individual.
Hence the immense number of species, from all parts of the globe, which
will grow in the open air in Great Britain, and which, if the island were to
relapse into a state of barbarism, would for the most part disappear. Hence,
also, by the artificial climates of our plant structures, we can grow and
propagate all the plants of the world, though there are many that for want
of space cannot attain their natural magnitude in such structures. The
mere fact, however, of our being able to grow tropical plants in air arti-
ficially heated, shows that temperature has a greater influence on vegetation
than any other element of growth.
143. The influence of light on the distribution of plants is very consider-
able. As heat and moisture are the chief agents in calling the vegetable
germ into existence, so, the plant once developed, light is the grand sti-
mulator of vitality ; causing, by its influence on buds and leaves, the ab-
sorption of the sap by the roots, and the exhalation of water and decompo-
sition of carbonic acid by the leaves. It is probable, as Professor Henslow
conjectures, that each species requires a different degree of light as well as
of heat ; and though no general laws have yet been discovered on this sub-
ject, we find that succulent, resinous, or oily plants, and all plants with
needle leaves, prefer situations where they can obtain much light ; while
almost all evergreens, except such as are needle-leaved, prefer situations
somewhat shaded. As the density of air is diminished as we ascend in
the atmosphere, so the intensity of light is increased ; and it has been sup-
posed that as high elevations correspond with high latitudes in regard to
heat, they ought to correspond also in regard to light ; though this has not,
as far as we know, been determined by facts. But it is clear, from what
has been stated, that in any given latitude the plants which grow on plains
receive less light than those on mountains ; and that the two extremes, in
any country, are the sea- shore and the line of perpetual snow. The mean
distribution of light is unquestionably much more equable in all latitudes
than the mean distribution of temperature ; but the extremes, in its mode
of distribution, are remarkably different. Plants in the northern regions
generally are covered with snow more than half the year ; and those which
reach above the snow, such as the trees, have perpetual sunshine for
several weeks together during summer, and the absence of the sun for a
similar period during winter. In all countries where snow falls, and rests
on the country for some weeks or months, the mean degree of light received
by herbaceous plants, such as the pasture grasses, must be considerably dif-
ferent from the mean light received by the same species hi climates where
snow is unknown ; but as in all cases in which light is so entirely excluded
from plants in a natural state, vegetation is dormant, or nearly so, plants
escape uninjured. From these facts, some valuable deductions may be
drawn as to the light which plants require, or may dispense with, in a state
of culture.
144. The influence of water, whether in the soil or in the atmosphere, on
42 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.
the distribution of plants, if not so great as that of temperature, is in some
cases more striking. In general, plants are as differently constituted in re-
spect to water as they are in regard to temperature. The quantity of water
absolutely necessary for the nourishment of a plant varies according to its
tissue. Plants with large and soft leaves, with little or no pubescence, with
many pores or stomata, and with the texture of the entire plant loose and
spongy, require most water ; and accordingly this is the description of plants
which is found hi marshes, and in lakes or rivers. Plants having their
general texture firm and succulent, clothed with pubescence, and having few
stomata, grow in dry warm stations. Trees and herbaceous plants, with
roots which penetrate into the soil, require least water on the surface, and
best resist extreme drought ; and next to these, those that have succulent
leaves and few stomata, because they evaporate but little moisture from
their surface. Some plants live entirely on water, floating on its surface ;
and others immersed in it, and attached to the soil at the bottom of the lake
or river : in some, as in river -plants, the water is constantly in a state of
motion ; while in lake-plants it is always at rest, except on the surface. In
general, all aquatic and marsh plants require the water to be pure ; but in
salt marshes, salt steppes, and on the sea-shore, it is strongly impregnated
with sea-salt or soda, in which only a small number of vegetables will live.
145. The influence of soil on the distribution of plants is universally ac-
knowledged ; though the difference in the selection of soils by plants depends
much more on the condition of that soil with respect to water, than on its
chemical properties. By soil, is to be understood that upper coating of the
earth's surface, composed of earths or the rust of rocks, and organic matters;
and the capacity of this coating for water will depend on the elevation or de-
pression of its surface, on its texture, and on the nature and texture of the sub-
soil. The relative proportions of the primitive earths do not appear to have
much influence on the (distribution of plants; but when a soil has any decided
character, such as when it consists almost wholly of sand, of chalk, or of
clay, the influence is considerable. In general, the greatest number of species
are commonly found on soils having a loose sandy surface ; because their
seeds being blown there, or otherwise conveyed, from the plants on ad-
joining soils, readily take root ; whereas on chalky and clayey soils, from
their greater hardness, and also from their surface being generally more
clothed, the seeds which fall on them do not so readily vegetate. Many of
the plants which spring up in sandy districts perish for want of moisture,
or are blown out by the winds ; but they are nevertheless continually re-
newed by the seeds furnished from adjoining surfaces. Those which are
indigenous to gravelly soils, much exposed, are chiefly low, compact, or trail-
ing plants, which offer but a small surface for the wind to act on, or such
as have deeply-penetrating roots. Chalky and clayey soils, on the other hand,
from their firm, compact texture, are adapted only to such species as have
small fibrous roots, and which do not require any great depth of soil.
146. A few plants appear to prefer the soils formed by particular rocks,
such as limestone, chalk, granite, and slate; yet the same plants which
prevail on these rocks are frequently found abounding in districts of a
totally different geological character. Thus according to De Candolle,
although the box in France is very common on calcareous surfaces, it is
found in equal abundance on such as are schistous or granitic. The sweet
chestnut grows equally well in limestone soils and clays, in the volcanic
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS. 43
ashes of Mtna,, and in the sand of Calabria. The plants of Aira, a calca-
reous mountain, grow equally well on the argillaceous rocks of the Vosges,
or the granitic Alps. But though the kinds of earths in which plants
grow naturally, seem of no great importance, yet the presence of metallic
oxides and salts, such as sulphate of iron or copper, or sulphur alone, or
alum, or other similar substances hi a state to be soluble hi water, are found
to be injurious to all plants, of which the maremmes of Tuscany, and some
parts of Derbyshire, are examples. As a general result of the facts which
have been collected relative to the influence of soil on the distribution of
plants, it may be stated that the chemistry and the geology of soils have
much less influence on plants than their temperature, moisture, and texture;
and that it is often a very bad method of culture to imitate exactly the soil
in which a plant is found growing.
147. The influence of the atmosphere, considered with reference to its
chemical composition, and the gaseous matters which may be suspended hi
it, or its motion as wind on the distribution of plants, is not supposed to be
great ; or at all events, that influence is not yet so far understood as to be
reduced to any general law. Its difference of density at different elevations,
produces, as we have seen, a corresponding increase in the intensity of light,
and it is also found that humidity decreases as we ascend. This last result
must be attended with some effects on plants ; but as the ratio of the de-
crease of humidity has not been determined, its effects, separated from those
of temperature and light, are not sufficiently understood. De Candolle
remarks, that the rarification of the atmosphere by elevation may diminish
the quantity of oxygen for absorption by the leaves, and may at the same
time facilitate evaporation; but the precise result of these conditions is
unknown.
148. The following are the principal stations of plants which require to
be known by the cultivator, and all of which he can imitate by art.
1. Marine plants, which grow in or on the surface of the sea, and which,
though practicable, it has rarely been attempted to cultivate by art.
2. Maritime districts, as the sea-shore, where the soil is more or less
impregnated with salt, which must be absorbed by the roots of plants, while
those parts which are above gronnd must be affected by the spray and sea-
breezes. Some are absolute sea-shore plants, such as salicornia, but others
grow equally well on the sea-shore and in inland situations, as the Eryngium
campestre and the common Thrift.
3. Saline steppes, where the soil is impregnated with salt, but where the
foliage is not influenced by a saline atmosphere.
4. Aquatic plants, or such as grow in fresh-water rivers and lakes, either
immersed and rooted in the soil forming the bottom on which the water
rests, or floating on the surface and sending down roots so as to touch the
soil ; in some eases scarcely doing so, as in Lemna. This kind of habitation
is imitated by artificial ponds or currents, or by basins in which the surface
of the water is kept in motion by jets or fountains.
5. Marshes, bogs, and fens, easily imitated by suitable soil kept constantly
saturated with water.
6. Meadows and pastures, the plants inhabiting which may generally be
cultivated in common soils and situations.
7. Cultivated lands, of which the same may be said.
8. Rocks, which are chiefly the habitations of cryptogamic plants, and
44 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.
which, in artificial culture, require the rock or stones for some species to be
kept dry, and in others to be kept moist by artificial springs of water.
9. Sandy soils, in inland situations, dry or moist, which are easily imitated,
and in which a greater or less number of plants will grow according to the
supply of water. Bulbous plants are particularly adapted for such soils,
because they are driest in summer when the bulb is at rest. When dry,
sandy soils are warmer than any others.
10. Forests, copses, and hedges, the plants of which include trees and
shrubs, deciduous or evergreen, and the plants which grow in their shade.
Among these are some few which grow under the constant shade of ever-
green trees, as the Pyrola in Pine-groves, and others which require light in
winter and spring, and are found growing only under deciduous trees, as the
common Scilla nutans and many bulbs, the Cowslip, and various other
plants found under the shelter of hedges. Climbing and twining plants
are commonly found in stations of this description.
11. Mountainous or Alpine regions, the plants of which include such as
grow on mountains of moderate height, which are clothed with vegetation to
their summits, and are consequently subject to greater drought in summer
than in winter ; and those which grow on mountains, the summits of which
are covered with perpetual snow, which, from its melting partially in summer,
keeps the surface -soil of the mountain moister at that season than during
winter. It is evident, however, that much must depend on the soil of the
mountain ; for a peaty or clayey soil will be kept in a state of greater mois-
ture than one which is composed chiefly of sand, and a deep soil will
retain more moisture than a thin stratum on rock. In the culture of moun-
tain plants, therefore, the particular kind of soil in which they are found
naturally, and its condition with regard to moisture, are of much greater
importance than its elevation. In short, it is found that the mountain
plants of the Highlands of Scotland may, with scarcely any exceptions, be
cultivated with success in the botanic gardens of Edinburgh arid Glasgow,
which are on a level with the sea.
12. Subterranean stations are either dark caverns where some species of
acrogens are found, or, as in the case of the truffle, the interior of the soil
itself. The culture of the truffle is still a desideratum in horticulture.
] 3. Living or dead trees or other plants constitute a station. Parasitic
plants, such as the Mistletoe and the Dodder, root into the stems of living
trees, and their dissemination can be effected by art as well as by nature.
Epiphytes or pseudo-parasites grow either upon dead or living vegetables,
but without deriving any nourishment from their vital parts. Of these,
we have in Britain the common Polypody, a fern found on the rough bark
of old trees, especially Oaks in moist climates, as about the lakes of Cumber-
land and Westmoreland ; and on old Pollards in many situations. There
are also numerous mosses, lichens, and fungi, which live on the outer bark of
old trees in temperate regions, and an immense number of Orchidaceae
which have their stations on trees in tropical climates ; and the culture of
which in British stoves has recently called forth an extraordinary degree of
ingenuity among gardeners.
149. To these stations botanists have added some others ; such as the rub-
bish near human dwellings, which is supposed to have an attraction for certain
plants from containing nitrogen ; roadsides, &c. : but with a view to culture,
these and several which have been mentioned, are of no great importance.
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OP PLANTS. 45
Some stations, on the other hand, are absolute ; such as maritime, marine,
aquatic, marsh, subterranean, and parasitic, and cannot be dispensed with in
our attempts at cultivation.
150. " The habitations of plants" is an expression used to denote the
range of country throughout which any particular species is found distri-
buted ; the stations being those soils or situations in that country in which
alone, or chiefly, the plant is found. (134). For example, a plant may
be an inhabitant of mountains, and its station on these mountains may be
a peat -bog. The habitations of plants are much less certain than their
stations ; for the limits in latitude and longitude within which plants occur,
have little relation to those in which, judging from the stations and climate
in which they are found, they might extend themselves. Thus we have
certain species growing in a particular station and temperature in the
northern hemisphere, which are not to be found in stations and temperatures
of exactly the same kind in the southern hemispheres. On the other hand,
there are some species, such as certain grasses, which are found extensively
distributed on both hemispheres ; while some few plants, such as the Stre-
litzia, have their habitations so limited as to be found only in one or two
stations of very confined extent. Plants of this kind are called solitary, while
those which grow in immense masses are said to be social. Those which
have been long in cultivation are said to be domesticated ; but this term is
not applied to such plants as have been introduced into gardens without
undergoing any change in their habits there.
CHAPTER II.
SOILS CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE.
151. IN the last section of the preceding chapter we have seen, that
though plants are less absolute in the choice of soils than of climates, yet
that in the cultivation of plants, soils are much more under our influence
than any other element of culture. The term soil is applied to that thin
stratum on the surface of the ground which is occupied by the roots of the
smaller herbaceous vegetables ; on uncultivated surfaces it varies in depth
with the nature of the soil and the plants growing on it ; but on lands in
cultivation, the soil extends to the depth usually penetrated by the imple-
ments of culture. The principal materials of which soils are composed, are
earths formed of the debris of different kinds of rocks, combined with organic
matter derived from decomposed vegetables or animals. Earths without
organic matter will only support plants of the lowest grade, such as lichens
and mosses; and where soils are found supporting the higher classes of
plants, endogens and exogens, their vigour will generally be found to be
greater or less according to the proportion of organic matter which the soil
contains. This organic matter, when supplied by art, is called manure, and
constitutes the food of plants ; while the soil may be compared to a stomach,
in which that food is digested. The subject of manures will be most conve-
niently treated in our next chapter. Here we shall confine ourselves to the
consideration of soils, and treat, first, of their origin and kinds, and secondly,
of their improvement.
46 ORIGIN AND KINDS OP SOILS.
SECT. I. — Origin and Kinds of Soils.
152. The earthy part of all soils must necessarily have been derived from
the debris of rocks, and the organic part from the intermixture of decayed
vegetable or animal matter. The earthy mass so produced varies in colour,
but, from containing humus and mould, (161) it is always darker in a greater
or less degree than subsoils, which hi general are without organic matter.
Soils also contain mineral salts and metallic oxides, some of which are bene-
ficial, others harmless, and some few injurious, to plants. The chemical
constitution of a soil can only be known by analysis, which cannot, in gene-
ral, be depended on, unless performed by professional or experienced che-
mists * ; the mechanical state or texture of a soil is ascertained by digging
up a portion of it ; and its actual fitness for plants, by examining the species
growing on its surface. The rock or geological formation, the earth of which
forms the basis of any soil, will frequently be found to constitute the substra-
tum on which that soil rests ; but this is frequently not the case, because the
earths of many soils have been held in suspension by water in a state of motion,
and by that means have been transported to a great distance from the rocks of
which they are the debris. From this suspension of the earths of soils in
water, and their transportation to a distance, we are able to account for the
circumstance of several different kinds of earths being almost always found
in the same soil. Thus in alluvial deposits, on the banks of rivers, we find
the earth of various rocks of the country through which the river has taken
its course ; and as such soils are always the most fertile, we may conclude
that a mixture of various earths in a soil is to be preferred to any one kind
of earth alone. From the earth of the alluvial deposits of every country
being formed of the debris of the various rocks of that country, and from
every country containing nearly the same kinds of rocks, hence the alluvial
deposits on the banks of all the larger rivers of the world consist nearly of
the same earths. But as the rocks or geological formations from which
the earths of soils are washed away still remain in their places, and are of
many different kinds, it follows that there must be as great a variety in the
upland soils of a country as there is uniformity in those of the lowlands,
and of the banks of rivers. Thus there are between twenty and thirty
geological formations in England, which form the substratum or bases of
soils, and each of which must consequently be more or less different in its
composition. t For all practical purposes, however, soils may be charac-
terised by their prevailing primitive earths; and hence, they are reduced
to sands and gravels, clays, chalky and limestone soils, alluvial soils, and
peat-bogs.
153. Sandy Soil. — Silica, which is the basis of sandy soils, is, perhaps, the
most universal of all earths ; and there is scarcely a species or variety of
rock in which it does not abound more or less. Silica is found perfectly
pure in rock crystal, and tolerably so in what is called silver sand, and
also in the sand of some rivers and of the sea. The practical test of the
earth, when tolerably pure, is, that when moistened it cannot be formed into
* At the Museum of Economic Geology, attached to the board of Woods and Forests,
Craig's-court, Charing Cross, London, an analysis of a pound of soil, sent from any part of
the country, -will he made by Mr. Richard Phillips, one of the best analytical chemists in
Europe, for a fee of about 20s.
t See Morton on Soils. 2d edit. 12mo. 1840.
ORIGIN AND KINDS OP SOILS. 47
a plastic mass, or consolidated by pressure, whether in a moist or dry state,
so as to form a compact solid body. Hence all sandy soils are loose, never
present a firm surface, and are never covered with a compact clothing of
grass or other herbaceous plants. Such soils, from being without cohesion,
are incapable of retaining moisture ; and as they are readily permeable by
both moisture and air, they powerfully promote the putrefaction of organic
matter, whilst they as readily permit it to be washed away from them by
rains, or to escape in the form of gas. Hence, in manuring sandy soils no
more should be applied at once than what can be consumed by the crop of
the current year ; and hence, also, they should be cultivated to a greater
depth than other soils, in order that there may be a greater mass of material
for retaining moisture. One great advantage of a sandy soil over all others
is its natural warmth. This arises from its greater looseness and porosity,
in consequence of which the atmosphere penetrates into it more rapidly, and
to a greater depth, than in the case of any other soil. Hence, in the absence
of sunshine, a sandy soil will be raised to the temperature of the atmosphere,
to the depth of several inches, by the mere penetration of the air among its
particles ; while a firm compact soil, the earthy basis of which is clay or
chalk, could not be heated to the same depth without the direct influence of
the sun's rays. Sandy soils are also more easily penetrated by water than
any others, and hence they are sooner raised or lowered to the temperature
of the rains which fall on them than a clayey or calcareous soil. As the
water never rests on sandy soils, they are never cooled down by evaporation ;
the reverse of which is the case with clayey and calcareous surfaces. Sandy
soils being much less cohesive than soils in which clay or lime prevails, they
are much more easily laboured ; and being always loose and friable on the
surface, they are better adapted for the germination of seeds. Sandy soils
may be made to approach alluvial soils by the addition of clay and calcareous
earth, either taken from clayey or calcareous surfaces, or from subsoils in
which these earths abound ; but the former source is greatly preferable, from
the earths being already in combination with organic matter. *
154. Whatever has been said of sandy soils is applicable to gravelly soils ;
in some particulars in a greater, and in some in a lesser degree. The small
stones of which the greater part of gravel consists, being better conductors of
heat than the particles of sand, it follows that gravels are both easier heated
and easier cooled than sands ; they are also more readily penetrated by rain,
and more readily dried by filtration and evaporation. Like sands, they are
improved by the addition of clay and chalk, or by alluvial soil ; and they
require also to be cultivated to a greater depth than clays or chalks. A gra-
velly soil isolated so as not to be supplied with water from higher grounds, is
of all others the most suitable for a suburban villa (Sub. Arch, and Land-
scape Gard. p. 16) ; and therefore, though not so suitable for a kitchen-garden
as a sandy or loamy soil, yet as a sufficient portion of soil, whatever may be
its earths, may always be improved so as to render it fit for the cultivation
of vegetables, a gravelly or sandy soil for building on should never be rejected.
155. Clayey Soil. — Alumina, which is the basis of clayey soil, is the most
frequent of earths next to sand. It is found nearly pure in the ruby and
sapphire ; tolerably so in the blue or London clay, but more so in the white
plastic clay, which is found between the London clay and the upper chalk,
and which is used for making tobacco-pipes. This soil relatively to water is
the very reverse of sand ; for while in nature, sand and water are never found
48 ORIGIN AND KINDS OF SOILS.
chemically combined, in clay they are never found chemically separate.
Hence, though clay when prepared by the chemist, and kept apart from
water, appears as a light dry powder, scarcely different to the eye from pure
sand or pure lime, yet in soils it forma an adhesive mass, the particles of
which cannot be permanently separated excepting by burning to expel the
water held in fixation. When clay is burnt and reduced to powder, it be-
comes for all practical purposes sand, and in that state it may be employed
to great advantage for reducing the cohesive properties of stiff clay. Rela-
tively to heat, clays do not admit the atmosphere between their particles,
and an unimproved clayey soil is generally a cold one — partly because the
heat penetrates with difficulty into it, and partly from the evaporation which
during great part of the year is going on from its moist surface. The obvious
improvement of clays is by the addition of sand or gravel ; and when the
clay does not contain lime, by the addition of that material, either in a caustic
or mild state, or as chalk.
156. Lime, or the basis of chalk and limestone rock, is much less common
as a soil than either clay or sand ; though there are scarcely any soils which
are naturally fertile that are absolutely without it. Lime is found in a state
of carbonate in white or statuary marble, and more or less so in chalk-rock ;
and in some limestone-roclis. Lime is never found pure in a state of nature,
but always combined with carbonic acid and water, which are driven off from
it by burning, leaving the earth in the caustic state called quicklime. In this
state lime rapidly reabsorbs water and carbonic acid from the atmosphere,
or from any other material which comes in contact with it containing these
elements. Hence its use in a caustic state in promoting the putrefaction of
imperfectly decomposed organic matter in soils, and in attracting carbonic
acid and moisture from the atmosphere. Relatively to the retention of water,
a limey or chalky soil may be considered as intermediate between a sandy
and a clayey soil, without becoming so tenacious as clay on the one hand, or
parting with water so readily as sand on the other. Hence the use of lime
or chalk in reducing the tenacity of stiff clays, and increasing the absorbent
powers of sandy soils, and improving their texture. A calcareous soil is im-
proved by sand and clay, especially if laid on in sufficient quantity to destroy
the tenacity and compactness of its texture.
157. Magnesia, for all practical purposes, may be considered as lime ;
it is not very common in soils, and though it is said to be inimical to vege-
tation under some circumstances, yet this appears very doubtful.
158. The iron of soils is mostly found in a state of rust, or oxide. There
is scarcely any soil without it ; but it is never very abundant in soils naturally
fertile. In a dry state the oxide of iron is insoluble in water, and not inju-
rious to vegetation ; but when in consequence of saline substances in the soil,
or applied to it, a salt of iron is produced, the iron becomes soluble in water,
is taken up by the roots of plants, and is very injurious to them. Iron in this
state is termed hydrate, and its evil effects are to be counteracted by caustic
lime, with W7hich it forms an insoluble compound.
159. Alluvial soils have been already described as composed of very fine
particles of the debris of several kinds of rocks, which have been held in sus-
pension by water, and deposited in plains, or along the banks of rivers, along
with organic matter also held in suspension. The earthy character of this
soil must necessarily always partake of the character of the rocks of the
country in which it is found.
WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 49
ICO. Peat or bog is composed of partially decayed vegetable matter, soft,
light, and spongy to the touch ; and the very reverse of sand with respect to
water, holding that element like a sponge, so as, in its natural state, to he
totally unfit for the growth of vegetables, except those of the lowest grade.
161. The organic matter in soils in its solid state may be considered as
carbon, which is found pure in the diamond, and tolerably so in the charcoal
of wood. In soils it is found in various states of decomposition, from recent
woody fibre to humus, which is woody fibre in a state of decay. The
proportion of organic matter varies exceedingly in different soils. In ban-en
sands there is scarcely a trace of it, while in fertile soils it varies from 10 to
SO per cent. ; and peat-bogs which have been drained and cultivated contain
often 80 or 90 per cent. Humus, according to Professor Liebig, exercises
its influence on vegetation u by being a continued source of carbonic acid,
which it emits slowly. An atmosphere of carbonic acid, formed at the
expense of the oxygen of the air, surrounds every particle of decaying
humus. The cultivation of land, by stirring and loosening the soil, causes
a free and unobstructed access of air. An atmosphere of carbonic acid is,
therefore, contained in every fertile soil, and is the first and most important
food for the young plants which grow in it. The property of humus, or
woody fibre, to convert surrounding oxygen gas into carbonic acid, diminishes
in proportion as its decay advances ; and at last a certain quantity of a brown
coaly-looking substance remains, in which this property is entirely wanting.
This substance is called mould (152) ; it is the product of the complete decay
of woody fibre, and constitutes the principal part of brown coal and peat."
{Organic Chemistry, p. 47.)
For practical purposes, all the soils ordinarily met with may be reduced
to the following : —
162. Loose naked sands or gravels, without either clay or calcareous
matter, and almost destitute of vegetation on the surface; exemplified on some
parts of the sea- shore, and in Hounslow and other extensive heaths.
163. Calcareous soils or gravels, containing little or no clay or organic
matter, and almost without vegetation on the surface ; found on the sea-
shore in some places, and on the surface of chalky districts.
164. Loams. — Rich sandy loams consist of sand, clay, and more or less of
calcareous soil, with organic matter ; they never become hard on the surface
after rains followed by drought, and never retain water to such an extent
as to prove injurious to vegetation. Vegetation commences some weeks
earlier in sandy loams than in clayey loams, in the same climate, or even in
the same garden ; and during summer plants on such soils will be in ad-
vance of those on clays ; so much so, as Mr. Lymburn has observed, as
to attain maturity a month earlier. Clayey loams consist of clay with a
proportion of sand and organic matter ; they produce large crops, but become
hard and baked on the surface after heavy rains followed by drought. Stiff
adhesive clays contain in their composition little or no sand or lime, and are
almost without organic matter. All clayey loams are later than sandy
loams.
165. Loams are the best soils, and are characterized according to the
earths which prevail in them, as a sandy loam, &c. ; according to their
degree of friability, as a free loam, a stiff loam, &c. ; or according to both, as
a free calcareous loam, &c. These soils, with reference to geology, are gene-
rally found on the sides of valleys, along the bases of hills or mountains, or
E
50 ORIGIN AND KINDS OF SOILS CONSIDIiRED.
on the banks of upland rivers. Mechanically, they are of a texture easily
penetrated by all the implements of culture, and not liable to become hard
on the surface, and crack after heavy rains followed by drought; chemically,
they contain clay, sand, calcareous matter, and humus ; and with reference
to vegetation, produce abundant crops in all ordinary seasons, with moderate
supplies of manure.
160. In general, much more depends on the texture of a soil and its capacity
for retaining or parting with water and heat, than on its chemical composition.
Soils have been found consisting chiefly of clay, others chiefly of calcareous
earths ; some, in America, without calcareous earths ; and all producing good
crops for a series of years. Nevertheless, it has been found that no soil will
remain fertile for many years that does not contain lime in some form natu-
rally, or is not liberally supplied with manure containing animal matter,
one ingredient of which is lime in a state of phosphate or sulphate.
167. Subsoils. — Next in importance to the texture of a soil, is the nature
of the subsoil or substratum on which it rests ; because on the texture and
other circumstances of this subsoil depends, in a great measure, the capacity
of the surface-soil for retaining or parting with water or heat. The worst
subsoils are those of clay kept moist by subterraneous water ; and the best,
those of clay resting on gravel or porous rock ; because these retain a useful
degree of moisture, and admit of increasing the surface-soil to any depth
which may be required for culture. Sandy and gravelly subsoils, with but
a thin coating of surface-soil over them, are not sufficiently retentive of
moisture ; and chalky subsoils are generally cold.
168. The surface of soil* has, perhaps, as powerful an influence on their
natural fertility as the subsoil ; because on the inclination of the sur-
face depends, in a considerable degree, the moisture retained by the soil,
and consequently its fitness for the growth of plants. Too steep a slope
throws off the rain with too great rapidity, and thus deprives the soil of a
sufficient supply of water during dry seasons ; while a flat surface will
retard its drainage and occasion loss of heat by evaporation. The colour of
the surface of a soil exercises some influence on its heat. A dark-coloured
soil will be sooner heated by the rays of the sun than a light-coloured soil ;
but it will also part with its heat more rapidly when the sun does not shine.
A white soil, such as we sometimes find on chalky or marly subsoils, is the
longest of all soils in being warmed, because by all white surfaces the rays
of light and heat are reflected, while by all black surfaces they are absorbed.
Hence, taking into consideration colour, texture, and aspect, a dark sandy
soil, on a surface exposed to the south or south-east, must be the warmest of
all soils j and a moist white clay of compact texture, similarly exposed, the
coolest. It may be thought that such a soil would be colder on a surface
exposed to the north than on a southern exposure ; and this will be the
case when the soil is in a dry state, but not when it is supplied with moisture
from the subsoil ; because, in the latter case, the cold, produced by evapo-
ration, is great in proportion to the warmth of the atmosphere. The aspect
is not only of importance with reference to the influence of the sun in
warming or cooling the soil, but also as to its effects in maturing the produce
which grows on it.
169. The plants which grow on a soil are the surest indications, to a prac-
tical botanist and cultivator, of the actual state of that soil with reference to
culture ; though they do not always indicate the improvement of which the
IMPROVEMENT OP SOILS CONSIDERED.
soil is susceptible. Marshy soils are indicated with considerable certainty
both by herbaceous and ligneous plants, and also very dry soils ; but the
earths of fertile soils cannot be so readily inferred from the plants growing on
them. Thus thorn-hedges will be found growing vigorously alike on clays,
sands, and chalks ; though never on these soils, or on any other, when they
are either very dry, or saturated with water. Some few plants, when found in
their native stations in considerable quantities, may be considered absolute
in respect to the earths of the soil in which they grow ; such as the TussilagO
jFarfara, which always indicates clayey soil ; Clematis Vitalba, calcareous soil ;
Arenaria rubra, sandy soil ; JRumex Acetosa, ferruginous soil ; Faccinium
uliginosum, peaty soil ; Salicdrnia herbacea, saline soil ; Caltha palustris,
marshy soil, &c. : but by far the greater number of plants only indicate the
state of a soil relatively to water and organic matter. In short, nature may
be said to have only three kinds of soil relatively to plants ; the dry, the
moist, and the fertile.
SECT. II. — The Improvement of Soils, with a View to Horticulture.
1 70. Having seen, in the preceding section, that the permanent fertility
of a soil depends mainly on its condition relatively to water and heat, it
follows that the improvement of soils must be principally directed to increase
their capacity for absorbing and retaining these elements in the degree most
siiit.ible for vegetation. The principal operations for this purpose are : draining,
to withdraw superfluous water from soils ; and mixture and pulverization for
improving their texture, in order to admit more readily the moisture and the
heat of the atmosphere.
171. Draining is the principal means for altering the condition of a soil
with reference to water. Soils are affected by rains from above and springs
from below ; and the former are carried off by open gutters, and the latter
by covered channels. All draining is founded on the well-known hydrostatic
law by which all fluids have a constant tendency to arrange themselves
in a horizontal position. Hence, to carry off water, either from a surface or
a subsoil, it is only necessary to form channels above or under ground in
an inclined position. The kind of drains, and the number employed in any
given case, will depend on the texture of the soil and the inclination of the
surface. Flat surfaces and retentive clays require the greatest number of
drains, and inclined surfaces and porous soils the smallest number. There
are very few soils that may not be improved by draining; and it is
almost unnecessary to observe, that, where draining is requisite and not
performed, the application of other modes of improvement will be made in
vain.
172. Altering the texture and composition of soil by the addition of other
soils is the improvement next in importance to that of draining, and requires
only to be mentioned to be understood. Too sandy soils will be improved
by the addition of clay, and the contrary ; and both clay and sand by the
addition of lime ; because without alkaline matter no soil can be permanently
fertile. Though on a large scale the expense of this kind of improvement is
too great to be generally adopted, yet in the case of the grounds of small
country residences it is practicable at a moderate expense. To ascertain the
proportion of one soil that must be added to any other soil so as to perfect
its texture, can only be determined by experiment. The first thing to fix
on is the depth to which the soil is to be cultivated. In kitchen gardens
E 2
52 IMPROVEMENT OF SOILS, CONSIDERED
this may be between two and three feet ; but in pleasure-grounds, where the
surface is to be chiefly in grass, nine inches or one foot in depth will suffice.
*' It is astonishing," Mr. Rham observes, "how small a portion of pure
alumina will consolidate a loose sand, and convert it into a good loam, the
parts of which, when moistened, will adhere and form a clod in drying/'
(Jour. Ag. Soc. vol. ii. p. 51.) If we take an extreme case, and suppose
that any given soil is so sandy as to require the addition of one sixth its
bulk of clay, or so clayey as to require one sixth its bulk of sand, then, in
the case of kitchen gardens where the soil is three feet deep, every square
foot of the clayey surface will require the addition of half a cubic foot of
sand ; and in the case of a lawn where the soil is a foot in depth, every
square foot of sand will require the sixth of a cubic foot of clay. To cover
a statute acre with soil to the depth of one inch requires 121 cubic yards.
Hence to add two inches to the soil of a garden of one acre, exclusive of the
space occupied by the walks, would require 242 cubic yards or cart-loads,
which, at 2s. each, amount to 241. 4s. The cost, however, will depend
chiefly on the distance from which the soil is to be brought. A case is
mentioned in the Journal of the Agricultural Society of England, vol. ii. p. 67,
in \vhich a white sand varying in depth from one to four feet, and so barren
that it never had been cultivated to profit, had the surface improved to the
usual depth penetrated by the plough (nine to twelve inches), by laying on
clay at the rate of 150 cubic yards to the acre. The clay being dug from
the subsoil, the expense was not more than 5/. 10*. per acre. It frequently
happens that a sandy or gravelly soil is incumbent on a bed of clay, and the
contrary ; in either of which cases the supply of the required soil may be
obtained by digging pits, or sometimes even by deep trenching. The earth
thus obtained will generally be without organic matter, but that can be sup-
plied afterwards by manuring. Where the soil required for the improvement
of another soil can be obtained in the state of surface soil, the effects produced
will be more immediate from the organic matter which such soil contains ; but
even when it is obtained from the subsoil, the change in the condition of the
soil to which the new soil is applied will soon be rendered obvious ; though
not so much the first year, as it will be in two or three years afterwards,
when the amalgamation of the two soils is more complete. Much of the
effect of adding one soil to another will depend on their intimate mixture;
and this can be best effected by repeated trenchings or diggings in dry weather,
when both soils are as nearly as possible in a state of dry powder. This point
is of great importance, particularly when the soils mixed together contain a
good deal of organic matter, because if a very intimate mixture of both soils
is not effected, they will, from the difference in their specific gravities, in a few
years separate into two different strata. There is, indeed, a constant tend-
ency to do this in all soils under culture, and more especially in all such
as have been improved by admixture. This takes place in consequence of
the softening of the soil by rains, by which the particles are in a manner
held for a time in suspension, and the heaviest gradually take a lower place
than those which are lighter. Hence the necessity of digging or trenching
such soils occasionally to the depth to which they have originally been im-
proved. This is required even in artificial soils laid down in grass; for sup-
posing a clayey soil to have received a considerable admixture of lime or
chalk, and sand, with rotted stable dung, and the whole to have been
incorporated hi a state of fallow, and afterwards sown with grass seeds.
WITH A VIEW TO HORTICULTURE. 53
then in seven years the black matter or mould remaining of the dung will he
found among the roots of the grass at the surface, the sand in a stratum
three or four inches below the surface, and the lime at the bottom of the
artificial soil. By placing the same mixture in a flower -pot, and watering it
frequently during a year, the pot being plunged in the soil, the same result
will take place sooner, and be more conspicuous. If the pot be kept con-
stantly immersed in water to within an inch of the brim, the result will
take place in the course of a few days. These facts ought to be kept con-
stantly in mind by whoever wTould improve soils by admixture ; if they are
not, disappointment is very likely to ensue. When soils mixed together are
comparatively without organic matter, and when the particles of which they
are composed are very small, the mixture becomes more intimate ; the
particles of the one soil filling up the interstices among the particles of the
other, and the amalgamation as it may be termed is then so complete that
the earths will never afterwards separate. In this way pure sands may be
improved by the admixture of pure clays, or by marls or chalks. The
words pure and amalgamate are here used, not in a chemical, but in a
popular sense.
173. Changing the inclination of the surface of soils is a mode of improve-
ment that may frequently be adopted on a small scale, by arranging a
steep slope into narrow terraces, and a broad slope into level platforms. The
former mode has been practised from time immemorial in the Land of
Canaan, and in other countries of the East, and the latter is common in
France and Italy, in order to admit of surface irrigation without waste of
water. By this last mode, a field or garden is arranged into different plat-
forms, which may either be on the same or on different levels. In the former
case, the water is let into one platform after another ; or, if there is an abun-
dant supply, into several at the same time ; in the latter case the supply of
water is conducted to the highest platform, which is first watered, and
the others follow in the order of their elevation. Arrangements of this kind
are not so important in British gardens as they are in those of warmer
climates ; but still they might in many cases be advantageously introduced
with a view to watering summer crops.
174. Burning of soils has been resorted to as a means of altering their
texture, destroying injurious substances, and changing or forming others
which may act as a manure. Burning is useless on siliceous sands contain-
ing little or no vegetable matter ; but on all soils containing chalk, lime, or
clay, it may be practised with advantage. By burning calcareous or chalky
soils, the same effect is produced as if quicklime had been procured and
added to the soil ; and by burning clayey soils the same result is obtained as
if sand had been procured and mixed with them. The effect of burning clay
is totally different from that of burning sand or lime. On sands and gravels
burning can have no effect, except that in some cases it renders the particles
smaller. Burning lime drives off the carbonic acid and the water, and renders
the lime caustic and well adapted for decomposing organic matter ; but the
lime has no sooner lost its water than it begins to attract it again, and after a
certain period will be found in the same state of combination with water and
carbonic acid as it was before. Clay, on the other hand, when once the water
is driven off by burning, will never regain it, but remains for ever after-
wards in a state which, with reference to its mechanical effect on a soil, is
exactly the same as that of sand. This is a fact, the great importance of
54 IMPROVEMENT OF SOILS, CONSIDERED
which in the improvement of clayey soils, and indeed of all soils which are
of too compact a texture, is not duly appreciated. It is evident that, by
means of draining and burning, any clayey soil may have its texture as much
improved as can be desired ; and though the expense of this may, in many
cases, be too great for application on an extensive scale, yet it may always
be adopted in kitchen gardens ; and often over the entire surface of the
grounds of small villas. It is indeed only by this kind of improvement
that the heavy clayey soils of many of the small villas in the neighbour-
hood of London can be at all rendered comfortable to walk on after rains
in summer, and throughout the whole of the other seasons ; or suitable and
agreeable for the cultivation of culinary vegetables and flowers. Claye}r soils
often contain iron, and the operation of burning them, by forming an insoluble
compound of iron and alumina, lessens the risk of the iron ever becoming
noxious to the plants. Burning also destroys the inert vegetable fibre ; and
thus it at once produces ashes containing vegetable alkali, and supplies the soil
with a portion of humus ; without both of which, according to Liebig, no
soil can bring plants to maturity. Where a strong clayey soil is covered with a
healthy vegetation, as of pasture or wood, it may not be desirable to burn the
surface soil, on account of the quantity of organic matter which it contains ;
but it may still be very desirable to burn such a portion of the clayey subsoil
as may be sufficient, when reduced to a sandy powder, to render the surface
soil of a proper texture. In this case the surface soil should be removed to the
depth to which it has been cultivated, and a portion of that below taken up in
lumps, and dried and burned. The burning is performed on the spot by the
aid of faggot- wood, or any description of cheap fuel. The burned lumps
being reduced to a powder, and scattered equally over the soil when also in a
dry and powdery state, the whole should then be intimately mixed toge-
ther by repeated diggings and trenchings. As an example of the strong
clayey soil of a garden having been improved by burning, we may refer to
that of Willersley Castle, near Matlock, which the gardener there, Mr.
Stafford, has rendered equal in friability and fertility to any garden soil in
the country. " When I first came to this place," says Mr. Stafford, " the
garden was for the most part a strong clay, and within nine inches of the
surface ; even the most common article would not live upon it ; no weather
appeared to suit it — at one time being covered by water, at another time
rendered impenetrable by being too dry. Having previously witnessed the
good effects of burning clods, I commenced the process, and produced in a
few days a composition three feet deep, and equal, if not superior, to any
soil in the country." (Hort. Reg. vol. i. p. 210.) The success was here
greater than can be expected in every case, because the clay contained a
large proportion of calcareous matter.
175. Pulverizing soils comes next in the order of improvement, and is
effected by trenching, digging, and other modes of reversing the surface and
mixing and transposing all the different parts. By changing the surface,
fresh soil is exposed to the action of the weather ; by changing the position
of all the parts, new facilities for chemical changes are produced ; and by
loosening the whole mass of the soil, air and rain are more readily admitted,
and greater freedom is given to the growth of the roots. By loosening soil
the air is admitted among its particles and confined there, and hence it
becomes a non-conductor of heat, and is consequently warmer in winter
and cooler in summer than if it were in one firm mass. By the con-
WITH A VIEW TO HORTICULTURE. Oi)
finement of air in the soil, the heat imparted to it by the sun during
the day is retained, and accumulates in all free open soils to such a degree
as sensibly to raise their temperature over that of the air, especially
during night. From thermometrical observations made at different places,
it appears that the mean temperature of the soil, at about one foot below the
surface, is somewhat higher naturally than the mean temperature of the
atmosphere on the same spot ; and hence we may reasonably suppose that,
by draining and pulverization, the temperature of the soil may be perma-
nently increased as well as that of the atmosphere. From experiments made
by Mr. Thompson, in the garden of the Horticultural Society of London, it
appears, that " in the valley of the Thames, the maximum mean of terres-
trial temperature, at one foot below the surface, has been found to be 64'81°
in July, which is the hottest month in the year : but that the greatest differ-
ence between the mean temperature of the earth and atmosphere is in the
month of October, when it amounted, in the two years during which the
observations were made, to between three and four degrees ; and that, in
general, the mean temperature of the earth, a foot below the surface, is at
least one degree, and more commonly a degree and a half, above the mean
of tlie atmosphere. In these cases, if the terrestrial temperatures be com-
pared with those of the atmosphere, it will be found that in the spring, when
vegetation is first generally set in motion, the temperature of the earth not
only rises monthly, but retains a mean temperature higher than that of the
atmosphere by from one to two degrees ; and that in the autumn, when
woody and perennial plants require that their tissue should be solidified and
their secretions condensed, in order to meet the approach of inclement wea-
ther, the terrestrial temperature remains higher in proportion than that of
the atmosphere, the earth parting with its heat very slowly." (Lindley's
Theory of Hort., p. 97.) In hot countries the sun often heats the soil to
such a degree as to be injurious to the roots of cultivated plants, and pulveri-
zation is there resorted to to diminish the force of its rays, which, as it is well
known, are less effective on a porous and spongy than on a solid substance.
This, as Chaptal informs us, is one of the uses of pulverization even in the
south of France.
176. The free admission of atmospheric air to soil is also necessary for the
decomposition of humus, or organic matter, by which carbonic acid is formed ;
and atmospheric air is also a great source of nitrogen, which has been lately
found in all plants (104), and more especially in the spongioles of the roots.
The soil also, when loosened, becomes a rapid conductor of water ; and, sup-
posing the texture of the soil to be suitable for culture, it will retain a suffi-
cient quantity of moisture for the purpose of vegetation, and allow the escape
of what is superfluous by filtration into the subsoil, or into the underground
drains which have been formed as a substitute for a porous substratum.
The mere act of pulverising any soil has a tendency to improve its texture,
more especially if the operation be frequently repeated. In summer, by
exposure of a soil to the air, the particles are separated by the evaporation
of the water in their interstices by heat ; and by exposing a soil to the frosts
of winter, the particles are separated by the expansion of the water in the
form of ice. Clayey soils containing iron are in an especial manner improved
by exposure to the atmosphere ; the iron being still farther oxidised, and
thus acting like sand in separating the particles, as well as being less likely
to be rendered soluble by the addition of saline matters.
t> ORGANIC MANURES, CONSIDERED
177. Soils are improved by the modes in which they are cultivated ; as for
example, by the order in which crops are made to succeed each other, by
fallowing, by resting, and by the manner in which water is applied to grow-
ing crops ; but these subjects will come under notice when we are treating
of the practice of Horticulture.
CHAPTER III.
MANURES CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE.
178. THE improvement of the composition and the texture of a soil, and
of its condition with reference to water and heat, will have but little effect
on the plants cultivated in it, without the addition of manure ; for this
article, it must be borne in mind, is the food of plants, while the soil is only
the stomach, or laboratory, in which that food is digested and rendered fit
for being taken up by the spongioles of the roots. In order to determine
what substances are suitable for becoming manures, it is useful to know what
are the constituent elements of plants. Of these we shall find that some
elements are common to all plants whatever, such as carbon with oxygen
and hydrogen in the proper relative proportions for forming water, and
nitrogen ; while some elements are only found in particular plants, such as
certain salts, earths, and metallic oxides. Every plant, therefore, may be
said to have its general or common food, and its specific or particular food ;
and hence, in this point of view, manures may be classed as common and
specific. The most perfect manure for any plant would therefore seem to
be, that plant itself in a state of decomposition ; but as the purpose for which
plants are cultivated is to supply food, clothing, and various constructions
and contrivances, for animals, hence, in a state of civilisation, it is among
these, and from animals themselves, that we must seek for the most suitable
manure for plants. The various substances which have been used for manures
may be classed, with reference to their effect on plants, as general and speci-
fic ; and with reference to the soil, as improving, enriching, and stimulating.
Improving manures are such as, while they afford positive nourishment or
stimulus, add some permanent matter to the soil ; such as lime, chalk, marl,
bones, &c. Enriching manures are such as supply only nourishment to
plants ; such as stable manure, and every description of organic matter ; and
stimulating manures are such as serve to aid in the decomposition of, or
otherwise operate on, the organic matter. As some manures, however, par-
take in an equal degree of more than one of these properties, such as lime,
which is both a stimulating and improving manure, the most convenient
arrangement of manures will be organic, inorganic, and mixed.
SECT. I. — Organic Manures.
179. Organic manures must obviously be either of animal or vegetable
origin. Purely vegetable manure is exemplified in leaf-mould, malt-dust, rape-
cake, spent tanner's bark, some kinds of peat, and green vegetables when
they are buried in the soil in a living state.
180. Leaf-mould is perhaps the most universal manure for garden plants,
because, when thoroughly decomposed, the most tender kinds will live in it,
WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. .'> /
and all the more vigorous-growing vegetables will grow in it most luxuriantly.
Hence, mixed with fine sand, leaf-mould is used as a substitute for heath-
soil, for growing many of the Cape and Australian shrubs; and alone, or mixed
with common garden soil, it is used for growing melons and pine-apples.
181. Fresh and tender vegetables dug into the soil, produce an immediate
effect, from the facility with which they undergo fermentation, and thus
supply soluble matter for the spongioles. Sea-weed is still more readily
decomposed than recent land or garden plants, in consequence of the mineral
alkali which it contains ; and hence this manure is stimulating as well as
enriching. Malt-dust is valuable for the saccharine matter which it contains,
and rape-cake for its albumen and oil ; but these manures are only occa-
sionally to be met with. Straw, haulm, and in general all the stems and
leaves of herbaceous plants, and the shoots with their leaves on of trees and
shrubs, form valuable manure when decayed; more especially, if from the
saccharine matter which they contain, or the addition of stable manure or
of animal matter, they can be made to heat and promote fermentation.
Nevertheless, without fermentation, they form useful garden manures ; or
moulds, which, like leaf-mould, may often be substituted for heath-soil.
182. The least valuable truly vegetable manure is spent tanners bark,
which, consisting entirely of woody fibre impregnated with tannin, not only
contains no soluble matter, but the tannin, in as far as it can be taken Tip by
the spongioles, seems to prove injurious. Nevertheless, as every addition of
organic matter to a soil must ultimately increase its fertility, spent tanner's
bark may be used with a view to distant effects ; and in stiff soils its mecha-
nical action will be immediate, by rendering such soils for a time more open.
From the porosity and lightness of this material, it is an excellent non-
conductor of heat ; and hence, when laid on the surface of the ground as a
covering to the roots of tender plants, it protects them better from the frost
than a more compact covering, such as coarse sand, or than coverings which
are great absorbents of moisture, such as leaves or half-rotten litter, or any
other covering of this kind which does not act as thatch. Rotten tan, how-
ever, being peculiarly favourable to the growth of fungi, should be used
with great caution when applied about young trees, and more especially
Coniferae.
183. Peat soil is of two kinds, that formed in peat bogs by the growth of
mosses, and that found in valleys, or other low tracts of country, which, being
formed of overthrown and buried forests, consists of decayed wood. The lat-
ter being the remains of a much higher class of plants than the former, must
contain a greater variety t>f the constituent elements of plants, and must conse-
quently be a better manure. Peat from bogs cannot be used till it has been
reduced, either by time or fermentation, to a fine mould or a saponaceous mass;
the former result is obtained by exposure to the air, and repeated turnings
during several years, and the latter by fermentation with stable dung. A load
of this material, mixed with two loads of partially dried peat, will commence
the putrefactive process, in the same manner as yeast commences ferment-
ation in dough ; and, in the one case as in the other, additions may be made
by degrees of any quantity, so that two loads of stable-dung may be made to
produce twenty, a hundred, or in short an unlimited number of loads of fer-
mented peat. The peat of decayed wood is commonly reduced to mould by
exposure and turning, and then applied to the soil, with or without lime.
Both kinds of peat are frequently burned for the sake of their ashes.
58 ORGANIC MANURES, CONSIDERED
The ashes of the peat of wood are always found richer in alkaline matters
than those of the peat of moss, and on this account they form an article of
commerce in the neighbourhood of Newbury in Berkshire, and in Holland.
184. The principal vegetable manures which are formed in suburban
villas are, the mould of collected leaves swept up in autumn, and in all sea-
sons when they fall ; the mould of grass mown from lawns, and either rotted
by itself, or on dung-casings to pits ; and the mould from the common vege-
table rubbish heap ; that is from a heap on which all decaying or refuse
vegetable matters are thrown as taken from the garden, and sometimes, also,
including the leaves of trees and short grass. This heap is, or should be,
placed in the reserve ground of all gardens. The grass mown from lawns,
however, is most economically added to casings of dung to aid in producing
heat by fermentation, as it is laid on dug surfaces round the roots of plants
during summer to retain moisture. The leaves also are generally best kept
by themselves, for the purpose of decaying into leaf- mould. In whatever
way these vegetable materials are made use of, the gardener ought to have
a vigilant eye to see that none of them are lost.
185. Animal manures require much less preparation than those derived
from plants, from their greater tendency to the putrefactive process. The
kinds of animal manures are chiefly excrement ; urine ; coverings of animals,
such as hair, wool, feathers ; entrails of animals, such as blubber, the con-
tents of the abdomen of fish ; entire animals, such as fish, vermin ; parts of
animals, such as hair, bones, &c. ; or articles manufactured from parts of
animals, such as woollen rags, old leather ; or any article manufactured from
skins, hair, wool, feathers, horn, bone, &c. Of all these manures by far the
most valuable is nightsoil, next urine, and thirdly bones. The different
excrements and urines of animals rank in value according to the kind of
food with which the animal is nourished, and within this limit according
to its grade ; and hence the most valuable animal manure is that of man,
the next that of horses as abounding with ammonia and nitrogen. The ma-
nure of the horse ranks before that of the cow or the sheep ; and the manure
of highly-fed animals before that of those which are lean.
186. Excrementitious manures, including urine, should never be applied
to crops in a recent state, because from the abundance of ammoniacal salts
which they contain, or perhaps from some other reason not understood, they
are found in that state injurious to vegetation ; but when these manures
are fermented they are the most powerful of all, producing an immediate
effect on the plants. It is a remarkable fact that the recent urine of sheep
is not injurious to grass lands, while that of horses and cows commonly
injures the grass on the spot where it falls, which however recovers and
becomes of a darker green than before in the year following. The loss of
excrementitious manures in the large towns in England is immense, and
while they are lost to the soil, they are poisonous to the fishes of our rivers,
and injurious to those who drink their water. The great advantage of urine
or other liquid manure is, that its manuring elements are consumed by the
plants in a few months, and hence an immediate return is made on the capi-
tal employed ; whereas, when solid excrementitious manures are employed,
a period of two or three years must elapse before complete decomposition
ensues. (See Sprengel on Animal Manures, in Jour. Eng. Ag. Soc,, vol. i.
p. 473.) Liquid manure, also, from the ammonia which it contains, when
poured on the soil destroys worms, snails, &c., as effectually as lime-water.
WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 51)
187. In every suburban villa, arrangements should be made for collecting
all the liquid manure into two adjoining tanks, and mixing it there with
water ; one tank to be kept filling and mixing, while the other is fermenting
and being emptied. Where urine cannot be got, excrement and water form
the best substitute. The fermented liquid may either be poured direct on
the soil of the garden, among growing crops, at the roots of fruit trees, or on
the naked soil, with or without other manure, and more especially with straw,
or other vegetable matters, for the purpose both of enriching them and
promoting fermentation.
188. Hair, wool, feathers, leather, horn, rags, &c., decompose much more
slowly than excrementitious or vegetable manures ; but they are exceedingly
rich in gelatine and albumen, and are therefore very desirable where the
object is duration of effect, as well as luxuriance. Dead animals of every
kind, including fish, make excellent manure ; and when there is any danger
anticipated from the effluvia which arises during decomposition, it is readily
prevented by covering or mixing the putrid mass with quicklime. In this
way nightsoil and the refuse of the slaughter-houses in Paris, Lyons, and
other continental towns, are not only disinfected, but dried under the name
of poudrette, and compressed in casks, so as to form an article of commerce.
Sugar-bakers' scum, which is obtained from sugar refineries, consists of
the blood of cattle and lime ; it can be sent in a dried and compressed state
to any distance, and forms a manure next in richness to bones. In gardens
it may be used as a top dressing to culinary vegetables, and as an ingredient
in the composition of vine borders. Animalized carbon consists of nightsoil
of great age ; it is sent to different parts of Europe from Copenhagen, where
it has accumulated during ages in immense pits and heaps, which some years
ago were purchased from the city by an Englishman. It is an exceedingly
rich manure.
189. Bones, though a manure of animal origin, depend for their effects a good
deal on their mineral constituents. Next to nightsoil, bones are perhaps the
most valuable of all manures. Chemically they consist of gelatine, albumen,
animal oils, andifat, in all about 38 per cent. ; and of earthy matters, such
as phosphate of lime, carbonate of lime, fluate of lime, sulphate of lime,
carbonate of soda, and a small quantity of common salt. In consequence of
the animal matters which they contain, crushed bones when laid in heaps
very soon begin to ferment, and when buried in the soil previously to being
fermented in heaps, the putrescent fermentation goes on with great rapidity.
In gardens they should seldom be used without being broken small and fer-
mented in heaps for several months. Bones are valuable as a specific
manure, because they contain phosphate of lime, which is an ingredient
common to a great many cultivated plants both of the field and of the gar-
den. Bone manure, if used on the same soil for a number of years, is
found to lose its effect ; the .reason of which is inferred from one cause of
their excellence, viz., that the animal matter which they contain acts as a
ferment or stimulus to the organic matter already in the soil, by which
means this organic matter becomes sooner exhausted than otherwise would
be the case. The remedy for this evil obviously is, to discontinue the use
of the bones, and to supply putrescent manure, such as stable-dung.
190. Vegeto-animal manures consist of a mixture of animal and vegetable
substances, such as the straw used as litter in stables or farmyards, and the
excrements and urine of the animals which are kept in them. It may be
60 INORGANIC MANURES, CONSIDERED
classed according to the kind of animal to which the litter is supplied; and
hence we have horse dung, cow-dung, the dung of swine, sheep, rahbits,
poultry, &c. All these manures require to be brought into a state of active
fermentation, and reduced to a soft easily separated mass, before being
applied to the soil. This is effected by throwing them into heaps, and occa-
sionally turning these heaps till the manure becomes of a proper consistence.
191. In horticulture, advantage is generally taken of the heat produced
by manures of this kind, in forming hotbeds, and in supplying heat to pits by
what are called linings, but which are properly casings, of dung placed round
a bed of dung, tan, or soil, supported by walls of open brickwork. The dung
so placed can be taken away at pleasure, and applied to the soil when it has
undergone a proper degree of fermentation; whereas, the dung of which hot-
beds is formed cannot be removed without destroying the bed and the crop
on it ; and hence it is generally kept till the fermenting process is carried
much farther than is necessary, and often so far as to be injurious. Hence,
in gardens, wherever economy of manure is an object, common hotbeds ought
never to be made use of, but recourse had to exterior casings, such as those
already mentioned, or to other modes of heating.
192. In many suburban villas, almost as much manure is lost as would
suffice for enriching the kitchen-garden, and producing vegetables for the
whole family. To save every particle of fluid or solid matter capable of
becoming manure, the first step is to construct two or more large tanks for
the liquid manure, and to form a system of tubes or gutters for conveying to
these tanks all the soapsuds and other liquid refuse matters furnished by the
mansion and offices, including the stables, unless they are at a distance.
Similar tanks should be formed adjoining every cottage and dwelling be-
longing to the villa ; such as the gardener's house, gatekeeper's lodge, and
also in the back-sheds and in the frame and reserve ground of the kitchen-
garden. In short, no water ought to be allowed to escape from the manure
tanks but such as is perfectly pure ; for all dirty water, with or without
excrementitious matters, will ferment in a degree of heat not much greater
than that of the subsoil, even in winter ; and all fermented liquids contain
one or more of the constitutent elements of plants. The second step to be
taken with a view to saving manure is, to form a vegetable rubbish heap, on
which all waste parts of plants and the remains of all crops, including mown
grass when not otherwise used, clippings of hedges, summer prunings of
trees, &c., are to be thrown as collected, left to ferment, and turned over
occasionally. To this heap, lime, dung, or rich earth may be added, and
the whole frequently turned over and well mixed. The third step is, to
collect the cleanings of ponds, wells, ditches, hedge-banks, and similar earthy
matters, and mix them with quicklime, turning the heap occasionally, as
directed in the next section.
SECT. II. — Inorganic Manures.
193. Inorganic or mineral manures are chiefly, lime in a state of chalk
or carbonate, gypsum or sulphate, marl in which carbonate of lime is mixed
with clay, saltpetre, kelp or mineral alkali, and common salt. The organic
manures, as we have seen, act by supplying plants with the elements of which
they are constituted, viz., carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and azote or nitrogen ;
but the mineral manures contain none of these elements, and hence, accord-
ing to most agricultural chemists, they must act beneficially on some other
WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 61
principle. This principle may be stated to be the rendering more soluble of
the organic matters already in the soil in most instances, and in some cases
rendering soluble matters insoluble, so as to diminish excessive fertility, and
prepare a reserve of the fertilising principle for future use. Quicklime, for
example, effects the first of these objects, and slaked lime the second.
According to some writers, inorganic manures also act specifically ; alkaline
matters being found in all, and some sorts in many plants.
194. Lime. This is by far the most important of all the mineral manures.
It is applied to soil in the form of quick or hot lime, mild or slaked lime, and
chalk or carbonate. Quicklime is procured by burning chalkstone or lime
rock till the water and the carbonic acid gas are driven off. Immediately
after burning, it forms what is called quicklime ; and in this state, when
laid on the soil, having a powerful attraction for water (200), it assists in
the conversion of woody fibre and other organic matters into the substance
called humus, forming humate of lime, which again is rendered soluble and
fit for supplying the food of plants by the action of the carbonic acid gas
in the soil, or supplied to it by water or the atmosphere.
195. Mild lime. When water is thrown on quicklime, it becomes what
is called slaked, falls down into a fine white powder, and, re-absorbing
great part of the water which had been driven off by burning, it becomes
what chemists call hydrate of lime ; and soon after, from the absorption of
carbonic acid gas, it becomes what is called mild lime. The use of lime in
this state is partly the same as that of caustic or quicklime ; and partly,
also, when there is a superabundance of soluble manure, so as to cause crops
to become too rank, to lessen the putrescence of organic matter by the for-
mation with it of humate of lime. In short, quicklime may be said to
increase the solubility of inert organic matter, and mild lime to render less
soluble organic matter already in a state of solubility.
196. The application of lime to soil may also be useful in cases where
there is not already a sufficient portion of that earth ; but, to ascertain this,
a chemical analysis of the soil should be previously made. The smallest
quantity of quicklime added to a soil in which little or none previously existed,
will effect a great permanent improvement ; and the same may be said of a
small quantity of clay added to a soil in which that ingredient did not pre-
viously exist. (172.)
197. Carbonate of lime, or chalk, in its native state, differs from unburnt
limestone in being of a much softer texture, and more easily acted on either
mechanically or by the weather. When burned, it of course becomes lime,
and may be used either in a caustic or mild state ; but in chalky countries
it is most commonly laid on land in its natural state, and left to pulverise
by the influence of the weather. It is supposed to have no effect upon inert
vegetable fibre, and to be incapable of generally uniting with humic acid ; so
that it appears to be destitute of the two properties of caustic and mild lime,
viz., that of rendering insoluble matter soluble, and the contrary. Its bene-
ficial effects are attributed to its altering the texture of soil, and to its pro-
perty of retaining water without at the same time becoming adhesive. Hence
it may be used both on sands and clays, to render the latter more friable
without diminishing its retentive powers, and the former more absorbent
without adding to its tenacity. Chalk, also, may be considered as a specific
manure, since carbonate of lime is an ingredient in almost all the plants
which have hitherto been analysed by chemists.
62 INORGANIC MANURES, CONSIDERED
198. Marl is carbonate of lime mixed with clay at the rate of from
twenty to eighty per cent of carbonate, with alumina, silica, and more or
less of the oxide of iron. Its action on the whole is similar to that of chalk,
though it is more adapted for sandy and peaty soils than for clays. It is
found from experience that it is injurious when spread on soil before being
exposed for some months to the action of the atmosphere ; though the reason
of this has not yet been explained.
. 199. Gypsum, which is sulphate of lime, is a calcareous compound which
occasionally produces extraordinary effects as manure, though the rationale
of its action does not appear to be thoroughly understood. All animal ma-
nures contain more or less of sulphate of lime as one of their constituents ;
and this mineral compound has also been found in wheat, in clover, saintfoin,
lucern, and many other leguminous plants, and in various pasture grasses.
Hence it may in part be considered as a specific manure, and it has been so
treated by Grisenthwaite in his very ingenious Essay, who contends that no
manure that does not contain gypsum is fit for wheat. It is said to have
little effect except upon light sandy, gravelly, or chalky soils.
200. Sea shells are very abundant on some shores, and may be either burned
into lime or laid on without burning. Immense quantities are collected on
the shore at Whitstable, in Kent, and are laid on the soil without burning
between Canterbury and Dover, where the soil is chiefly clayey. They are
so much preferred to chalk or lime that they are fetched three times the
distance.
201. The rationale of the action of lime in its different states is thus given
by Sir Humphry Davy. " When lime, whether freshly burned or slaked, is
mixed with any moist fibrous vegetable matter, there is a strong action be-
tween the lime and the vegetable matter, and they form a kind of compost
together, of which a part is usually soluble in water. By this kind of ope-
ration, lime renders matter which was before comparatively inert nutritive ;
and as charcoal and oxygen abound in all vegetable matters, it becomes at
the same time converted into carbonate of lime. Mild lime, powdered
limestone, marls or chalks, have no action of this kind upon vegetable mat-
ter ; by their action they prevent the too rapid decomposition of substances
already dissolved ; but they have no tendency to form soluble matters. It
is obvious from these circumstances that the operation of quicklime, and
marl or chalk, depends upon principles altogether different. Quicklime, in
being applied to land, tends to bring any hard vegetable matter that it con-
tains into a state of more rapid decomposition and solution, so as to render it
a proper food for plants. Chalk, and marl, or carbonate of lime, will only
improve the texture of the soil, or its relation to absorption, acting merely
as one of its earthy ingredients. Quicklime, when it becomes mild, operates
in the same manner as chalk ; but in the act of becoming mild, it prepares
soluble out of insoluble matter. It is upon this circumstance that the ope-
ration of lime in the preparation for wheat crops depends ; and its efficacy in
fertilising peats, and in bringing into a state of cultivation all soils abounding
in hard roots, or dry fibres, or inert vegetable matter. The solution of the
question, whether quicklime ought to be applied to a soil, depends upon the
quantity of inert vegetable matter that it contains. The solution of the
question, whether marl, mild lime, or powdered limestone, ought to be ap-
plied, depends upon the quantity of calcareous matter already in the soil.
All soils are improved by mild lime, and ultimately by quicklime, which do
WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 63
not effervesce with acids; and sands more than clays." (Agricultural Che-
mistry, 6th edit., p. 304.)
202. In the case of suburban villas, the most important uses of lime are,
first, the formation of lime-water for the destruction of insects, snails,
worms, &c. ; and secondly, the formation of lime composts to be used as
manure. For both these purposes lime must be obtained in its caustic state.
In preparing lime-water, a very small quantity of lime in powder will be
found to saturate many gallons of water ; and, by letting this settle a few
minutes till it becomes clear, the plants or the soil may be watered with it
without leaving any coating of lime, which only takes place when the lime
is applied in a state of mixture and solution. The causticity of the liquid,
owing to the alkali which it contains, lacerates the tender skins of- cater-
pillars, earth-worms, snails, and slugs.
203. Lime compost is formed of caustic lime, at the rate of from sixteen
to twenty-four bushels of lime to three times that quantity of earth taken
from hedge-banks, cleanings of ditches or ponds, scrapings of roads, or even
from the surface of any soil which is somewhat different in its nature or
texture from the soil on which the compost is to be laid. Even the sub-
stratum of any soil, where good, may be used, and afterwards laid on the
surface soil. The compost should lie from nine to twelve months, and be
turned over in that time twice or thrice. In every part of Britain this
manure may be formed at a moderate expense ; and though it is better
adapted for fields than gardens, yet in many cases, and particularly where
manure is scarce, it will be found a valuable resource. (See Jackson's Agri-
culture, published by Chambers, p. 47.)
204. Saltpetre, or muriate of potash, when analysed, consists of oxygen,
nitrogen, and potassium. Saltpetre is found in almost all plants, and espe-
cially those which are cultivated in rich soils. As a manure it sometimes
produces extraordinary effects on grass lands and corn crops ; but its action
is not understood, and it has been but little used in horticulture. Nitrate
of soda produces nearly the same results as saltpetre. From some experi-
ments with this salt lately detailed in the Journal of the English Agricultural
Society, vol. i. pp. 418 and 423, it appears to have increased the produce
of corn crops, but not more so than saltpetre.
205. Common Salt, or the chloride of sodium, consists of nearly equal parts
of chlorine and sodium ; but when dissolved in water a portion of the water
is decomposed, its hydrogen unites with the chlorine to form muriatic acid,
and its oxygen with the sodium to produce soda. Hence salt in a dry state
is chlorate of soda, and dissolved in water it becomes muriate of soda. Its
action in the soil depends ori the effect which the muriate of soda has on the
carbonate of lime ; the latter, as we have before observed, being found in
almost all soils. By the contact of these two salts, their acids and bases are
interchanged, and the compounds which are the result are carbonate of soda
and muriate of lime. Hence, as chalky soils abound more in carbonate of
soda than any others, salt is supposed to be most beneficial to them. Salt
applied in large quantities, it is well known, destroys plants ; and hence
it has been used in gardening, both in a dry and liquid state, to kill weeds
and worms in gravel- walks, which it does most effectually. It has been used
also for washing salads and other vegetables when gathered for the kitchen,
when they are supposed to contain snails, worms, or insects. It forms a
direct constituent of some marine plants, and plants of saline marshes or
64 MIXED MANURES, CONSIDERED
steppes ; and, applied in small quantities, it appears to hasten the decompo-
sition of organised matter in the soil. As a manure, however, it requires to
be applied with very great caution ; and, in gardens, is perhaps safest when
used in walks for the purpose of killing weeds and worms.
206. In suburban villas calcareous manures are often required for the im-
provement of lawns and other grass lands ; and a stock of quicklime, un-
slaked, should always be kept in a cask, or other closed vessel, to be ready
for use with water. Where lime is not at hand, common pptash or Ame-
rican pearlash dissolved in water, or urine especially that of cows, will have
the same effect on insects as lime-water ; but they are more expensive.
SECT. III. — Mixed Manures.
Mixed Manures include coal ashes, vegetable ashes, street manure, soot,
and vegetable or vegeto-animal composts.
207. Coal Ashes are of very different natures in different parts of the
country ; the constituents of coal varying in the quantity of clay and lime,
and also of sulphur and iron, which it contains. Many persons object en-
tirely to coal ashes as a manure, considering them poisonous rather than
beneficial. The portions of coal which contain iron or other metallic ores
are converted by burning into hard porous masses, which, when buried in
the soil, absorb moisture, and consequently soluble organic matter ; and as
the spongioles of the roots cannot be supposed to penetrate into cinders or
scoria, that soluble matter must remain there till it is washed out by rains or
set free by the disintegration of the cinder. Supposing this to be the case,
the principal benefit to be derived from coal ashes would appear to be that
of increasing the friability of stiff clayey soils.
208. Vegetable Ashes are obtained by burning weeds, leaves, prunings, or
roots of woody plants, and in general of all kinds of vegetable matter not
readily decomposed by fermentation. The burning of vegetable substances
must necessarily dissipate the whole of the oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen
which they contain, together with more or less of the carbon, according to the
degree in which the burning mass is exposed to the action of the atmosphere,
Hence in burning wood for charcoal, the pile of logs is covered with earth
or mud to prevent the production of flame, and consequent decomposition
of the carbon, by the action of the oxygen of the atmosphere. The
burning of vegetables, however, does not destroy the fixed saline ingredients
which they contain ; and hence vegetable ashes, as manure, will be valuable
as containing salts which are either of general or specific use to plants, and
also as containing more or less carbon. If one kind of plant only were
burnt at a time, then the ashes of that plant would form a specific manure
for plants of the same kind ; but as a number of kinds are generally burned
together, their ashes must contain salts of various kinds, and they may be
considered as being useful to plants generally. Among these ashes there
is always a large proportion of vegetable alkali (carbonate of potass) ; and
this, when mixed with soil, combines with insoluble organic matter and ren-
ders it soluble ; and hence vegetable ashes form a useful manure for all soils,
since potass is of almost universal existence in plants. It is therefore not
only a general manure by its action on organic matter, but a specific con-
stituent of plants. Soda, which exists but in few plants, differs from potass
in not being a specific manure, its action being limited to increasing the
WITII REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 65
solubility of organic matter already in the soil ; and in performing this office,
it is found to be more efficient than potass.
209. Soot is composed of the various volatile matters derived from the
burning of coal or wood, together with carbon, and earths which have been
mechanically carried up the chimney with water in the form of smoke.
From experiment it appears that soot owes its value as a manure to the
saline substances which it contains ; and these are chiefly the carbonate and
sulphate of ammonia, together with a small quantity of a bituminous sub-
stance. The fact of carbonate of soda proving useful as a manure is un-
doubted, though it is difficult to explain in what manner it acts, unless, like
saltpetre, it stimulates the roots. Soot when applied in gardens is generally
strewed on the surface, and it is considered as annoying snails, slugs, and
worms; though by no means killing them, as is frequently supposed. Its
effects are rarely perceptible after the crop to which it is applied ; and there-
fore, like liquid manures, soot affords a quick return for the capital em-
ployed in it.
210. Street manure, or that which is swept up in the streets of towns,
consists of a great variety of matters, animal, vegetable, and mineral. Jn
the manner towns are now kept, it is small in quantity and of little value ;
but formerly it was among the richest of all manures. When collected in
quantities, even though containing a large proportion cf earth and coal ashes,
it ferments powerfully, and will continue giving out heat throughout a
whole summer. For this purpose it has been used in forcing- gardens as a
substitute for tanners' bark and stable-dung ; and it has the advantage of
not subsiding so much as those materials. Wherever it can be obtained, it
may be applied to all soils ; and when obtained from towns still under the
old system, it may rank next to nightsoil and bones.
211. Composts of vegetable or vegeto-animal matter and earth are of various
kinds. The most common in gardens is that produced by rotten leaves or
vegetable refuse mixed with sand or with some other earth, or with stable-
dung : composts of bones are likewise formed in this manner, and also of peat,
where that material abounds. Peat composts have been already mentioned.
212. Mixed manure in a liquid state consists of the urine of animals,
soap-suds, the foul water of kitchens and other offices, waste surface or rain
water, and drainings of dunghills. The most advantageous way of employing
it is by applying it, after being properly diluted and fermented (182), di-
rectly to growing crops. It may also be profitably employed by throwing
it on heaps of vegetable matter, such as moss, leaves, straw, or any vege-
table refuse matter whatever not containing woody matter of several years'
growth. In this way, Jauffret, a French agriculturist, proposed to create
immense quantities of manure by fermenting weeds and other refuse
collected by hedge-sides, or on commons or wastes. The fermentation
of such matters does not take place without the aid of animal manure
or stable-dung ; but, when once commenced, it can be continued for aii
indefinite period by adding to the heap. If the liquid manure and the
excrementitious matter accumulated in every large establishment, independ-
ently altogether of the stable manure, were collected and fermented, we have
little doubt it would suffice for all the kitchen-garden crops ; the refuse of
these crops and the weeds of the garden being added and fermented. It is
highly probable that every individual animal produces as much manure as
would raise the vegetables necessary for his support, because in the nourish-
66 MIXED MANURES CONSIDERED.
ment of animals, as of plants, nothing is annihilated, but merely changed:
what escapes into the atmosphere is counterbalanced by what is absorbed
from it ; and what is embodied in the animal during life, is restored to the
soil at its death.
213. Application of Manures. — Too much manure is injurious to all crops
whatever, by increasing the proportion of watery matter, and by producing
such an exuberance of growth as to prevent the maturation of the parts,
the formation of blossom-buds, and the setting of fruit. It is particularly
injurious to corn-crops ; produces more sap than can be properly elaborated
in the leaves, and hence disease. In this case the evil is counteracted by
the application of lime or common salt.
214. All mineral manures ought to be employed in a dry and powdery
state, and if possible, when the soil is equally dry and powdery ; and all
moist manures, when the soil is somewhat drier than the manure. Other
circumstances being the same, spring is better than autumn for applying
manures, because the winter might wash them away, &c.; but universally, the
proper time is immediately before sowing or planting the crop. Calm weather
is better than windy weather, and bulky manure ought no sooner to be laid
on than buried in the soil. Exhausting land of the manure which it contains
by over-croppings, is like depriving a commercial man of his capital.
215. In consequence of the great value of manures in increasing the
amount of the produce of land, many ingenious persons have contrived
mixtures which, in small bulk, they allege will produce extraordinary
effects; and this idea seems to have been long since indulged by some
writers. Lord Kaimes, nearly a century ago, thought the time might come
when the quantity of manure requisite for an acre might be carried in a
man's coat-pocket ; a recent author speaks of " a quart of spirit sufficient to
manure an acre ; " and even Liebig says, that " a time will come when
fields will be manured with a solution of glass (silicate of potash), with the
ashes of burned straw, and with salts of phosphoric acid prepared in chemi-
cal manufactories, exactly as at present medicines are given for fever and
goitre." (Organic Chemistry, p. 188.) To those who believe in the homreo-
pathic hypotheses of medicine such speculations will not appear unreasonable;
and there may be some truth in them, on the supposition that the soil to
which these small doses of spirit, or of silicate of potash, are to be applied,
are to act as stimulants to the organic matter already in the soil ; but to
ordinary apprehensions it seems difficult to conceive how bulk and weight of
produce can be raised without the application of a certain degree of bulk of
manure. All deference, however, ought to be paid to the opinions of
philosophers who, like Liebig, have profoundly studied the subject. (See
the notes to this chapter in our Appendix.)
216. All the manures mentioned in this section arc easily obtained by the
possessors of suburban villas. Soot and ashes are produced on their own
premises ; compost may be formed by the mixture of various articles col-
lected or procured ; liquids abound, and have only to be collected and pro-
perly fermented ; and street manure may in general be purchased from the
nearest town. It cannot be too strongly impressed on the possessor of a
country residence who wishes to make the most of it, that no particle of
organic matter, whether animal or vegetable, and no drop of water, with
whatever it may be discoloured, ought to be left uncollected or allowed to
run to waste.
HEAT, CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 67
CHAPTER IV.
THE ATMOSPHERE, CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO
HORTICULTURE.
217. THE influence of the atmosphere on the geographical distribution^
of plants has been noticed in a preceding chapter (147), and we shall here
consider the subject with reference to the culture of plants in gardens,
taking as our guide, Daniel's Essay on Climate with regard to Horticulture,
( Hort. Trans, vol. vii.,J Daniell's Meteorological Essays, and examining
also what has been written on the subject in subsequent works. Among
the latter may be mentioned Howard's Climate of London, Hutchison's
Treatise on Meteorological Phenomena, Murphy's Meteorology, and two
excellent articles on the latter two of these works in the Atheneeum for 1837,
p. 5G1 and 580.
The atmosphere on every part of the globe consists of the same consti-
tuent parts, to wit, carbonic acid gas and water in a state of vapour about 1
part, oxygen 23, and azote or nitrogen 76, reckoning by weight. The
aqueous vapour and carbonic acid gas are variable admixtures ; but in all
cases they bear only a very small proportion to the other ingredients. All
the variations, therefore, which are found in the atmosphere in different
> countries, and at different times in the same country, depend upon the
modifications impressed upon it by heat, moisture, motion, and light.
SECT. I. — Heat, considered with reference to Horticulture.
218. Heat, like light, is found to be capable of radiation, reflection,
transmission through transparent media, and refraction ; but it is radiated,
reflected, transmitted, and refracted, in a different manner and degree from
light. Thus it appears that both light and heat can be transmitted through
either gaseous, fluid, or solid media, provided they are transparent. Any
opaque body is to light, however, an impenetrable barrier ; but to heat, or to
its conduction, neither opaqueness nor solidity affords resistance. On the
contrary, heat is conducted more rapidly by solid than by fluid or gaseous
bodies ; a fact which will be noticed in treating of artificial coverings for
protecting plants. A solid body will obstruct the radiation of heat, as is
familiarly exemplified in the case of the common fire-screen. The diffusion of
heat by conduction and radiation is what chiefly concerns the horticulturist.
219. The conduction of heat is effected by the contact of bodies heated in
different degrees, when the tendency to equal diffusion immediately raises
the temperature of the one body and lowers that of the other. This takes
place with different degrees of rapidity, according to the nature of the
bodies in contact. If thermometers be placed on metal, stone, glass, ivory,
and earth, all heated from the same source, we shall find that the thermo-
meter placed on the metal will rise soonest ; next, that placed on the stone;
next, that on the glass ; then that on the wood ; and lastly, that on the
earth. The conducting power of bodies is generally as their density. The
greatest of all conductors of heat are metals ; and the least so, spongy and
light filamentous bodies. Silk, cotton, wool, hare's fur, and eider-down,
are extremely bad conductors of heat, and hence their value as clothing.
(Library of Useful Knowledge) art. Heat, p. 23.) They give us a sensation
58 HEAT, CONSIDERED WITH
of warmth, not by communicating heat to the skin, but by preventing its
escape into the air, in consequence of their non-conducting properties. The
power which these bodies have of stopping the transmission of heat depends
on the air which is stagnated in their vacuities ; for when the air is expelled
by compression, their conducting power is increased. Hence, in covering
plants or plant structures with leaves, litter straw, mats, or other light,
porous bodies, the less they are compressed the more effective will they be
found in preventing the escape of heat by conduction. All tight coverings,
whether of animals or plants, retain very little heat, when compared with
loose coverings ; and hence mats, when drawn tightly round bushes, or
nailed closely against trees on walls, are much less effective than when fas-
tened over them loosely, and do not retain nearly so much heat as a covering
of straw. Coverings of sand, ashes, or rotten tan, applied to the ground, or
to the roots of herbaceous plants, are, for the same reason, much less effective
than coverings of leaves so applied ; and these, again, are much less so than
coverings of litter or long straw. The heat of the trunks of trees is pre-
vented from escaping to the extent it otherwise would do by their bark,
which is a powerful non-conductor (1^0), and the heat of the ground by a
covering of snow, which, by its spongy, porous nature, contains a great deal
of air. Without this covering, the herbaceous plants of the northern regions
could not exist; nor would spring flowers, such as the aconite, snow- drop,
crocus, daffodil, &c., in the climate of Scotland, come nearly so early into
bloom.
220. Heat is diffused amongst bodies not in contact by the process called
radiation, in consequence of which property a person standing near any body
heated to a higher temperature than himself will experience a sensation of
warmth. The radiation of heat from any body proceeds from its surface
in every direction in straight lines, in the same manner as the divergent rays
of light from an illuminated body, as, for example, a lighted candle ; and
rays of heat, like rays of light, may be reflected from polished surfaces, and
transmitted and refracted through transparent substances, and even polarised.
But though it be time that heat, in proceeding from a body, begins by radiat-
ing from it at right angles and in straight lines, yet this can only be strictly
said of heat which is radiated perpendicularly into the atmosphere. Thus,
from a pipe of water equally heated, the heat tends to radiate at right angles
from its surface in all directions; yet none but those rays which proceed from
the uppermost part of the convex surface of the pipe will preserve their per-
pendicularity. All the other rays, from their first contact with the air, will
be deflected upwards, being in fact carried in that direction by the heating
effects which those rays themselves produce upon the particles of air on which
they impinge. The property of radiation, however, is that which chiefly
concerns the horticulturist; and the following description of this pheno-
mena is given by Mr. Daniel], the author of by far the best essay which
has yet appeared on climate, as connected with horticulture.
221. Radiation of heat is the " power of emitting it in straight lines in every
direction, independently of contact, and may be regarded as a property
common to all matter. Co-existing with it, in the same degrees, may be
regarded the power of absorbing heat so emitted from other bodies. Polished
metals, and the fibres of vegetables, may be considered as placed at the two
extremities of the scale upon which these properties in different substances
may be measured. If a body be so situated that it may receive just as
REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. ('9
much radiant heat as itself projects, its temperature remains the same ; if
the surrounding bodies emit heat of greater intensity than the same body, its
temperature rises, till the quantity which it receives exactly balances its
expenditure, at which point it again becomes stationary ; and if the power
of radiation be exerted under circumstances which prevent a return, the tem-
perature of the body declines. Thus, if a thermometer be placed in the focus
of a concave metallic mirror, and turned towards any clear portion of the sky,
at any period of the day, it will fall many degrees below the temperature of
another thermometer placed near it out of the mirror ; the power of radiation
is exerted in both thermometers, but to the first all return of radiant heat is
cut off. while the other receives as much from the surrounding bodies as
itself projects. This interchange amongst bodies takes places in transparent
media as well as in vacua ; but in the former case the effect is modified by
the equalising power of the medium." This description is clear and satisfac-
tory ; but it must not be supposed, that though the balance of temperature
will not be disturbed from the effects of radiation when the body is completely
enclosed, yet that it may not be so by the other law of heat, conduction.
222. "Any portion of the surface of the globe which is fully turned towards
the sun receives more radiant heat than it projects, and becomes heated ;
but when, by the revolution of the axis, this portion is turned from the
source of heat, the radiation into space still continues, and, being uncom-
pensated, the temperature declines. In consequence of the different degrees
in which different bodies possess this power of radiation, two contiguous
portions of the system of the earth will become of different temperatures ;
and if on a clear night wre place a thermometer upon a grass plat, and
another upon a gravel walk or the bare soil, we shall find the temperature
of the former many degrees below that of the latter. The fibrous texture
of the grass is favourable to the emission of the heat, but the dense surface
of the gravel seems to retain and fix it. But this unequal effect will only
be perceived when the atmosphere is unclouded, and a free passage is open
into space ; for even a light mist will arrest the radiant matter in its course,
and return as much to the radiating body as it emits. The intervention of
more substantial obstacles will of course equally prevent the result, and the
balance of temperature will not be disturbed in any substance which is not
placed in the clear aspect of the sky. A portion of a grass plat under the
protection of a tree or hedge will generally be found, on a clear night, to
be eight or ten degrees warmer than surrounding unsheltered parts ; and it
is well known to gardeners that less dew and frost are to be found in such
situations than in those which are wholly exposed. There are many inde-
pendent circumstances which modify the effects of this action, such as the
state of the radiating body, its power of conducting heat, &c. If, for in-
stance, the body be in a liquid or aeriform state, although the process may
go on freely, as in water, the cold produced by it will not accumulate upon
the surface, but will be dispersed by known laws throughout the mass ; and
if a solid mass be a good radiator but a bad conductor of heat, the frigorific
effect will be condensed upon the face which is exposed. So upon the sur-
face of the earth absolute stillness of the atmosphere is necessary for the
accumulation of cold upon the radiating body ; for if the air be in motion,
it disperses and equalises the effect with a rapidity proportioned to its
velocity." (Hort. Trans, vol. vi. p. 10.)
223. All the phenomena connected with dew or hoarfrost have been ex-
70 HEAT, CONSIDERED WITH
plained by Dr. Wells on these principles. The deposition of moisture is
owing to the cold produced in bodies by radiation, which condenses the
atmospheric vapour on their surfaces. The deposition of dew takes place
upon vegetables, but not upon the naked soil, because the latter is a bad
radiator as well as a bad conductor of heat. The fibres of short grass are
particularly favourable to the formation of dew. Dr. Wells says that dew
is " never formed upon the good conducting surfaces of metals, but is rapidly
deposited upon the bad conducting surfaces of filamentous bodies, such as
cotton, wool, &c." There would appear to be some mistake in the assertion,
that dew is never formed on metals ; for any one may prove the contrary by
breathing on the blade of a knife. It is true dew is seldom found on bright
surfaces, such as metals or glass, in the form of drops, as it is on rough and
pointed objects like wool, grass, &c. ; but there can be no doubt of its exist-
ence on these bodies, though in a less conspicuous form. Were this not the
case, the law of the deposition of water from air would not be universal.
This law is, that moisture, or deposition of moisture, including that modifi-
cation of it called dew, is deposited more or less on all bodies in absolute
contact with the air, whenever the temperature of the air is higher than that
of the body with which it is in contact.
224. In remarking that dew is never formed upon metals, Mr. Daniell
observes, " it is necessary to distinguish a secondary effect which often causes
a deposition of moisture upon every kind of surface indiscriminately. Tho
cold which is produced upon the surface of the radiating body is communi-
cated by slow degrees to the surrounding atmosphere ; and if the effect be
great and of sufficient continuance, moisture is not only deposited upon the
solid body, but is precipitated in the air itself; from which it slowly sub-
sides, and settles upon everything within its range.
225. " The formation of dew is one of the circumstances which modify
and check the refrigerating effect of radiation ; for, as the vapour is con-
densed, it gives out the latent heat writh which it was combined in its elastic
form, and thus, no doubt, prevents an excess of depression which might in
many cases prove injurious to vegetation. A compensating arrangement is
thus established, which, while it produces all the advantages of this gentle
effusion of moisture, guards against injurious concentration of the cause by
which it is produced."
220. " The effects of radiation come under the consideration of the hor-
ticulturist in two points of view : the first regards the primary influence
upon vegetables exposed to it ; the second, the modifications produced by it
upon the atmosphere of particular situations. To vegetables growing in the
climates for which they were originally designed by nature, there can be no
doubt that the action of radiation is particularly beneficial, from the depo-
sition of moisture which it determines upon their foliage : but to tender
plants artificially trained to resist the rigours of an unnatural situation, this
extra degree of cold may prove highly prejudicial. It also appears probable,
from observation, that the intensity of this action increases with the distance
from the equator to the poles ; as the lowest depression of the thermometer
which has been registered between the tropics, from this cause, is 12°,
whereas in the latitude of London it not unfrequently amounts to 17°. But
however this may be, it is certain that vegetation in this country is liable to
be affected at night from the influence of radiation, by a temperature below
the freezing point of water, ten months in the year ; and even in the two
REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE.
months, July and August, which are the only exceptions, a thermometer
covered with wool will sometimes fall to 35°. It is, however, only low
vegetation upon the ground which is exposed to the full rigour of this effect.
In such a situation, the air which is evolved by the process lies upon the sur-
face of the plants, and from its weight cannot make its escape ; but from the
foliage of a tree or shrub it glides off and settles upon the ground."
227. " Anything which obstructs the free aspect of the sky arrests in
proportion the progress of this refrigeration^ and the slightest covering of
cloth or matting annihilates it altogether. Trees trained upon a wall or
paling, or plants sown under their protection, are at once cut off from a
large portion of this evil, and are still further protected if within a moderate
distance of another opposing screen." (Ibid. vol. vi. p. 12.)
228. Almost all the modes in practice of protecting plants are founded on
the doctrine of radiation, and hence the gardener should keep constantly
in his miud the fact, that all bodies placed in a medium colder than
themselves are continually giving out their heat in straight lines, and
that these straight lines, when the body is surrounded by air, may always
be reflected back on the body from which they emanate by the slightest
covering placed at a short distance from them; while, on the other
hand, if this slight covering is applied close to the body, instead of
reflecting back the heat, it will carry it off by conduction : that is, the heat
will pass through the thin covering closely applied, and be radiated from
its surface. Hence, in covering sashes with mats, a great advantage is ob-
tained by laying straw between the mats and the glass, or by any other
means of keeping the mat a few inches above the frame. Hence also when
the branches of trees are to be protected by mats, they will be rendered
much more efficient if first surrounded by straw, fern, or some other light
body which contains in its interstices a good deal of air. It should be borne
in mind, Mr. Daniell observes, " that the radiation is only transferred from
the tree to the mat, and the cold of the latter will be conducted to the former
in every point where it touches. Contact should therefore be prevented by
hoops or other means properly applied, and the stratum of air which is
enclosed will, by its low conducting power, effectually secure the plant.
With their foliage thus protected, and the roots well covered with litter,
many evergreens might doubtless be brought to survive the rigour of our
winters which are now confined to the greenhouse and conservatory." The
practice thus recommended in 1824 is now, 1841, generally adopted in the
management of plants on conservative walls.
229. " The secondary effect which radiation has upon the climate of par-
ticular situations is a point which is less frequently considered than the
primary one which we have been investigating, but which requires perhaps
still more attention. The utmost concentration of cold can only take place
in a perfectly still atmosphere : a very slight motion of the air is sufficient
to disperse it. A low mist is often formed in meadows in particular situ-
ations, which is the consequence of the slow extension of this cold in the air,
as before described ; the agitation of merely walking through this conden-
sation is frequently sufficient to disperse and melt it. A valley surrounded
by low hills is more liable to the effects of radiation than the tops and sides
of the hills themselves ; and it is a well-known fact that dew and hoarfrost
are always more abundant in the former than in the latter situations. It
72 HEAT, CONSIDERED WITH
is not meant to include in this observation places surrounded by lofty and
precipitous hills which obstruct the aspect of the sky, for in such the con-
trary effect would be produced. Gentle slopes, which break the undulations
of the air without naturally circumscribing the heavens, are most efficient
in promoting this action ; and it is worthy of remark and consideration, that
by walls and other fences, we may artificially combine circumstances which
may produce the same injurious effect."
2-30. u But the influence of hills upon the nightly temperature of the valleys
which they surround is not confined to this insulation ; radiation goes on
upon their declivities, and the air which is condensed by the cold, rolls down
and lodges at their feet. Their sides are thus protected from the chill, and
adouble portion falls upon what many are apt to consider the more sheltered
situation. Experience amply confirms these theoretical considerations. It
is a very old remark, that the injurious effect of cold occurs chiefly in hollow
places, and that frosts are less severe upon hills than in neighbouring plains.
The leaves of the Vine, the Walnut-tree, and the succulent shoots of Dahlias
and Potatoes, are often destroyed by frost in sheltered valleys, on nights
when they are perfectly untouched upon the surrounding eminences ; and
the difference, on the same night, between two thermometers placed in the
two situations, in favour of the latter, has amounted to thirty degrees."
231. " Little is in the power of the Horticulturist to effect in the way of
exalting the powers of the climate in the open air ; except by choice of situa-
tion with regard to the sun, and the concentration of its rays upon. walls and
other screens. The natural reverberation from these and the subjacent soil
is, however, very effective, and few of the productions of the tropical regions
are exposed to a greater heat than a well-trained tree upon a wall in sum-
mer. Indeed, it would appear from experiment that the power of radiation
from the sun, like that of radiation from the earth, increases with the dis-
tance from the equator ; and there is a greater difference between a thermo-
meter placed in the shade and another in the solar rays in this country, than
in Sierra Leone or Jamaica. This energy of the sun is at times so great,
that it often becomes necessary to shade delicate flowers from its influ-
ence ; and I have already pointed out (227) a case in which it would be
desirable to try the same precaution with the early blossom of certain fruit-
trees. The greatest power is put forth in this country in June, while the
greatest temperature of the air does not take place till July. The tempera-
ture of summer may thus be anticipated a month in well-secured situations."
(Ibid. p. 16.)
232. The construction of houses for growing the plants of warm climates, or
for forcing, is founded chiefly on the doctrine of radiation, as well as on that
of producing heat by combustion or fermentation. The roof and sides of a
frame or a hothouse serve the purpose of reflecting back the heat of the
bodies within, whether that heat is only such as the soil enclosed naturally
affords, or whether it is generated artificially. But though the roofs of hot-
houses reflect back great part of the heat which is radiated to them, yet a
great part also is conducted through the glass to its outer surface, and thence
radiated into the free air. To prevent this waste of heat, without diminishing
the quantity of light transmitted through the glass, is a desideratum in hot-
house building. In Russia double sashes are used, and while the plants
within are in a dormant state little injury is sustained by them ; but in green-
REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 73
bouses .and botanic stoves in tins country, where the plants are kept growing
throughout the winter, this mode of saving heat would, for many purposes,
exclude too much light.
233. The power of man over the heat of the free atmosphere is compara-
tively limited. Nevertheless, as heat is carried off from the surface of the
ground, and from all other objects, by wind, by radiation, and by evaporation,
it follows that heat may be saved from the wind by shelter, and in being
radiated into the air by a partial covering of the ground, on a large scale, by
scattered standard trees, or, on a smaller scale, by covering beds or borders
with straw ; and it may be saved from being carried off by evaporation by
under-draining, surface -draining, and by such a composition of the soil as
will readily admit the infiltration of water, so as to render it at all times,
except during rains, tolerably dry. Other modes of increasing the heat of
the atmosphere have been mentioned (231), or will readily occur; but per-
haps those of most practical value are shelter and adding to the dryness of
the soil.
234. A distinction is to be made between increasing the heat of the atmo-
sphere and the soil, and preventing the waste of the heat which they already
contain. This, also, is to be effected chiefly by counteracting radiation. Mr.
Lymburn, a scientific cultivator of great experience, has the following excel-
lent observations on this subject : — " The great effort," he says, " should be to
retain (if possible) the heat which was accumulated near the plants through
the day. If water be near, it has a tendency to assume the state of vapour,
and rob the air of its heat ; the sap of the plant may be more abundant, also,
from this cause, and increase the expansion of the fluids by frost, which may
end in the bursting and laceration of the vessels, and be the cause of death.
When a clear cold night succeeds to a wet day, if the night is long and the
atmosphere does not get cloudy, the heat radiates upwards from the earth
and plants into the cold air, while the evening at first is comparatively warm.
The cold is also greatly accelerated by the evaporation of moisture : it is
calculated that it takes above 800° of heat to convert water into steam ; and
though vapour does not require so much, part of the vapour being chemically
attracted by the atmosphere, still the consumption is great. From these
causes the earth and plants by degrees get so cold, from having parted with
their heat, that their temperature descends below the freezing point. In
spring and autumn the air is comparatively warm, and the nights not so long ;
and hence spring and autumn frosts seldom take place till near sunrise : and if
a cloud happens to settle above any portion of the earth about that time,
before the earth has been cooled down to the freezing point, it prevents the
farther radiation of the heat upwards ; and hence we often find places lying
contiguous and below the cloud to be saved from frost at one time, while at
another they will be much hurt. Where plants partially cover one another,
they help to prevent radiation ; and when one plant is more covered with
moisture than another, or growing more vigorously, more full of watery
sap, and the bark more tender, from these and other causes one plant is
often, to all appearance, unaccountably killed, while another is left unhurt.
235. In order to protect plants from frost^ we should study to have the
plants themselves and the earth around as dry as possible towards the even-
ing. The situation for plants liable to be hurt by spring and autumn frosts
should be as much elevated as possible, in order to have the benefit of the
wind in dispersing the cold heavy air and bringing forward the warmer ; in
74 ' HEAT, CONSIDERED WITH
low situations the cold air, being heavier, collects, and not being benefited
by the dispersion of the wind and bringing forward a warmer air, plants are
much more liable to be hurt by slight frosts in such situations. Wherever
it is possible, when the clearness and coldness of the air indicate a tendency
to frost, plants that are worth the expense should be covered with the best
non-conducting substances we can fall in with. Metals are the worst, if
polished and bright in the colour : however, they are better non-conductors
than when dark-coloured and rough ; wood is still better ; but, unless when
saturated with moisture, woollen, next to furs and eider-down, is the best of
any, from the confined air retained between the hairs of the wool.
230. Whatever covering is used, whether straw mats, bast mats, cloth, or
wool, or wood, they should be elevated above the surface to be covered, so as
to contain as much confined air as possible. Confined air is one of the worst
conductors of heat ; the covering will not radiate or give out heat till the
confined air and covering are both heated above the state of the atmosphere ;
and the transmission of heat will take place more slowly through the con-
fined air than anything else. Thus, for very little trouble, by elevating our
coverings, we surround our plants or plant-structures with a substance which
is very retentive of heat, and increases the power of the covering in an
immense degree. The heat has most tendency to ascend upwards, and this
should be most guarded against ; but it will also escape by the sides : and to
confine the air and heat completely, the plant or plant-structure must be
covered all round from the external air. A perfectly air-tight covering
would be with difficulty either procured or applied ; but apertures in direct
communication with the external air, may be guarded in such a manner as
to prevent the escape of heat. Thus, if we suppose four coverings of woollen
netting, with the meshes of 1-10 in. square open, and exactly as much space
between the meshes closed ; then these four covers would afford comparatively
little protection if placed so as the openings would be directly over each other ;
but by alternately placing over each other the open and the closed parts, the
egress of heated air, as well as the ingress of cold air, would be very much
interrupted. The warm air would have to deviate three times from its
direct upward tendency, which its greater elasticity, derived from the heat,
imparts to it ; and the cold air would have to turn as often from the course
in which, by gravitation, it would otherwise proceed downwards. The cur-
rents of both the internal and external air would thus be impeded, and the
interchange of temperature reduced to the very slow process resulting from
mere contact.
237. Wall-trees should have a broad coping of wood on the wall, to pre-
vent the ascent of heat ; and woollen nets drawn down before tender peaches,
&c., in cold nights, and carefully removed in good weather through the day,
are a great help, when not left on in all weathers. The wall, for tender
fruit-trees, or other tender plants, is best built of porous materials, as bricks,
which retain the heat from the confined air better than stone ; and they
should be built with hollow chambers for the same purpose. Where paint-
ing is needed, white is the best colour. To prevent the bad effects of cold
east winds in the spring, causing the sap to descend in standard fruit-trees,
and destroying the blossom when expanded by the check it gives to the
ascent of the sap that should nourish it, the stems and branches should be
baund with straw ropes, and the ground mulched.
238. Various situations should be chosen to protect tender shrubs and
REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 75
^ according to the nature of the plant. For those that spring early, and
are apt to be nipped by spring frosts, a north border and cold soil are best to
retard their time of starting till the danger from frost is less : for those that
suffer from want of the wood being ripened sufficiently, as many American
plants which have a warmer summer in their native situation to ripen the
wood, as also for those that suffer by autumn frosts before the wood is
ripened, a south exposure and warm dry early soil are best : in dry soils
there is not so much wood made, but that which is made is more easily
ripened ; and the more sun, the more likelihood that the wood will be
ripened before frost sets in. In some late wet autumns, some of the hardiest
of our trees have been killed : transplanted Birch, after being some years
transplanted ; Oaks, that were apparently sound, dying down half their
length in the ensuing spring ; and seedling American Oaks dying off in the
ensuing summer, after having begun to grow ; thus showing that even the
hardiest of our trees may be affected, from their wood not being sufficiently
ripened in a cold wet autumn.
239. The presence of a stream or river is generally allowed to increase
the tendency to slight frosts in spring and autumn. The surface of the
water ) as it condenses by cold, descends to the bottom, and a warm stratum
succeeds to the surface ; and so far the tendency is towards heating rather
than cooling the air : but the great evaporation that takes place through the
day, and early in the evening, robs the air of so much caloric, that fields
situated near shallow rivers, streams, or bogs, have generally been found
most liable to frost ; near the sea, or near great bodies of deep water, the
first -mentioned effect of a succession of warmer strata to the surface pre-
vails, and we have less tendency to freezing.
240. Watering in the morning early, if the frost has not penetrated to the
juices of the plant, may, by washing off the cold dew, prevent the frost
from penetrating ; and covering from the sun may save a plant partially hurt
from the excessive change of temperature, if a bright sunny day succeed the
frosty night : but no power on earth can recover the plant if the juices have
been exposed by freezing till the vessels are burst, which may be known by
the change of colour in the leaves by the suffusion of the sap. If some of
the most tender leaves only are hurt on the young growths, the plant may
survive ; if the wood is generally young and succulent, as in seedlings,
Dahlias, £c., the whole plant generally perishes, unless where there is an
old ripened root or wood to renew vegetation. Some plants, as Beech, that
throw out or evolve most of their young buds in spring, are apt to perish,
even though some years old, before the latest buds can spring : the Oak,
Ash, &c., that have always spare buds, are not so apt to perish." (Gard.
Mag. vol. xvi. p. 4J30.)
241. The general conclusions to be drawn from the observations contained
in this section are : 1, that the heat of the soil and of the free atmosphere
may be increased by diminishing evaporation, so as to receive a greater ad-
vantage from the rays of the sun ; and 2, that it may be preserved 'by
checking radiation. The means for diminishing evaporation are draining,
improving the constituent parts of the soil, and shelter from cold winds ; and
the means of diminishing radiation are simply coverings placed over the soil,
or the plant about which the heat is to be retained.
76 ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE, CONSIDERED
SECT. II. — Atmospheric Moisture, considered with reference to Horticulture.
242. The existence of water in air, even when the latter is in its driest,
coldest, and purest state, is easily proved ; and the quantity of aqueous
vapour which it holds hi suspension has been ascertained by experiment. It
varies with the temperature, increasing as the heat is greater, in something
like a geometrical ratio. " At 50° Fahr. air contains about 1-50 of its
volume of vapour ; and as the specific gravity of vapour is to that of air
nearly as 10 to 15, this is about 1-75 of its weight. At 100°, and supposing
that there is a free communication with water, it contains about 1-14 part
in volume, or 1-21 in weight." (Davy's Ag. Chem. Oth ed. p. 198.) Water
is also held in the atmosphere hi a grosser form than that of elastic vapour ;
for example, as mist, fog, or clouds, which three forms only differ in their
appearances, and not in their nature. Mists are those clouds near the surface
of the ground ; and fogs are only more dense mists, or, perhaps, mists diffused
to a greater height in the atmosphere. Mists are of a floating nature, and
the air is often seen clear above and below them ; but fogs are generally more
dense, and they pervade the atmosphere to a greater extent. It will be found
afterwards that it is of some importance to bear in mind the distinction between
water held in suspension in the atmosphere in the state of invisible elastic
vapour, and held in suspension in the state of steam, mist, or fog : in these
latter states it is frequently found in greenhouses in the winter season, and
in frames and pits, where the heat is communicated through the moist soil by
a bed of fermenting dung laid below it.
243. To measure the quantity of elastic vapour in the atmosphere, Hy-
grometers have been invented, and the degree of moisture is indicated in
these instruments by what is called the dew-point. The best hygrometer
is that of Daniell ; but as some nicety is required in its use, a substi-
tute has been found in two common thermometers. The mode of ren-
dering these a substitute for a hygrometer is thus explained by Mr.
Wailes: — "The dew-point is that degree of temperature, in any place,
at which moisture is deposited from the surrounding atmosphere upon
any object of that particular temperature ; and it depends, of course, upon
the humidity of the air. If, therefore, the air is very moist, the slightest
depression of the heat of the body in it will cause dew to form ; and, on the
contrary, if very dry, it will require a considerable fall of temperature to
produce that result. Hence it is that the cold produced by evaporation of a
liquid will be proportioned to the hygrometric state of the surrounding
medium ; and by measuring that degree of cold, we readily ascertain the
degree of humidity. The common thermometer is the best instrument for
the purpose of showing the temperature ; and we have only to keep its bulb
wet with some evaporating liquid of the same temperature as the medium
it is suspended in, to measure the degree of cold produced by such evapo-
ration, and thereby to find the dew-point." (Gard. Mag. vol. xv. p. 506.)
Two thermometers being obtained and placed together, one must have the
bulb dry to mark the temperature, and the other the bulb wet to indicate
the cold produced. The bulbs of both thermometers should be covered with
a fold of white silk or muslin, in order that both may be on a par, with
respect to the reception of heat from the atmosphere in which they are
placed, and pure water must be supplied to one of them from a phial or
other vessel placed near it, by a thread of floss silk acting as a siphon.
WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 77
The cover of the moistened bulb and the silk thread must be renewed
occasionally. The greater the difference between the heat indicated by the
moistened thermometer and the dry one, the greater will be the want of
atmospheric moisture. A table, with explanatory observations, will be found
in our Appendix. Mason's hygrometer, which Mr. Newman informs us was
in use upwards of thirty years ago by Sir H. Davy and others, (though
recently brought into notice by Mason,) contains two common thermometers
mounted side by side, with a glass fountain for water fixed between them ;
it is a very neat instrument ; but the mode of using two thermometers above
described is sufficient for all ordinary purposes. Still though the hygrometric
state of the air may be known by a dry and a moistened thermometer, such
as that bearing the name of Mason, the latter showing a depression corre-
sponding with the rapidity of evaporation at the time, yet it is allowed by all
who have studied the subject maturely, that the results are not so much to
be depended on as when obtained by means of Daniell's hygrometer.
244. Having described the means which may be resorted to in order to
ascertain the hygrometric state of the atmosphere, we shall now give an
example of the utility of that knowledge for horticultural purposes. We
shall suppose that the grape is to be forced in a vinery ; and we shall first
imagine the plant growing under the most favourable circumstances in its
native country, at the time of its flowering ; enjoying a temperature of 7C° or
80° through the day, with 8° or ]0° of dryness, according to the hygrometer
of Mason or Daniell. At night, whilst the air has still a genial warmth,' it is
also charged with a refreshing moisture, or, in other words, it is in a state of
saturation. The leaves expand, and the shoots become rapidly extended.
The conditions under which this takes place, in the native country of the
grape, we would wish to imitate in its artificial culture in our vineries. In
a vinery we can, even in cold weather, command heat, and the degree of
dryness through the day will not be much in excess ; but when night comes,
although we can still keep up the heat, the moisture is diminished instead of
being increased. More fire-heat being required, the air in contact with the
hot flues, or hot-water pipes, ascends upwards in consequence of its increasing
elasticity, till it reaches the cold glass ; the latter condenses the vapour which
the air contains, just as the refrigerator of a still condenses, by its coldness,
the spirituous or other vapour contained in the worm ; and the condensed
vapour may be seen trickling down the glass roof. The portions of air thus
successively drained of moisture being also cooled by contact with the glass,
become specifically heavier, sink and give place to a fresh supply of warmer
air, which in its turn descends, likewise deprived of its moisture. Herein
we have discovered the source of an evil, the amount of which may be accu-
rately ascertained by means of the hygrometer ; and it will sometimes, under
such circumstances as are stated, indicate as much as 20° of dryness, or the
double of what the vine naturally had in the day, instead of being in the
natural state of saturation at night.
245. " The amount of evaporation from the soil, and of exhalation from the
foliage of the vegetable kingdom," Mr. Daniell observes, " depends upon two
circumstances, — the saturation of the air with moisture, and the velocity
of its motion. They are in inverse proportion to the former, and in direct
proportion to the latter. When the air is dry, vapour ascends in it with
great rapidity from every surface capable of affording it ; and the energy of
78 ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE, CONSIDERED
this action is greatly promoted by wind, which removes it from the exhaling
body as fast as it is formed, and prevents that accumulation which would
otherwise arrest the process." Over the state of saturation the horticulturist
has little or no control in the open air ; but over its velocity he has some com-
mand. He can break the force of the blast by artificial means, such as walls,
palings, hedges, or other screens ; or he may find natural shelter in situations
upon the acclivities of hills. Excessive exhalation is very injurious to many
of the processes of vegetation, and no small proportion of what is commonly
called blight may be attributed to this cause. Evaporation increases in a
prodigiously rapid ratio with the velocity of the wind, and anything which
retards the motion of the latter is very efficacious in diminishing the amount
of the former : the same surface which, in a calm state of the air, would
exhale 100 parts of moisture, would yield 125 in a moderate breeze, and
150 in a high wind. The dryness of the atmosphere in spring renders the
effect most injurious to the tender shoots of this season of the year, and
the easterly winds especially are most to be opposed in their course. The
moisture of the air flowing from any point between N.E. and S.E. inclusive,
is to that of the air from the other quarter of the compass in the proportion
of 81 4 to 907, upon an average of the whole year: and it is no uncommon
thing in spring for the dew-point to be more than 20 degrees below the
temperature of the atmosphere in the shade, and the difference has even
amounted to 30 degrees. The effect of such a degree of dryness is parching
in the extreme, and if accompanied with wind is destructive to the blossoms
of tender plants. The use of high walls, especially upon the northern and
eastern sides of a garden, in checking this evil, cannot be doubtful ; and in
the case of tender fruit-trees, such screens should not be too far apart.
246. When trees are trained upon a wall with a southern aspect, they
have the advantage of a greatly exalted temperature ; but this temperature,
in spring, differs from the warmth of a more advanced period of the year, or
of a more southern climate, in not being accompanied by an increase of
moisture. In this extremely dry state of the atmosphere, the enormous
exhalations from the blossoms of tender fruit-trees which must thus be in-
duced cannot fail of being extremely detrimental ; the effect of shading
the plants from the direct rays of the sun should therefore be ascertained.
The state of the weather referred to often occurs in April, May, and June,
but seldom lasts many hours. Great mischief, however, may arise in a very
small interval of time, and the disadvantage of a partial loss of light cannot
be put in comparison with the probable good effect of shading, by mats or
canvas, at the distance of a foot or two from the wall." (Idem.)
247. Mr. Daniell " kept a register of the weather, and has seen, in the
month of May, the thermometer in the sun at 101°, while the dew-point was
only 34° : the state of saturation of the air, upon a south wall, consequently,
only amounted to 120°; a state of dryness which is certainly not surpassed by
an African harmattan. The shelter of a mat on such occasions would often
prevent the sudden injury which so frequently arises at this period of the
year." With great submission to Mr. Daniell, who must necessarily know
so much more of the subject than we can do, we cannot help thinking that
this statement must be somewhat exaggerated. In this country we certainly
have the sun frequently sufficiently powerful in summer to raise the ther-
mometer in the free air, at a distance from the wall, to 101°, whilst the air
WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 79
in the shade may, perhaps, be only 6G°, and the dew-point 60°. \Ve should
in this case say, that the degree of dryness was 10°, and not 51°, as would
be the result of subtracting 50° from 101°, as Mr. Daniell has done 30° from
] 50°. Supposing a screen were put so as to intercept the sun's rays from the
thermometer, the latter would soon fall, and it would be found that the tem-
perature of the air was really not 101°, and therefore that the latter number
should not have been taken for the purposes of giving the difference or degree
of dryness.
248. 4i Some of the present practices of gardening," Mr. Dauiell continues,
" are founded upon experience of similar effects ; and it is well known that
cuttings of plants succeed best in a border with a northern aspect protected
from the wind ; or if otherwise situated, they require to be screened from
the force of the noon-day sun. If these precautions be unattended to,
they speedily droop and die. For the same reason, the autumn is selected
for placing them in the ground, as well as for transplanting trees; the
atmosphere at that season being saturated with moisture, is not found to
exhaust the plant before it has become rooted in the soil.
249. Over the absolute state of vapour in the air we are wholly
powerless ; and by no system of watering can we affect the dew-point in the
free atmosphere. This is determined in the upper regions ; it is only,
therefore, by these indirect methods, and by the selection of proper seasons,
that we can preserve the more tender shoots of the vegetable kingdom from
the injurious effects of excessive exhalation." (Hort. Trans. , vol. vi. p. 7.)
250. Over rain, we may be said to have little influence ; but though we
cannot prevent rain falling from the clouds, we can prevent it from falling
upon particular plants or objects. By copings, we can protect fruit trees
against walls from perpendicular rain, and thus preserve the bloom on the
surface of fruit which would otherwise be washed off by it. The roofs of
plant-structures of every kind, and even the surface of the ground, may be
protected from rain by thatching or covering with any body that will carry
off the rain at particular points, or channels, whence it may be conveyed
away in underground drains. By these and other means the soil of a garden
in a wet climate may be kept much drier, and consequently warmer, than
it otherwise would be. Some situations are more liable to rain than others,
such as the vicinity of woods and hills, and places exposed to the Western
Ocean generally. Those, on the other hand, which are exposed to the
Eastern Ocean have rains less frequently ; but these rains have a better effect
on vegetation, because the soil, from the less frequency of rain, being gene-
rally drier, is warmer to receive them.
251. Though we have little or no power over the moisture of the free
atmosphere, we may be said to have the perfect command of the atmospheric
moisture of hothouses. Till within the last twenty or thirty years the prin-
cipal points attended to in the atmosphere of hothouses were heat and light ;
but meteorological and chemical researches having proved, as we have seen
(242 and 253), that with every increase of temperature in the open air
there is always an increase of aqueous vapour, this condition began to
be imitated in hothouses in which tropical plants were cultivated. u Capt.
Sabine, in his meteorological researches between the tropics, rarely found,
at the hottest period of the day, so great a difference as 10 degrees on the
temperature of the air and the dew-point ; making the degree of saturation
about 730, but most frequently 5 degrees, or 850; and the mean satura-
80 ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE, CONSIDERED
tion of the air could not have exceeded 910." If the hygrometer were con-
sulted in hothouses as commonly managed, Mr. Daniell observes, " it would
be no uncommon thing to find in them a difference of 20° between the point
of condensation and the air, or a degree of moisture falling short of 500."
The causes of the dryness of our artificial climates has been admirably
pointed out by Mr. Rogers.
252. " The causes whose constant operation renders our artificial climates
unnaturally dry are principally two : the condensation of moisture on the
glass, and the escape of heated and damp air through the crevices of the
building, the space which it occupied being constantly supplied by dry ex-
ternal air. A third drain of moisture formerly existed in the absorbing surfaces
of brick flues, which drank up the moisture of the air in contact with
them, and carried it off with the smoke into the outer air. The very general
use of hot water in iron pipes has removed this nuisance, and we have now
only to contend with the two first mentioned.
253. Some idea of the drain of moisture by the escape of heated air may
be formed from the following considerations. The capacity of air for moisture,
that is to say, the quantity of water which a cubic foot of air will hold in
invisible solution, depends upon its temperature, and increases with it in a
rapid ratio. It is doubled between 44° and 66°. The consequence is, that
every cubic foot of air which escapes at the latter temperature carries
off with it twice as much moisture as it brought in. Where the difference
of temperature is greater, the drain becomes greater also : air entering at
44°, and escaping at 80°, carries off three times as much as it brought in ;
escaping at 90°, four times. Now the escape of air from our best glazed
buildings is considerable at all times, even when the lights are closed ; and
if the glazing be defective, and the laps be not puttied, it is very great in-
deed. The amount of moisture thus abstracted cannot be very easily esti-
mated, varying exceedingly according to the height and construction of the
building heated.
254. There exists, however, another drain of moisture, constantly
affecting all hothouses, however perfectly constructed, and however cau-
tiously ventilated : viz., the condensation on the glass. In this case the ex-
penditure is capable of pretty accurate calculation. It has been ascertained
by experiment, that each square foot of glass will cool 1^ cubic foot of air
as many degrees per minute as the temperature of inner air exceeds that of
outer air ; that is to say, if the temperature of outer air be 44°, and of the
house 06°, for every square foot of glass 1^ cubic feet of air will be cooled
22° per minute ; and the moisture which this air held in solution, in virtue
of its 22° of heat, will be deposited on the glass, and will either drain away
out of the house or fall in drip. The greater the difference between the
temperature of internal and external air, the greater will be the amount of
condensation ; and be it observed, that the capacity of air for moisture does
not increase simply in the arithmetical ratio of its temperature, but by a
scale considerably more rapid, so that the expenditure of moisture at high
temperatures is much greater than at low temperatures, for equal differences
between internal and external air." (Gard. Mag. vol. xvi. p. 282.)
255. This dryness of the atmosphere of hothouses Mr. Daniell has shown
to be frequently accompanied by an injurious degree of cold to the roots of
plants. " The danger of overwatering most of the plants, especially at par-
ticular periods of their growth, is in general very justly appreciated ; and in
WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 81
consequence the earth at their roots is kept in a state comparatively dry ;
the only supply of moisture being commonly derived from the pots, and the
exhalations of the leaves is not enough to saturate the air, and the conse-
quence is a prodigious power of evaporation. This is injurious to the plants
in two ways : in the first place, if the pots be at all moist, and not protected
by tan or other litter, it produces a considerable degree of cold upon their
surface, and communicates a chill to the tender fibres with which they are
lined. The danger of such a chill is carefully guarded against in the case
of watering, for it is one of the commonest precautions not to use any water
of a temperature at all inferior to that of the hot air of the house ; inattention
to this point is quickly followed by disastrous consequences. The danger is
quite as great from a moist flower-pot placed in a very dry atmosphere. "
256. " The custom of lowering the temperature of fluids in hot climates, by
placing them in coolers of wet porous earthenware, is well known, and the
common garden pot is as good a cooler for this purpose as can be made.
Under the common circumstances of the atmosphere of a hot- house, a depres-
sion of temperature, amounting to fifteen or twenty degrees, may easily le
produced upon such an evaporating surface. But the greatest mischief will
arise from the increased exhalations of the plants so circumstanced, and the
consequent exhaustion of the powers of vegetation. Some idea may be
formed of the prodigiously increased drain upon the functions of a plant
arising from an increase of dry ness in the air, from the following considera-
tion. If we suppose the amount of its perspiration, in a given time, to be
57 grains, the temperature of the air being 75°, and the dew point 70, or the
saturation of the air being 849, the amount would be increased to 120 grains
in the same time if the dew-point were to remain stationary, and the tem-
perature were to rise to 80 ; or, in other words, if the saturation of the air
were to fall to 726."
257. " The cause why plants in living rooms do not thrive so well as those
which are kept in plant structures, is chiefly owing to the extreme dry ness
of the air, while a constant drain upon the leaves and the soil of the pots is
maintained for moisture. Hence the fibres in the inside of the pots are alter-
nately moistened and dried, and cooled and heated, and the leaves are deprived
of their water by evaporation instead of by perspiration."
258. " Besides the power of transpiration, the leaves of vegetables exercise
also an absorbent function, which must be no less disarranged by any defi-
ciency of moisture. Some plants derive the greatest portion of their nutri-
ment from the vaporous atmosphere, and all are more or less dependent
upon the same source."
259. " These considerations must be sufficient," Mr. Daniell imagines,
"to place in a strong light the necessity of a strict attention to the atmosphere
of vapour in our artificial climates, and to enforce as absolute an imitation
as possible of the example of nature. The means of effecting this is the next
object of our inquiry."
260. " Tropical plants require to be watered at the root with great caution,
and it is impossible that a sufficient supply of vapour can be kept up from
this source alone. There can, however, be no difficulty in keeping the floor
of the house and the flues continually wet, and an atmosphere of great elas-
ticity may thus be maintained in a way perfectly analogous to the natural
process. Where steam is employed as the means of communicating heat, an
occasional injection of it into the air may also be had recourse to : but this
o
82 ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE CONSIDERED.
method would require much attention on the part of the superintendant,
whereas the first cannot easily be carried to excess." It is true that damp
air or floating moisture of long continuance would also be detrimental to
the health of the plants, for it is absolutely necessary that the process of
transpiration should proceed ; but there is no danger that the high tem-
perature of the hothouse should ever attain the point of saturation by
spontaneous evaporation. The temperature of the external air will always
keep down the force of the vapour ; for as in the natural atmosphere
the dew-point at the surface of the earth is regulated by the cold of the
upper regions, so in a house the point of deposition is governed by the
temperature of the glass with which it is in contact. In a well-ventilated
hothouse, by watering the floor in summer, we may bring the dew-point
within four or five degrees of the temperature of the air, and the glass will
be perfectly free from moisture ; by closing the ventilators we shall probably
raise the heat ten or fifteen degrees, but the degree of saturation will remain
nearly the same, and a copious dew will quickly form upon the glass, and
will shortly run down in streams. A process of distillation is thus established,
which prevents the vapour from attaining the full elasticity of the tempera-
ture. This action is beneficial within certain limits, and at particular seasons
of the year ; but when the external air is very cold, or radiation proceeds
very rapidly, it may become excessive and prejudicial. It is a well-known
fact, but one which I believe has never yet been properly explained, that by
attempting to keep up in a hothouse the same degree of heat at night as
during the day, the plants become scorched ; from what has been premised
it will be evident that this is owing to the low temperature of the glass, and
the consequent low dew-point in the house, which occasions a degree of
dryness which quickly exhausts the juices." Much of this evil might be
prevented by such simple and cheap means as an external covering of mats
or canvas; or by still slower conductors of heat, such as straw mats, or
" thatched hurdles ;" the latter, from the direction of the straws, throwing
off the rain, and, from their tubular construction, retaining a large proportion
of stagnated air, and hence forming an excellent non-conductor.
261. *' The heat of the glass of a hothouse at night cannot exceed the mean
of the external and internal air, and taking these at 80° and 40°, 20° of
dryness are kept up in the interior, or a degree of saturation not exceeding
628. To this in a clear night we may add at least 6° for the effects of radia-
tion, to which the glass is particularly exposed, which would reduce the
saturation to 434°, and this is a degree of drought which must be nearly
destructive. It will be allowed that the case which I have selected is by no
means extreme, and it is one which is liable to occur even in the summer
months. Now by an external covering of mats, &c., the effects of radiation
would be at once annihilated, and a thin stratum of air would be kept in
contact with the glass, which would become warmed, and consequently tend
to prevent the dissipation of the heat. But no means would of course be so
effective as double glass, including a stratum of air. Indeed, such a precau-
tion in winter seems almost essential to any great degree of perfection in this
branch of Horticulture. When it is considered, that a temperature at night
of 20° is no very unfrequent occurrence in this country, the saturation of the
air may, upon such occasions, fall to 120°; and such an evil can only at pre-
sent be guarded against by diminishing the interior heat in proportion. But
by materially lowering the temperature, we communicate a check which is
AGITATION OP THE ATMOSPHERE CONSIDERED. 83
totally inconsistent with the welfare of tropical vegetation. The chill which
is instantaneously communicated to the glass by a fall of rain and snow, and
the consequent evaporation from its surface, must also precipitate the internal
vapour, and dry the included air to a very considerable amount, and the
effect should be closely watched." (Hort. Trans., vol. vi. p. 23.)
262. " The skilful balancing of the temperature and moisture of the air," says
Dr. Lindley, " in cultivating different kinds of plants, and the just adapta-
tion of them to the various seasons of growth, constitute the most complicated
and difficult part of a gardener's art. There is some danger in laying down
any general rules with respect to this subject, so much depends upon the
peculiar habits of species, of which the modifications are endless. It may,
however, I think, be safely stated, that the following rules deserve especial
attention : —
(1.) Most moisture in the air is demanded by plants when they first begin
to grow, and least when their periodical growth is completed.
(2.) The quantity of atmospheric moisture required by plants is, cateris
paribus, in inverse proportion to the distance from the equator of the coun-
tries which they naturally inhabit.
(3.) Plants with annual stems require more than those with ligneous
stems.
(4.) The amount of moisture in the air most suitable to plants at rest, is
in inverse proportion to the quantity of aqueous matter they at that time
contain. Hence the dryness of the air required by succulent plants when
at rest." (Theory of Hort., p. 153.)
SECT. III. — The Agitation of the Atmosphere considered with reference to
Horticulture.
263. The motion of the atmosphere., known as wind, and varying in grada-
tion from the gentlest breeze to the most furious tempest, is, to a certain
extent, under the control of the horticulturist. He cannot, indeed, agitate
the air at pleasure, but he can lessen the agitation, when it is produced by
nature, by shelter ; and he can take advantage of it when it is wanted, by
exposure ; and, in hothouses, he can even create agitation. The use of wind
in the economy of nature seems to be to carry off impure exhalations from
particular spots, and to equalize in the atmosphere the diffusion of gaseous
matters, and of moisture and temperature. The free action of the wind on
the surface of the ground assists in drying it when moist, because air has a
great capacity for water ; and it promotes the vigour of plants, and especially
of trees, by the motion which it produces in their stems, branches, and leaves.
In some cases it may do good by carrying off insects, and in others injury
by bringing them. The fact that the motion of the stems and leaves of trees
by wind increases their diameter, is doubted by some, though according to
others it is easily proved by observing what takes place in fruit-trees trained
against walls, as compared with the same species growing as standards. If,
say those who are of the latter opinion, the deposition of woody matter in the
stems and branches depended on the number and exposure to the sun of the
leaves, then wall-trees must necessarily have a thicker stem than standard-
trees ; but as the contrary is the case, and as the only difference in the circum-
stances in which standard and wall-trees are placed is, that the standards are
subject to be put in motion by the wind, to that cause we must attribute the
greater thickness of their stems and branches. It is added, that tying the
G2
84 AGITATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE,
stems of transplanted trees firmly to stakes impedes the growth of that part
of their stems which is below the tie ; and that trees, after being fixed two
or three years in this way, have their stems rapidly increased in thickness
when set at liberty. De Candolle mentions a tree, which had been tied up
in such a manner that it could only move from north to south, which at last
formed a trunk the horizontal section of which was elliptic. The effect of
motion on plants generally, he considers to be increased evaporation, and a
more rapid movement of the descending sap. (Phys. Vegetale, t. iii. p. 1178.)
264. By greatly increasing the perspiration of the leaves and other parts
of plants, wind renders them less watery ; and when this is not carried to an
injurious extent, plants are by that means rendered firmer, drier, and better
adapted for being packed and sent to a distance. Hence greenhouse plants
grown in pits, where the atmosphere is continually moist, are less adapted
for being sent to a distance than such as have been grown in open, airy green-
houses ; and such as have been grown in houses heated by brick flues, are
better than those which have been grown in houses heated by hot water.
In like manner trees grown in nurseries, situated on high dry situations,
exposed to the wind, must necessarily have their wood harder and better
ripened, than such as are grown in moist sheltered valleys. The uses of
wind in the open air may be reduced to that of drying surfaces, and that of
putting plants in motion ; and the evils attending wind result from these two
properties being carried to an excess. All the advantages to be obtained
from wind in the open air in horticulture are to be obtained by exposure ;
and all the disadvantages are to be counteracted by shelter. In plant struc-
tures the imitation of wind, by the agitation of the air, will have the same
effect as in the external atmosphere, but in a diminished degree. It is also
of use, by rendering air at a high temperature more agreeable to the human
feelings than when it is in a stagnant state ; though some (268) consider that
this is to be principally attributed to the air being saturated or nearly so
with moisture.
265. Shelter^ as every gardener knows, is produced by means of walls,
hedges, plantations, and other screens, placed at right angles to the direction
of the wind ; but the force of the wind is most powerfully reduced, not by
opposing a strong barrier, such as a wall, but by an elastic, partially open,
body, such as a hedge or a thin plantation. The most effectual mode of
sheltering any territorial surface, whether level or hilly, is by scattering
over it single trees. In this way, a park or pleasure-ground in the most
exposed situation may be sheltered in every part of its surface. In this way
also an orchard or plantation of fruit-trees, the trees being equally distributed
over the ground, produces its own shelter ; but as a kitchen-garden, if planted
with standard fruit-trees so as to produce shelter, would be unfit for the
culture of culinary vegetables, the best mode of sheltering it is by crossing
it with walls and hedges at such distances as may produce the desired shelter
in the given situations. A very efficient shelter for culinary vegetables may
be produced by sticking in branches of young trees, four or five feet in length,
like pea-sticks, all over the surface on which they are grown ; or by inter-
secting the surface with lines of wicker-work hurdles, which could be put
down and taken away at pleasure. By throwing the compartments of a
kitchen-garden into squares of ten or twelve feet on the side, by wicker-
work hurdles, an effective shelter would be produced ; and by covering these
squares with netting, resting on the hurdles, a great deal of the heat radiating
from the ground would be returned to it. Hedges of thorn, hornbeam, or
CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. &J
other plants, may be made to grow on a base of two feet, and trained so as
to taper on the sides regularly to a top not thicker than an inch, at a height
of six or eight feet from the ground. Such hedges would form an elegant
and most effective shelter, provided they were at all times neatly kept. The
subject of shelter and exposure, however, in the open air is so well under-
stood, that any further observations seem unnecessary.
266. The agitation of the air in plant structures has only lately been at-
tempted ; but, as a substitute for this, a partial renewal of the air, by opening
the sashes or ventilators of such structures, has long been in practice. This,
under many circumstances, particularly in houses for tropical plants and for
forcing fruits, is very injurious to the plants, though it has been found impos-
sible to dispense with it to a certain extent. ,, The injuries sustained by the
admission of the external air into a hothouse are greater or less according
to the difference of temperature, and, consequently, as we have seen (252),
of moisture. When the external air enters a hothouse in which the air is
at a high temperature, it rushes in with considerable velocity, driving out by
the pressure of the atmosphere the hot and vaporous air by which the plants
are surrounded, and becoming heated and charged with moisture, at the
expense of the earth in the pots and the foliage of the plants (270).
267. The only complete remedy for this evil is to heat the air before it is
admitted among the plants, by causing it to pass through a system of heated
tubes ; and to saturate the heated air, as it passes through those tubes, with
moisture, by placing among them a number of vessels of water. As this
mode, however, is somewhat difficult and expensive in the attainment, a
better practice is to put the air of the house in motion, admitting to it only
occasionally a small portion of the external air. This is done in a very
satisfactory manner by the mode of heating recently introduced by Mr. Penn.
By this mode the air is continually circulating from one side of the house to
the other, ascending on one side and
descending on the other, from back
to front ; one half of every revo-
lution being among the plants, and
the other half through a drain or
tunnel under the floor, the bottom
of which is covered with water,
which, by the heated air passing
over it, is kept at the same tem-
perature as that of the house. Fig.
2 is the section of a house heated
in Mr. Penn's manner, in which a Fig. 2. Section of a Hothouse heated by hot water
is the chamber containing the heat- according to Mr. Penn's manner.
ing pipes; b a small opening in the front wall for, occasionally admitting fresh
air ; c the drain from back to front, having the bottom covered with water,
through which drain the air passes, as shown by the direction of the
arrows in the figure.
268. A sensible effect on the human feelings, produced by the atmosphere
of hothouses heated according to Mr. Penn's principle, is, that a high tem-
perature, say of 80° or 90°, can be breathed in as agreeably, and for as long a
period, as one of 60° or 70° not in motion. This result is partly attributed to
the motion given to the air ; since, in the hottest days of summer, the heat
which would be oppressive in still air, is rendered not only bearable but
even agreeable, if the air is put in motion by a breeze. In like manner the
86
AGITATION OP THE ATMOSPHERE,
absence of heat is much more severely felt when the air is in motion, than
when it is at rest. Captain Parry and his companions, when in the Polar
regions, could endure a degree of cold when the air was still, that, when it
was put into motion, they found to be quite intolerable. It is certain, how-
ever, that a part of the agreeable effect produced by the motion of the air in
Mr. Penn's hothouses is owing to the moisture which it contains ; for the
human feelings in a hothouse heated to 80°, in which no attempt has been
made to saturate the air with moisture, are much less agreeable than in one
at the same temperature in which the paths are kept moist with water.
Every one must be aware of this who has felt the heat of a stove heated by
brick flues, as compared with one heated by hot water ; for though no water
may escape from the pipes to moisten the air, yet no moisture is absorbed by
them from the air of the house. In a house heated by flues, on the contrary,
the clay of the bricks in the flue covers, and the lime by which the sides of
the flues are plastered, having, as we have seen (155 and 156), a great che-
mical attraction for water, abstract it from the air of the house, and give it
that peculiar dryness which is so unpleasant to the skin, and so oppressive
to the lungs. Alluding to this dry heat, Mr. Daniell says : —
269. " To the human feelings the impression of an atmosphere saturated
with moisture is very different from one heated to the same degree without
this precaution ; and any one coming out of a house heated in the common
way, into one well charged with vapour, cannot fail to be struck with the
difference. Those who are used to hot climates have declared that the feel
and smell of the latter exactly assimilate to those of the tropical regions."
270. The excellence, Mr. Rogers observes, " of Mr. Penn's method of
warming and ventilating buildings appears to consist in the very uniform
degree of moisture which it produces in the atmosphere. The heated air
which enters the hothouse has already received a dose of moisture nearly
sufficient to saturate it, and has not to seek its moisture among the plants, as
is generally the case. In most plant houses the pipes are placed under the
front shelves, at a considerable distance from the floor, and the atmosphere
is moistened by syringing the plants, or throwing water on the floor and
shelves. How greatly the state of an atmosphere so produced differs from
that of Mr. Penn's houses, a little consideration of the annexed sketch will
show. It is the section of a house heated by pipes under the front shelves ;
and it must be borne in mind that the capacity of air for moisture varies
with its temperature, so that air which was saturated at 56°, becomes very
dry when heated to 70°.
271. The sketch fig. 3 is the
section of a house heated by pipes in
the ordinary manner, under the front
shelves. The arrows (numbered)
indicate the course of the current.
of air. At No. 1 the air comes
heated from the pipes p, and ex-
tremely thirsty; at No. 2 it find;*
moisture among the plants, and.
rising from the damp and warm
shelf (slate, of course) ; at No. 3 it
has parted with some of its heat ; it Fig. 3. Section of a Hothouse heated by hot u-ater
is now supersaturated, and is parting in the ordinary manner.
CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE, 87
with the moisture deposited on the glass ; at No. 4 it is in the same state; at
No. 5 it has ceased to lose heat or moisture ; at No. 6 and 7 the same ; at
No. 8 it again comes within the influence of the pipes, and is heated, becoming
again very dry. Now the air which descends to the floor (8) in the first
place, is a small and feeble current, and secondly, is nearly saturated, so
that it can take up little moisture ; and what little it does get is because the
floor, being slightly warmed by the radiation of the pipes, warms, and at
the same time moistens, the air ; but, nevertheless, the air at No. 1, in which
air a visitor walks, is anything rather than saturated. My belief is that, air
nearly saturated is always agreeable to the feelings. Dry air, which is ab-
sorbing moisture, is anything but agreeable. Hence the unpleasant sen-
sation in orchidaceous houses. Now it is unnecessary to show how Mr.
Penn's plan obviates all these defects, and produces a uniformly saturated
atmosphere which must be wholesome alike to plants and men." (Gard.
Mag. vol. xvi. p. 273.) Corbett's mode of heating, by circulating water in
open gutters (which can be closed at pleasure), is said to keep the air of
those houses in which it is employed more effectually saturated with mois-
ture than any other mode. (See Gard. Mag. 1841, p. 57, and Gard. Gaz.
3841, Jan. 23.)
272. Though too much moisture can scarcely be admitted into the at-
mosphere of plant structures kept at a high temperature, yet this is not the
case with houses in which the degree of heat is not much greater than that
of the open air ; for example, Greenhouses. In these houses the object of
the gardener is frequently more to exclude frost than to increase the heat
already there ; and consequently, when the thermometer in the open air
ranges between 40° and 50°, no fire heat is required. In this case, however,
if the air is not agitated by some artificial process, it becomes surcharged with
moisture or damp, not in a state of elastic vapour, but as steam or fog. This
excess is favourable to the growth of mould or fungi on the surface of the
soil in the pots ; and being, from the excess of water, unfavourable for the
respiration of the leaves, it occasions them to decay and drop off. In cases
of this kind, it is more desirable to introduce dry air than moist air ; but as
the air of the external atmosphere is generally not drier than that of the
house, it is found desirable to employ heat so as to raise the temperature of
the house, and this raised temperature having an increased capacity for
heat, the water which was before in a state of mixture with the air is now
changed into elastic vapour ; the consequence is, that the air of the house
becomes dried, the growth of fungi checked, and the leaves of the plants no
longer decay and drop off. Some persons are of opinion that Mr. Penn's system
of circulating the air is only applicable to houses where fire heat is constantly
used, and that for greenhouses and conservatories it is nearly useless. An
experienced and scientific gardener, however, is of a directly contrary opinion.
" In addition to its use in forcing- houses, where it may be deemed indispen-
sable," he says, " I would adopt it in the greenhouse in preference to all
other modes of heating. Greenhouse plants invariably do well while we can
admit plenty of air, or while we can maintain a current to counteract the
effects of damp. But there are sometimes months together that we cannot
open a sash to effect this, without admitting air injuriously cold, or saturated
with moisture ; it is then we are doomed to see many of our tender favourites
pine, droop, and die ; and then that the advantage of an independent atmo-
00 AGITATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE CONSIDERED.
sphere, circulating at pleasure, and of any desired quality of heat and mois-
ture, become of incalculable value. Admitting damp to be the greatest
enemy that tender plants have to encounter during winter ; that a current
of air dispels that damp as effectually, and much more safely, than fire heat
(the least excess of which is always hurtful and often fatal), the conclusion
is, that plants in a damp state are really more benefited by the application
of fire heat, from the commotion it creates in the air, than from any trifling
addition it may make to the temperature. Hence the great utility of Mr.
Penn's apparatus, with which the same quantity of fuel will create a tenfold
current, giving at all times the power of maintaining sufficient heat to keep
plants in a state of health without the possibility of injuring them. Some
persons suppose that plants will thrive better in a lower circulating medium
than they will do in a higher stagnated one (that is, that they will do as
well in a current of air heated to 60°, as they would where it is stagnated
and heated to 70°) ; then I reply that we know that plants of a more hardy
nature will bear much more heat with the air in a state of circulation than
they will when it is stagnant. Therefore, with an atmosphere so truly
under our control as that produced by Mr. Penn, we may reasonably ex-
pect an approximation in the habits of plants, that will render the division
of structures, however desirable under any circumstances, less a matter of
absolute necessity than it has hitherto been. It is, I think, not improbable
that this may be the case to an extent that will render greenhouse grapes
equal to the present forced fruit." (Gard. Mag. vol. vi. 2d series, p. 64rl.
273. Pits and cucumber frames, which are kept at a high temperature
during winter, frequently have the air within surcharged with moisture to
such a degree at that season as to endanger the health of the plants. The
ordinary remedy for this evil is to admit a portion of the external air during
bright sunshine ; but a safer mode, if it can be adopted, is to admit the ex-
ternal air through tubes heated by being bedded in dung or tan, or by being
placed in contact with the flues or hot- water pipes by which the pit is heated.
By this means, the admitted air has its capacity for moisture greatly in-
creased, and it will absorb and change the steam contained in the atmosphere
of the pit and the dew-drops on the grass and framework into elastic invisible
vapour. Where hot water is used as the sole means of heating pits, if Mr.
Penn's system be adopted, the air will be kept constantly in motion, and
very little danger will arise from the damp, as will be afterwards shown
when we come to treat of the construction of pits.
274. In all plant structures change of air and ventilation are least ne-
cessary when the plants are beginning to grow, and most so when they are
coming to maturity. The reason is, that at this latter period plants are
more abundantly covered with leaves than at any other ; and these leaves
being fully expanded, more air is required to enable them to perform their
respiratory functions. It is also found that increased ventilation and a drier
air are of great advantage to the maturation of the fruit ; but by dryness of
the air must be here understood not so much the absence of invisible elastic
vapour as of steam, or watery exhalations not held in a state of combi-
nation. " When grapes begin to colour," says Mr. Duncan, a scientific and
experienced gardener, " it is of as much importance to obtain a dry atmo-
sphere as it was, previously, to have a moist one ; because the change
effected in grapes while ripening is produced under the full influence of
light, heat, and dryness : and it is well known that grapes grown in dry
LIGHT CONSIDERED, WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 89
heat, in properly managed houses, acquire a flavour superior to those grown
in plant houses, where the air is kept moist for the sake of the plants."
In corroboration of this, the same gardener mentions an instance in
which " in forcing an old house of vines a continual current of air was
admitted at the end where the fire entered, in order to maintain the tem-
perature at both ends of the house nearly alike. At the end of the
house where so much air was admitted, invariably, till the present year, the
most abundant, finest, and best coloured grapes, have been produced ; but in
the present year the case has been materially different, in consequence of
one of Dr. Arnot's stoves being placed at the other end of the house, by
which the necessity of admitting air at the usual place, and to the usual
extent, became unnecessary. The difference in the colour and quality of
the grapes between the two ends of the house is now inappreciable." (Gard.
Mag., vol. i., third series, p. 25.) It will be observed, that in this case the
air was heated before entering the house, which the writer represents as
essentially necessary. " Good grape-growers," Mr. Duncan adds, " seldom
admit a current of air directly from the atmosphere, except in extremely
warm weather, and, even then, never through a doorway, unless it be situ-
ated at the back of the house, where the temperature is in general higher
than in front : to admit air in front, unless in very mild weather, would be
most injurious to the plants."
275. It is certain that in all countries the climate, during the growing sea-
son, is moist, and at the ripening season comparatively dry, and hence the
practice of withholding water from fruit-bearing plants under glass, when
the fruit is ripening, is in direct imitation of nature. It is also natural to
suppose, that in the ripening season in the open air, when the surface of the
soil is dry, the atmosphere over it will be less saturated with vapour than
when the soil is moist ; and hence, the recommendation of dry air for the
maturation of fruits is also natural. The effect of this air must be greatly
to increase the perspiration of the leaves, which is probably favourable to
the increased action of solar light, in the production of the saccharine mat-
ter, and the peculiar odoriferous properties of fruits. Where growth, and
not the maturation of fruit, is the object, more water in the leaves appears
necessary, probably to aid in the production of carbon.
276. It will be obvious, from the foregoing remarks, that the mode of
admitting air to hothouses, by a range of ventilators in front, and a corres-
pondent range at the back, must be highly injurious to the plants in the winter
season; and, indeed, more or less so at all seasons, when there is much
difference between the temperature of the open air and that of the house
to be ventilated.
277. Indeed, cultivators may lay it down as a general principle, that
neither water nor air ought to be given to plants at a much lower tempera-
ture than that of the soil in which they grow, or the air by which they are
surrounded.
SECT. IV. — Light) considered with reference to Horticulture.
278. Light, as we have seen (143), is one of the most important agents
in the growth of plants. It is to light they owe their green colour, and
the maturation of their fruits. When plants are grown in situations where
they obtain no light, as in dark cellars, instead of that beautiful variety of
colours, and of properties, which they present when grown exposed to the
90 LIGHT, CONSIDERED WITH
air and the sun, they consist only of a colourless, inodorous, insipid mass ;
so much so, that when they are dried and burned they do riot give out flame.
The carbon contained in all plants, and which of course is in greatest abun-
dance in such as have woody stems, is entirely the result of the action of
light on the leaves, by which plants are enabled to decompose carbonic acid,
and thus to fix its carbon in their structure and expel its oxygen. (Dec.
Phys. vol. i. p. 47.) Fruits before they are ripe are acid ; that is, their hy-
drogen and carbon are combined with an excess of oxygen ; but they are
rendered saccharine by the action of light, which occasions the evolution of
the oxygen, and the fixation of carbon, by which the vegetable acid is con-
verted into sugar. In a word, no plant, nor any part of a plant, can be
brought to perfection without light ; but it deserves also to be remarked, that
in the cultivation of plants for the use of man, it is sometimes not desirable
to bring all the parts of a plant to perfection ; and in these cases, the absence
of light is as necessary as its presence is in others. For example, in the
case of the Celery and other plants, the stalks of which, when rendered
green by light, are disagreeable to the taste and even poisonous ; but which,
by excluding the light, are rendered wholesome and agreeable : the same
may be said of the tubers of the Potatoe, and of the stalks and leaves of
Cardoons, Endive, &c.
279. Light, to a certain extent, follows the same laws as heat. It is re-
ceived by radiation from the sun, reflected by smooth surfaces, transmitted
and refracted by transparent substances, such as water and glass ; concen-
trated by reflection from concave surfaces, and dispersed by reflection from
surfaces which are convex. All these properties of light are rendered more
or less available in horticulture. Light, however, differs from heat in the
impossibility of retaining it after the absence of the sun ; whereas heat can
be retained by enclosing heated bodies in non-conducting mediums, and by
reflecting it back to the surfaces from which it is radiated (218).
280. The radiation of light is greatest when the radiating rays strike the
surface at a right angle, and least when the angle is most oblique : because,
in the former case, the rays are reflected on every side, and consequently
the surrounding objects are illuminated proportionately ; and in the latter
case the greater number of rays pass off at one side, and illuminate less
effectively the surrounding medium. The reflected rays arc always returned
from the surface on which they radiate, at an angle equal to the angle
of incidence ; and if the reflecting surface be a plane, the reflected rays will
be parallel to each other : if the surface be convex, they will be diver-
gent, and consequently dispersed ; and if it is concave, they will be con-
vergent, and hence concentrated. Smooth and shining surfaces reflect most
light, and rough and dark surfaces least ; and with respect to colour, white
reflects almost all the rays of light which fall on it, and black absorbs them all.
281. When light falls on a transparent medium, a portion of the rays is
transmitted through it, and a portion is reflected from its surface. The
latter portion follows the same laws as the light which is reflected from
opaque surfaces ; arid the portion which passes through it is refracted — that
is, it leaves the transparent medium at a different angle from that on which
it fell upon it ; and by this change the light is also weakened, so as at a
very short distance from the surface of the transmitting medium, as of
glass for example, to be dispersed and transfused in the atmosphere, in
which state in hothouses it has no longer the same power on the vital energies
REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 91
of plants. We are not aware that the cause of the inefficiency of light
after it has passed through glass and reached a certain distance, has been
fully explained ; but the fact is well known to gardeners, who, in hothouses,
invariably place the plants they wish to thrive best at the shortest distance
from the glass. As the quantity of light which passes through glass at the
roof of hothouses is, all other circumstances being the same, greatest when
the plane of the roof is at right angles to the plane of the sun's rays ;
hence, the slope of the roof is, or ought to be, adjusted to the direction of the
sun's rays at that season of the year, when its light is most wanted. As in
houses for early forcing, the greatest deficiency of solar light is in the winter
season, when the sun is low, so the roofs of such houses are made steep, in
order that the sun's rays may be received at a larger angle. Summer forcing
houses, on the other hand, have less steep roofs, so as to receive most benefit
from the sun in April, May, and June, when forced fruits are ripening. A
greenhouse, in which no fruit is ripened, but in which abundance of light
is required all the year, has commonly perpendicular glass to receive a maxi-
mum of light during winter ; and a sloping roof of glass at an angle of 45°;
which is found favourable for the admission of light at every season, as well
as for throwing off rain, &c. This subject, however, will receive more
attention when we come to treat of the construction of hothouses.
282. The light of the sun, after it has passed through the clouds, is
refracted, to a certain extent, in the same manner as when it passes through
glass or water; and if plants were kept constantly under a cloud, but at
some distance from it, and if the space in 'which they grew were enclosed
by clouds on every side, we believe the effect on the plants thus enclosed
would not be materially different from that produced by an enclosure of
glass. In the open air, however, clouds are not stationary j and even where
a succession of clouds covers growing plants for several days together, the
space on which the plants grow is open on every side for the access of re-
flected and transfused light. This prevents the etiolation and want of colour
which are found in plants in the back parts of hothouses having shed-roofs ;
but which are never found in nature, even on the north side of walls, except to
a very small extent. Hence plant structures which are enclosed by glass on
every side, and which are circular in the plan, are more likely to produce
an equalization in the growth and appearance of the plants within, than
such as have glass on one side, and a wall or opaque body on the other.
283. As an isolated body, such as a cone or small hill, disperses light
most extensively when the sun shines, so when the sun is obscured by clouds
the same body receives most of the reflected light transfused in the atmo-
sphere, because it is exposed to the atmosphere on every side. For the
same reason the summits of all bodies in the free atmosphere receive more
light than their sides ; and hence the trees in dense forests, and the thickly-
standing corn plants in cultivated fields, continue to grow and thrive though
they receive little benefit from light, except from that which strikes on the
tops of the plants. Hence the great importance of perpendicular light to
plants under glass, and the advantages of conical, domical, angular, or
ridge and furrow roofs, to plant structures ; because they receive from the
atmosphere the transfused light on every side. Hence also, if only a certain
quantity of glass were to be allowed for the construction of a plant house,
the most beneficial application of it would be in the roof. In the construction
of conservatories about sixty years ago, it was customary to have opaque
92 LIGHT, CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE.
roofs ; and even about the beginning of the present century half the roof on
the south side of conservatories, as for example at Southgate Lodge, was
frequently formed of glass, and the remaining half, on the north side, was
opaque as before : but this remaining half was placed at such an angle as to
allow the rays of the sun when highest in the firmament, and consequently
whenever it shone throughout the year, to reach the back wall. This, it
was thought by the architects of those days — Mr. Nash, for example, who
introduced this practice — would answer every purpose of a roof entirely of
glass, and at the same time would be warmer and more economical. It was
soon found, however, that not only the plants on the back wall, but all
those that were deprived of perpendicular light, did not thrive much better
than in opaque-roofed conservatories.
284. From what has just been observed, the necessity of perpendicular
light will, we trust, be strongly impressed on the mind of our readers ; and,
also, the necessity, when plants in hothouses are intended to look well on
every side, of having every side of the hothouse of glass. A third axiom to
be kept in mind is, that a convex glass roof, or one with an irregular surface,
is, all other circumstances being alike, preferable to a roof in which the glass
is all in one plane.
285. Though art has little power in increasing the quantity or intensity
of light, whether direct from the sun or transfused in the atmosphere, yet it
possesses a considerable degree of power in increasing the efficiency of light on
plants, of such light as there may be in the atmosphere. Thus, by spreading
out the branches of a tree against a wall exposed to the south, much more
light as well as heat is brought to act upon the leaves, than if the tree were
a standard in the free air ; because, in the latter case, there would be neither
the benefit of the reflection of the wall, nor that resulting from the circum-
stance of every leaf being exposed to the direct influence of the sun's rays
when it shone. In like manner, herbaceous plants or shrubs may be planted
or trained on surfaces sloping to the south; and on surfaces elevated and freely
exposed rather than in low and confined situations, in which light is obscured
by surrounding objects or by aqueous vapour. The light thrown on the
leaves of a plant in the open air may be increased by surrounding it on the
north, and part of the east and west sides, by a wall or other upright surface
painted white, or covered with glazed tiles or tinned iron. Practically, how-
ever, the grand means of increasing the efficiency of such light as there may
be in any gi'/en situation on plants, is by training them against walls, espa-
liers, or on the surface of the ground ; or, for those that cannot be conveniently
so trained, by removing all other plants and objects which are so near them
as either to obstruct the sun's rays or to interfere with circumambient radia-
tion. To insure the full effect of the radiation of transfused light upon a
plant, it ought to have a free space around it, in width on every side at least
equal to its own height. No timber tree, which has not at least this space,
can receive from light the full influence which it ought to have on its hori-
zontal branches ; and hence (278) the trees in dense forests must necessarily
produce timber inferior in bulk to those of the same kinds in the same
climate and soil, which are grown as single trees in parks, or in hedge-rows.
286. In plant-structures a due proportion between light and heat ought, as
much as possible, to be preserved, because this is always the case in nature,
where both depend on the sun. It is not in our power to increase the natu-
ral light of the atmosphere ; for the great disadvantage to which horticulture
WORMS, SNAILS, SLUGS, &C-, CONSIDERED. 93
is subject in this climate, as Mr. Daniell has observed, is the uncertainty of
clear weather ; hut artificial warmth can be supplied or withheld at pleasure.
" After trying everything that I had seen recommended for the shrivelling of
grapes," says an experienced scientific gardener, " and feeling fully convinced
in my own mind, that want of light was one of the causes of this evil, I
thought I would try what effect proportioning the heat to the light would
do. This I did, and after several years' practice, I can assert that the
success has been beyond my expectation." (Gard. Mag.^ vol. vi., second
series, p. 529.)
287. The absence of light, as we have before mentioned (278), is necessary
to render certain bitter or unwholesome parts of plants fit for culinary pur-
poses ; and the diminution of light is frequently had recourse to, when the
habitation of plants which grow in shady places is to be imitated, and when
the perspiration from the leaves of plants is to be diminished. In all cases
of rooting plants from cuttings which have the leaves on, the diminution of
perspiration, by shading them from the direct rays of the sun, is necessary,
till the cuttings have taken root ; and this is also more or less the case with
all rooted plants which are transplanted with the leaves on, for some days
after transplanting. When plants are in a dormant state, and without leaves,
no light is requisite to maintain them in a healthy state ; and even such
evergreens as are in a state of comparative rest require very little. Hence
Orange-trees and other greenhouse evergreens, may be kept through the
winter in an opaque-roofed conservatory ; and deciduous plants, which have
lost their leaves, may be kept through winter in houses or in cellars into
which no light is admitted. Plants which naturally grow in the shade (122),
are not here taken into consideration.
CHAPTER V.
WORMS, SNAILS, SLUGS, REPTILES, BIRDS, &c., CONSIDERED WITH
REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE.
288. THE natural uses of plants are for the support of animals, and hence
every plant, whether in a wild state or in cultivation, is more or less liable
to their attacks. The most universal enemies to plants in British gardens
are insects, snails, slugs, and earth-worms ; but they are also subject to be
devoured or injured by reptiles, birds, and some quadrupeds. With the
introduction of new species and varieties of plants, the refinements of garden
cultivation in forcing-houses, and the cultivation of tropical plants in stoves,
the attacks of ordinary insects have been more severely felt, and several new
species have been introduced. Hence, to prevent the increase of insects and
other garden vermin, or to destroy them after they have commenced their
attacks, has become an important element in garden-culture.
289. Till about the end of the last century very little attention was paid
to garden vermin by horticultural writers. Birds were considered to be the
chief enemies of gardeners, and they were directed to be scared away or shot
at on account of the injury they did to the rising seeds, or the ripe fruit
which they ate or destroyed. The injuries done by insects of whatever kind
94 EARTH-WORMS, CONSIDERED
then passed under the general term of blight. The scientific study of insects
had then made little or no progress in this country ; and it does not appear
to have been then known that birds, though injurious to gardens to a limited
extent, are yet on the whole, by living in great part on insects, slugs, worms,
&c., the gardener's best friends. Neither docs the use of certain reptiles,
such as the frog and toad, and even of quadrupeds, such as the weazel, appear
to have been understood in gardens by the gnrdeners of the past generation.
In the present day, however, this branch of garden management, like every
other, has been subjected to scientific inquiry, and the object of this chapter
is to generalize the results ; leaving details relative to particular species of
garden vermin till we come to treat of the plants by which they are chiefly
affected. The order which we shall follow will be that of worms, slugs,
snails, insects, reptiles, birds, and quadrupeds.
SECT. I. — The Earth-Worm, considered with Reference to Horticulture.
290. Lumbricus terrestris, L., the common earth-worm, has a body
composed of numerous narrow rings, of a reddish colour, and shining from
a viscous substance, which forms a sort of protecting sheath to its body,
and facilitates its progress through the soil. It is without eyes ; and its
blood is aerated by means of a series of small vesicles along its sides, which
open externally by very minute pores. The mouth consists of two lips, the
upper one of which is elongated somewhat like a proboscis, and therefore
admirably fitted for boring through the soil. " The oesophagus or gullet
is a wide membranous canal, continued straight down for half an inch, and
ending in a dilated bag or reservoir, to which succeeds a muscular stomach
or gizzard, disposed in the form of a ring. The intestine is constructed at
each segment of the animal by a series of ligaments or partitions, connecting
it to the parietes of the body, and swells out the intermedial spaces when
distended by the particles of earth." The nervous system consists of a
series of small ganglions close to each other. Worms are oviparous ; though,
under certain circumstances, they are supposed to hatch their eggs internally.
The eggs are white, round, rather larger than white mustard -seed, pellucid,
and laid in clusters of a dozen or more together. The accouplement of worms
takes place in spring during the night, or shortly after rain, and always out
of the soil. " Earth-worms creep at a good pace by means of muscular
contraction and dilation, acting on the rings, which carry on their under-sides
certain bristle- like processes ; these last operate as feet. The power of
elongation is considerable, and the anterior part of the animal acts as a sort
of awl in penetrating the earth/' {Penny Cyc. art. Lumbricus.')
291. The habits of the earth-worm appear to have been very imperfectly
understood by naturalists. They are always most abundant in moist rich
soil, and they are found more or less in every country in the world. During
the severe weather of winter they descend deep into the soil, so as to be out
of the reach of frost ; and during summer and very dry weather at other
seasons they also withdraw to a considerable depth, appearing on the surface
after rain, and more especially during the night. The food of worms is
evidently the vegetable matter contained in the soil, and they reject the
soil from which they have abstracted the nourishing part in the form of casts.
It does not appear that they devour any part of the plants ; though they
lacerate the fibrous roots by passing and repassing through them in search
WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 95
of fresh food. Worms are particularly injurious to plants in pots ; as, from
the small space to which the roots are confined, they are continually liable
to be torn asunder by the worms passing through the earth ; and thus the
mass of roots frequently falls in two when the plant is turned out of the pot,
instead of remaining in a solid ball. When this is the case, the plant has
generally become sickly ; as, from the spongioles at the extremity of the
roots being torn off, the plant is unable to obtain its proper food. The ex-
crement of the worm is never voided except on the surface of the ground,
and it is so placed as to form a covering to the hole by which it retreats
into the interior of the soil. At certain seasons of the year, more particu-
larly when the weather and the surface of the ground are dry, the slimy
matter of the worm adheres to leaves, straws, and other light substances,
which it drags after it to the orifice of its holes ; where, on entering, it
leaves them so as to stop up the passage as effectually as worm' casts. We
are uncertain how far this mode of stopping the orifice of the passages is
matter of accident or of design ; and therefore, like many other points of the
natural history of the worm, it is open to observation and correction.
292. The most remarkable property in the organization and functions of
the worm is that of reproducing a part of its body after being mutilated. It
is generally believed that when a worm is cut into pieces by the spade every
portion of it becomes a perfect individual ; but it has been proved that it is
only the portion which has the head and the organs of generation attached,
and which must necessarily include more than one-half of its length ; which
lengthens, survives, and forms a new anus. (Hose.) The duration of the
life of worms is uncertain.
293. The natural uses of the worm appear to be to serve as nourish-
ment to moles, hedgehogs, frogs, toads, snakes, lizards, birds, fishes, and
some kinds of insects. It is also said by naturalists that worms are useful
to plants by penetrating the soil, loosening it, rendering it permeable to
air and water, and even adding to the depth of the soil by bringing up its
worm-casts to the surface. This last opinion, however, we conceive to be
entirely erroneous. Soil is not loosened by boring through it, but rather
rendered firmer in the parts not bored through ; and so far from surface
soil being rendered permeable by water in consequence of the bores of worms,
it is rendered less so, the worm-casts deposited on the orifices of the bores
always being water-tight ; so much so, indeed, that when lawns where worms
abound are to be watered by lime-water in order to destroy them, the first
step is to brush away the worm-casts with a long flexible rod, or remove
them by a rake, in order to let water enter the bores ; it having been found
from experience, that when this operation is neglected, the lime-water sinks
into the soil without producing much effect. With impervious loomy sub-
soils, resting on gravel, the case is otherwise ; and under such circumstances
worms may be useful, by permitting the escape of water where it would
otherwise be retained. With respect to worms adding to the depth of the
soil (an opinion first promulgated, we believe, by Mr. Charles Darwin), we
believe it to be entirely a delusion, as we have endeavoured to show in the
Gardener s Magazine, vol. xiv. p. 95.
294. The injury done by worms in gardens we hold to be very consider-
able. By their casts they disfigure walks and lawns, and by cutting through
the roots they injure more or less all plants whatever, and particularly
those which are weak, (to which worms always attach themselves more than
96 SNAILS AND SLUGS, CONSIDERED
believe, by Mr. Charles Darwin), we believe it to be entirely a delusion, a3
we have endeavoured to show hi the Gardener s Magazine, vol. xiv. p. 95.
294. The injury done by worms in gardens we hold to be very consider-
able. By their casts they disfigure walks and lawns, and by cutting through
the roots they injure more or less all plants whatever, and particularly
those which are weak, (to which worms always attach themselves more thaii
to healthy plants,) and plants in pots. Seedlings of all kinds are much in-
jured by them, because when the point of the taproot is cut through the
seedling has no other resource, and, unless it be vigorous enough to throw
out lateral roots, it dies.
295. To destroy worms is fortunately a very simple process; for such
is the tenderness of their skin, that watering them with any caustic or
bitter liquid deprives them of life in a few minutes. The cheapest caustic
liquid is lime-water, which is made by dissolving quicklime, at the rate
of half a pound of lime to twelve pints of water, and letting it stand
a few minutes to clear. Before pouring it on the soil from a watering-
pot with a rose on, the worm-casts ought to be removed, and the effects
of the water will soon become obvious by the worms rising to the surface,
writhing about there, and in a few minutes dying. To hasten their
death, some more lime-water should be poured on them after they come
to the surface. The quantity of lime-water required will depend partly
on the depth of the soil and the number of worm-casts in a given space,
and partly on the state of the weather. Least will be required in shal-
low soils moderately dry, and most in deep soils either very wet or very
dry. Where lime is not at hand, potash, soda, or urine, may be used ; and
a decoction of the leaves of Walnut-trees, of those of Hemp, Tobacco, or
Potatoes, after being partially dried and fermented, will have the same effect.
Hand-picking may also be resorted to ; but this requires to be performed
in the night-time, when the worms are on the surface of the ground, or im-
mediately after rain.. Worms in pots may either be removed by striking
the sides of the pots, which will disturb the worms and cause them to rise
above the surface ; or by turning out the ball on one hand, and picking off
the worms, which seldom fail to come to the outside.
296. To prevent worms from entering pots, a small cap (fig. 5, of the
natural size) has been invented by Mr.
Barron, which, when placed over the hole
in the bottom of the pot, will permit the
escape of water and effectually prevent the
entrance of worms. It has been in use at
the gardens at Elvaston Castle for several
Fig. 5. Cap for covering the holes in years.
the bottoms of pots.
SECT. II. — Snails and Slugs, considered with reference to Horticulture.
297. The only snail which interests the gardener is the Helix aspersa of
naturalists ; for that which they have named the garden snail (H. hortensis)
is rather a field than a garden species. The former is much the larger of the
two, and has a dull shell marked with three faint mottled brownish bandSj
and a white rim round the aperture ; while the shell of the latter is glossy,
distinctly banded with vivid colours, and the oral rim is brown.
WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 97
298. The slugs which frequent the garden are the Z/imax agrestis, L.
cinereus, and L. ater. The L. agrestis, the commonest, is of a greyish
colour, and from one to two inches long ; the L. cinereus is, on the con-
trary, from three to five inches in length, of a greyish or dusky colour,
with darker spots and stripes ; and the L. ater is easily known by the jet
black and wrinkled skin of its back.
299. Both snails and slugs are furnished with tentacula placed in front
of the head, and which, by a singular process, can be drawn entirely within
it. The mouth is armed above with a semi-lunar horny jaw, having its
outer or cutting edge furnished with one or several serratures. On the right
side or neck of the snail and slug there are three apertures, that nearest
the head being the respiratory orifice, the next the anus, and the third the
exit for the organs of generation. Snails and slugs crawl on the flat sole
which constitutes their foot and belly, and which is very muscular : but
progression is principally performed by a pair of muscles which extend from
the tail to the fore part of the belly, running along the middle of the foot.
300. Snails and slugs are hermaphrodite and oviparous. They deposit
their eggs under clods of earth, loose stones, or in the ground, in which the
parent digs, with its foot, a circular hole about an inch deep. The eggs
vary from twelve to thirty in number ; they are white, oval or round,
about the size of a common shot, with a smooth soft skin, which is entirely
membranous in the slug, but in the snail contains innumerable minute cal-
careous grains, always in a crystalline state, and usually of a rhomboid
figure. They are, in ordinary seasons, hatched in about three weeks after
being laid ; but the time is regulated much by temperature, so that in cold
seasons it is greatly retarded. The young issue from the egg in the likeness
of their parents, active and furnished with every organ ; and the young
snails have even then a shell fitting their size and strength. The length of
life of the snail or slug cannot be determined. The shell of the snail is
usually completed before the termination of the second year, when the
animal may have been said to have reached maturity. The snail and the
slug are very patient of injury, often recovering from severe wounds ; repairing
their broken shells, and reproducing such parts of their bodies, posterior to
the neck, as may have been cut away. In winter, snails and slugs retire
under stones, clods, or into the crevices of walls : the slugs become merely
less active than usual, but the snails hybernate ; and to protect them from
annoyance during this dead sleep of a winter's continuance, they seal up the
apertures of their shells with a horny membrane. (Abridged from an article
in Gard. Mag. for 1841.)
801. The natural uses of the snail appear to be to serve as food for rep-
tiles, birds, and the smaller quadrupeds, such as foxes, badgers, weazels,
hedgehogs, £c. The blackbird and thrush are remarkably fond of them,
and may be seen and heard flying off with snails in their bills, and after-
wards lighting on trees, and breaking the shells against the branches.
There is some apparent reason for supposing that the worm is more useful
than injurious to plants, but none that we know of in favour of the snail
being useful either to gardeners or farmers.
302. The snail retires under the cover of foliage or some other pro-
tection from the sun and dry air during the day, and comes abroad to feed
during the night, after rain, or when the weather is cloudy. It selects in
preference tender seedling plants, or the leaves of maturcr plants which
SNAILS AND SLUGS, CONSIDERED.
have become tender and somewhat sweet by incipient decay. Snails are
very fond of greasy matter ; and where a snail has been killed by crushing,
its remains are preyed on by living snails, which crowd to it in numbers.
About the end of autumn, when the weather begins to grow cold, the snail
retires into sheltered places, where it will be protected from the weather
during winter. Where there are evergreens, such as the Box or the Ivy, it
resorts to them ; or if these be wanting, it will retire under loose stones, or
rubbish of any kind, such as branches, spray, leaves, or litter ; and if no
other covering is at hand, it has a power of burying itself in any soil not too
hard on the surface. Whatever has been said of the habits of the snail will
apply to those of the slug ; and the uses and the natural enemies of the
two animals are exactly the same.
303. To destroy snails in gardens, the only effectual mode is hand-picking,
either in the evening, early in the morning, or immediately after rain.
Empty flower-pots reversed and distributed over the surface, if an opening
under the rim is left on one side by making a small depression in the soil,
will attract a great number of snails ; and the more so if some greased cab-
bage-leaves or slices of turnip, carrot, &c., be placed under the pots. In
the course of the autumn, winter, and early in spring, all their hiding-
places should be searched, and the animals taken out and destroyed by
crushing, or by giving them to swine, which are said to be very fond of
them. Hedgehogs and weazels being their natural enemies, may be kept in
gardens, and poultry which do not scratch, such as the turkey, duck, &c.,
may be admitted occasionally ; though no mode of subduing the snail but
hand-picking is to be depended on.
304. To destroy slugs in gardens, less labour is required than in destroying
snails ; because, their bodies being comparatively unprotected, they are liable
to be operated on by any caustic or bitter liquid as readily as worms.
Cabbage-leaves in a state of incipient decay, with the side which is to be
placed next the soil rubbed over with greasy matter of any kind, or even
with the bruised bodies of recently- killed slugs, distributed over any surface,
will attract them in great numbers during the night ; and if the leaves are
examined every morning, and the slugs which are found destroyed, the
piece of ground so treated will soon be freed from them. Pea-haulm being
very sweet when in a state of incipient decay, forms a powerful attraction
to slugs ; and if handfuls of it are distributed over a piece of ground in the
same manner as cabbage-leaves, the little heaps of haulm may be examined
every morning, and the slugs shaken from them and then destroyed by
watering with lime-water. Thin slices of turnip or potatoe placed under
inverted empty flower-pots form an excellent attraction, as do the dead
bodies of slugs themselves, some parts or the whole of which are greedily
devoured by the living animals. Where slugs are very abundant in a soil
not covered with plants so large as to shelter them, as for example with
rising seedlings, the slugs may be destroyed by watering the soil thoroughly
with lime-water, or tobacco- water, late in the evening or early in the
morning. Abundance of water should be applied, in order that it may sink
into the soil, which the slugs penetrate a foot or more in depth, according to
its state of pulverization. Quicklime has been laid round plants to protect
them from snails and slugs ; but it soon becomes mild and of no use as a
protection. Coal-ashes and sawdust annoy slugs by sticking to their foot,
but they will not be deterred by this annoyance so effectually as to starve
NATURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS.
for want of food. Soot is also a great annoyance to slugs ; but to keep them
from a plant, it requires to be frequently and liberally renewed. " A stout,
coarse, horse-hair line, such as is used for hanging clothes out to dry, coiled
round the stems of wall-fruit trees, and stretched along the wall, will operate
as a protection to the fruit from both snails and slugs, in consequence of the
bristly surface presented to them, and which they shrink from encountering.
Care must of course be taken that they do not get under it." (Penny Cyc.^
Limax.} No gardener ought to rest content with merely protecting his
plants or fruits from snails and slugs ; because while they are in the garden,
as they must live, if they are debarred from attacking one plant they will
only have recourse to another. Nothing short of extermination, therefore,
ought to satisfy him, and this he may accomplish by enticing the larger
slugs into empty pots, or under cabbage- leaves or haulm ; and by soaking
thoroughly with lime-water the soil which he supposes to contain young
slugs or eggs.
SECT. III. — Insects^ considered with reference to Horticulture.
305. The number of species of insects in the world greatly exceeds that
of all other animals and plants put together, and the power which some
insects have of multiplying themselves, such as the plant lice for exam-
ple, is almost incredible. As by far the greater number of insects live on
plants, some on several species, and others on only one, the importance of
some knowledge of the natural history of insects to the gardener is sufficiently
obvious. The subject, indeed, is one of great extent ; nevertheless every
gardener may readily acquire, from books and observation, such a know-
ledge of it as will suffice for the purposes of his profession. We shall there-
fore lay before him the essence of that part of it which more especially
relates to the insects which infest British gardens. We shall notice in suc-
cession the general nature of insects, their different stages of life, their
nourishment, propagation, duration, their natural enemies, and, above all,
the means employed by art to mitigate the evils which they occasion, or to
destroy them. We shall take as our guide Kollar, from whose treatise we
have abridged great part of the article ; and the whole has been revised for
us by J. O. Westwood, Esq., Secretary to the Entomological Society.
Subsect. 1. Of the Nature of Insects and their Classification.
306. Insects are animals which have a body consisting of one or more divi-
sions, articulated feet, and a head conspicuously distinct from the body, on
which are placed two movable horns, called antennae. They breathe through
airholes, which are situated on the sides of the body ; the greater number have
wings in their perfect state, and only a proportionably small number are
entirely without them. With the exception of certain groups, all perfect
insects have six feet, and their bodies are divided into a head, thorax, and
abdomen, by notches or incisions ; hence the name insect, derived from the
Latin word insecare, to cut or notch. Before they attain their perfect state
they are subject to various transformations, which are called metamorphoses.
For the sake of perspicuity the very numerous class of insects, the most
extensive in the whole animal kingdom, has been divided into two principal
divisions — the winged, and the wingless.
307. Winged insects are divided into the following orders : —
100 NATURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS.
(1.) Coleoptera (Beetles; Sheath- wings). Six feet, and mostly four
wings, the anterior pair of which are horny, in the form of a covering for
the two posterior wings, which are sometimes wanting. They have upper
and lower jaws (mandibles and maxillae) for gnawing or chewing : their
under wings are transversely folded. Examples — the may-bug, the long-
horns (Cerambycidae), stag-beetles, ground-beetles (C'arabidae), weevils, &c.
(2.) Orthoptera (Straight- wings). Six feet ; four wings, the two anterior of
a leathery substance, serving as covers to the posterior, which are folded both
longitudinally and transversely, but more generally only longitudinally,
(whence the name straight- wings,) and which lie, when at rest, concealed
under the others. They have upper and lower jaws (or mandibles and
maxillae) for chewing. Examples — the earwig, the black -beetle, the cock-
roach, the field-cricket, the migratory locust, and the green grasshopper.
(3.) Hemiptera (Half- wings). Six feet; four wings, the two anterior form-
ing hard coverings with membranous ends, or resembling the lower ones, but
being larger and stronger. Instead of upper and lower jaws, the organs of
the mouth are formed of bristles, inclosed in an articulated sheath, of a cylin-
drical or conical shape, and forming a projecting beak or sucker. Examples
— the field and tree bugs, house bugs, cicadae, and aphides.
(4.) Neuroptera (Net- wings). Six feet ; four membranous naked wings,
upper and lower jaws for chewing ; the wings are delicately veined, the
under nearly the size of the upper, or even broader hi diameter. Examples
— the dragon-fly, or Libellula ; lace- fly, or Hemerobius ; and day-fly, or
Ephemera.
(6.) Hymenoptera (Membrane- wings). Six feet ; four membranous wingsr
upper and lower jaws ; the posterior wings smaller than the upper. In the
abdomen of the female of most species is a sting, or ovipositor. Examples —
the saw-flies ( Tenthredinidse), Sirex gigas, gall-fly, bees, wasps, humble-
bees, and ants.
(6.) Lepidoptera (Scale- wings). Six feet; four membranous wings, covered
with small, coloured, mealy, shining scales or feathers. Instead of the upper
and lower jaws, two hollow filaments exist, which together form a spirally
rolled tongue. Examples — butterflies, moths, and hawk-moths.
(7.) Rhipiptera (Fan- wings). Six feet ; two membranous wings, folded
like a fan ; on the anterior part of the thorax are situated two small, bent,
hard, movable bodies, like wing-covers. The masticatory organs consist of
simple bristle-shaped mandibles, and two palpi. To this order belong two
genera of parasites living on wasps and bees.
(8.) Diptera (Two-wings). Six feet ; two membranous expanded wings,
generally with two movable organs, called poisers or balancers, and which
are situated behind the wings. The organs of the mouth consist of a sucker
formed of a variable number of bristles, which are enclosed in an unarticu-
lated sheath ; terminated in a double lip. Examples — gnats, midges, house-
flies, ox and horse breeze-flies, £c.
308. Insects without wings consist of the following orders : —
(9.) Myridpoda (Thousand-feet, Millepedes). They have more than six
feet, twenty-four at least, and upwards, which are placed on a series of rings,
extending the whole length of the body ; each ring has generally two pairs.
The first, and sometimes also the second pair, form parts of the mouth.
Examples — the centipede, iulus, and scolopendra.
(10.) Thysanura (Fringe-tails). Six feet; on the under sides of the
TRANSFORMATION OF INSECTS. 101
abdomen are situated flat movable appendages like pro-legs, and at the extre-
mity is a forked apparatus, by which the body can raise itself and move by
leaps. Example — the sugar-louse (Lepisma saccharinum.)
(11.) Parasita (Parasites). Six feet; no other organs of sight except
simple (instead of composite) eyes; the mouth is mostly internal, and con-
sists of a snout, which contains a retractile sucker, or it forms a cleft with
two lips, two mandibles, and hooks. Examples — the different species of lice.
(12.) Suctoria (Suckers). Six feet, of which the posterior are the long-
est, and adapted for jumping. These undergo a transformation, and acquire
organs of motion which they had not at first. The mouth consists of a
sucker, which is enclosed in a cylindrical sheath, and is formed of two articu-
lated pieces. Example — the flea.
309. Crabs and spiders, which Linnaeus included among insects without
wings, are now formed into two distinct classes — Crustacea and Arachnida.
310. The arrangement here given is that of Kollar ; but other authors
differ in their views of the subject. By some the earwig is formed into an
order distinct from, the Orthoptera. The Thrips is separated as an order
from the Hemiptera, the caddice- flies (Phryganea) from the Neuroptera and
the horse-flies (Hippobosca) from the Diptera. In a popular point of view
the arrangement of Kollar may be considered as sufficiently detailed.
Subsect. 2. Transformation of Insects.
The greater number of insects properly so called, with the exception
of some without wings, change their form several times during their life in
. so striking a manner, that a person unacquainted with entomology would be
inclined to consider one and the same insect, in different periods of its exist-
ence, as entirely different animals.
311. Insects, in general, are produced from eggs; a few species alone, in
which the eggs are developed in the body of the mother, are viviparous ; for
example, the aphis. Shortly after pairing, the female lays her eggs, which
are often stuck on, and covered with, a sort of glue, to preserve them from
the weather, instinctively in the place best adapted to their development,
and which offers the proper food to the forthcoming brood. The white-
thorn butterfly and the golden-tail moth lay their eggs on the leaves of fruit-
trees or other leafy trees, and the latter covers them over with a gold-
coloured covering of silk. The common lackey-moth (.Bombyx neustria)
fastens them in the form of continuous rings round the stems of the fruit-trees;
and the gipsy-moth (JSombyx dispar) fastens them in a broad patch on the
steins of trees or on paling, and covers them with a thick coating of hair.
The winter- moth (Gedmetra brumata) lays them singly on the buds of the
leaves and flowers ; the printer-beetle (Bostrichus typographus) introduces
them between the bark and the albumen, &c.
312. Most insects are developed from the eggs in the shape of worms,
which are called larvae. The larvae of butterflies, which are always provided
with feet, are called caterpillars ; those of beetles and other insects, grubs ;
and, when they have no feet, maggots. In this state, as their bodies increase,
the insects often cast their skin, and not unfrequently change their colour.
Many winged insects (e. g. cimices, cicadae, grasshoppers, and dragon-flies),
in their larva state, very much resemble the perfect insect ; they only want
the wings, which are not developed till after the last change of the skin.
The larva state is the period of feeding, and at this period insects are usually
102 FOOD OF INSECTS.
the destructive enemies of other productions of nature, and objects of perse-
cution to farmers, gardeners, and foresters.
313. The nympha or pupa state succeeds that of larva. In this state
insects for the most part take no nourishment (with the exception of the
Orthopterous, Hemipterous, and part of the Neuropterous species, which vary
but little in form from the larva), and repose in a death-like slumber. The
body is covered with a skin more or less transparent, through which the
limbs of the perfect insect are more or less apparent. To be safe from
their enemies, or from the weather, the larvae of many insects, particularly
moths, prepare for themselves a covering of a silky or cottony texture;
many burrow in the soil, or form themselves a nest of moss, leaves, grass,
haulm, or foliage ; many even go deep into the earth, or bury themselves
in decayed wood, or conceal themselves under the bark of trees, &c.
314. After a certain period, which is fixed in every species of insects, and
which can either be hastened or retarded according to circumstances, the per-
fect insect appears from the pupa. It is usually furnished in this state with
other organs for the performance of its appointed functions. It is incumbent
on the perfect insect to propagate its species, therefore the organs for this
purpose are only perfected at this period of their lives. The male insect
seeks the female, and the female the most suitable place for laying her eggs;
hence most insects are furnished with wings. Food is now a secondary
consideration, consequently, in many, the feeding organs are now less perfectly
developed than in the larva state, or very much modified and suited for finer
food, as for example in butterflies, which, instead of the leaves of plants,
only consume the honey out of their flowers.
Subsect. 3. Food of Insects.
315. Insects, like other animals, derive their nourishment from the vege-
table and animal kingdoms ; but a glance is sufficient to show, that they
possess a much wider field of operations than the others. While the other
animals make use for their subsistence of only a small portion of the inex-
haustible treasures of the vegetable kingdom, and reject the rest as insipid
or noxious, the insects leave perhaps no vegetable production untouched.
From the majestic oak to the invisible fungus, or the insignificant wall-moss,
the whole race of plants is a stupendous meal, to which the insects sit down
as guests. Even those plants which are highly poisonous and nauseating to
other animals are not refused by them. But this is not yet all. The larger
plant- consuming animals are usually limited to leaves, seed, and stalks : not
so bisects, to the various families of which every part of a plant yields suit-
able provender. Some which live under the earth attack roots, others
choose the stem and branches, a third division live on the leaves, a fourth
prefers the flowers, while a fifth selects the fruit or seed.
316. Even here a still further selection takes place. Of those which feed
on the roots, stem, and branches, some species only eat the rind, like the
bee-hawk-moth (Sphinx apiformis) ; others the inner bark and the albur-
num, like the Tortrix Wcebermna, and the injurious bark-beetle ; and a
third division penetrates into the heart of the solid wood, like the
goat- moth (Cossus ligniperda), and the family of the long-horned beetles
( Cerambycidae).
317. Of those which prefer foliage, some take nothing but the juice out of
the veins (aphides, in all their states) ; others devour only the substance of
FOOD OP INSECTS. 103
the leaves, without touching the epidermis (mining caterpillars) ; others only
the upper or under surface of the leaves (many leaf-rollers, Tdrtrices) ; while
a fourth division devours the whole substance of the leaf (the larvae of many
other Lepidopterous insects).
318. Of those which feed on fowers, there are some which eat the petals
(the larvae of JVoctua verbasci, the mullein-moth, N. linariae, &c.) ; others
choose the farina in a perfect state (bees, the rose-chafer, Cetonia, the
Lepturidae, &c. £c.) ; and a still greater number the honey from the necta-
ries (most perfect Lepidopterous insects, wasps, and flies). There are also
insects which, not satisfied with any existing part of the plants as such,
cause injury to one part or another, by occasioning a peculiar body or
excrescence in which their young live, as the various sorts of gall insects
and other sorts of flies. But insects are not confined to plants alone in their
living and unused state. The death-watch, or ticking-beetle (Anobium),
feeds on wood which for years has been used in our dwellings, and in various
articles of furniture and utensils.
319. From what has been said it will appear, that a single plant can
support a host of various sorts of insects on its different parts ; whence it
also appears, that the number of insects greatly exceeds that of plants.
320. An equal variety in the food of those insects which live on animal
matter may also be pointed out. Some live as parasites on the skin of other
animals, not excepting even insects themselves, suck their blood, and are a
burdensome torment to the animals : to these belong the different sorts of lice
(bird and sheep lice), ticks, and mites. Others attack man and the larger ani-
mals only for a short time, and draw blood — gnats, midges, autumn-flies,
breeze-flies, bugs, and fleas. Some breeze-flies (ffi'stridae) penetrate through
the skin into the flesh of the red deer and horned cattle, others live in the
stomachs of horses and asses, and one sort in the frontal sinus of sheep. The
/chneumonidae feed on the flesh of the larvae of other insects, and often
greatly contribute to the extirpation of noxious insects.
321. The Carabidae and other carnivorous beetles devour their prey entire,
immediately after killing it ; while the Cimices and Hemerobii only suck
out the juices. The larvae of the stinging- gnat and other flies which live in
water devour whole swarms of infusoria alone. A great number live on
carrion and the excrements of animals, and thus diminish and destroy the
corruption proceeding from such matter : to these belong chiefly the blue-
bottle fly, horse-beetle, carcass-beetle, and dung-beetle. Many feed upon
prepared animal matter, and become very prejudicial to household economy.
Many moths live entirely on hair, leather, wool, and feathers.
322. With the various transformations of insects their economy is also
changed, and consequently their abode is also varied : the caterpillar requires
very different food from the butterfly ; the maggot, from the beetle and fly.
The larva of Sirex gigas feeds on wood, while the perfect insect preys on
flies. The larva of the May-bug or cockchafer lives on roots and tubers; the
beetle, on leaves.
323. Many insects are very gluttonous, and often consume more food in a
day than is equal to the weight of their bodies. Thus the maggot of the
flesh-fly, according to Redi, becomes 200 times heavier in the course of
twenty-four hours. Caterpillars digest in one day from one third to one
fourth of their weight ; and hence it is apparent that a comparatively small
number of caterpillars can entirely strip a tree in a few days.
104 DISTRIBUTION AND HABITS OF INSECTS.
324. Opposed to this gluttony of caterpillars, some insects in their perfect
state appear to take no nourishment, such as the day-flies (.Ephemeridse),
and the breeze-flies ((E'stridae); the latter of which, in their larva state as
maggots, feed on the flesh of horned cattle and red deer. Even among the
Lepidoptera, many of those which spin cocoons, especially .Bombycidae, seem
to take no nourishment in the perfect state.
325. Many insects only eat in the day, others in the evening, and a third
division, such as the caterpillars of the night-moths, only in the night.
Most of them seek their own food ; but a few, namely, the larvae of bees,
which live in communities, humble bees, wasps, and ants, are fed by the
perfect insect. Many stow away their food ; others, indeed the greater
number, live without making any previous supply of food. The larvae of
the caterpillar-killing kinds of wasps (^phegidae), of wild bees, and of a few
other insects, are provided by their parents with a stock of provisions suffi-
cient for their nourishment in the larva state.
Subsect. 4. Distribution and Habits of Insects.
326. The distribution of insects is in exact proportion to the diffusion of
plants ; the richer any country is in plants, the richer it is also in insects.
The polar regions, which produce but few plants, have also but few insects ;
whereas the luxuriant vegetation of the tropical countries feeds a numerous
host of insects. With respect to their habitation, insects are divided into
those which live upon land or water.
327. Those which live in the water either never leave that element, or
are able to live at will either in the water or on the earth, at least for a
short time j for example, many water -beetles. Many live at certain periods
of their development in water : at others, on land ; such as many sorts of
flies, and all the dragon-flies, which as larvae and pupae live in water, but as
perfect insects on land, or in the air.
328. Land insects live in the earth, under stones, in decayed wood, in
putrid animal substances, &c. Of these some pass their whole lives in
these places, others only during a particular period of their development.
The larvae of the dung-beetle live deep under the ground, while the perfect
insect inhabits the excrement of animals ; many of the larvae of flies live in
carrion or excrement, while the perfect insect flies about in the open air.
A very great number choose the different parts of plants for their abode, as
the roots, bark, inner bark, alburnum, wood, pith, buds, flowers, leaves, and
fruit. They change their abode in every new stage of their development.
Thus the bark-beetle, which in the larva state lived under the bark, swarms
in its perfect state upon the trees ; the curculio of the apple-tree, the larva
of which infests the bottom of the apple blossom, crawls on the trees, or on
the surrounding ground ; the mining- moth, which as a larva lives under the
cuticle of the leaves, flutters in its winged state about the flowers and leaves.
329. A small number live upon other animals, on the skin, such as lice, or
in the inside of the body, as the ox and horse breeze-flies (ffi'stridae). The
two latter leave their first abode before entering the pnpa state, which they
effect in the earth, and hover as flies round the animals to deposit their eggs
upon them.
330. Most insects live solitarily, either without any definite dwelling, or
they construct for themselves a house composed of various kinds of vegetable
USES OF INSECTS. 105
or animal matter ; for example, many caterpillars. A few species live in
society, such as bees, ants, wasps, &c.
331. By obtaining a general knowledge of the abodes of insects, it is
evident that the observer of the economy of insects will be able more satis-
factorily to combat many that are injurious to him ; as thus he can, with
little trouble, greatly diminish or entirely annihilate those which he has
ascertained to live in society, or in places of easy access.
Subsect. 5. Uses of Insects.
332. There are among insects no very inconsiderable number from which
man derives, in many respects, immediate and important uses. We need
here only to mention the bees and the silkworm. The different sorts of gall-
nuts, ingredients so essential to dyeing and the manufacture of leather, are
the productions of several insects, namely, the gall-flies, which wound
with their ovipositor various parts of oaks, &c., in order to deposit their eggs
in the cavity, and which produce these useful excrescences. The most
durable and most beautiful red (cochineal) we owe to a small insect, the
Coccus cacti. Another, nearly allied to the above-named insect, Coccus
manniparus, is supposed to have saved the lives of the Israelites in their
journey out of Egypt, for they would have died of hunger if they had not
been provided with manna, — a sweet nutritive substance, which is regarded
as identical with the material which, in consequence of a wound caused by
this insect on the Tamarix gallica mannifera, trickles on the ground.
333. The Cantharides, or Spanish blister-flies, are an essential article of
medicine. Many insects accomplish the fructification of different plants.
Whole nations in other quarters of the globe live on locusts. Many
mammalia, a number of birds, amphibious animals, and fishes, live entirely
on insects.
334. A great number of these creatures even live upon other species of
insects, and destroy them : thus preventing the hurtful from preponderating,
and disturbing the balance in the economy of nature. To these belong
chiefly the /chneumonidae and spiders.
335. Lastly, how many diseases are obviated, particularly hi warm cli-
mates, by insects speedily consuming dead animal substances, and thereby
preventing the generation of noxious gases !
Subsect. 6. Means contrived by Nature to limit the Multiplication of Insects.
336. Many appearances in nature, even such as at first cause anxiety and
care, on account of their injurious consequences, are found to be in many
respects highly beneficial and salutary, although we may not always under-
stand them. Thus, continued rain, which in many respects is extremely
hurtful, contributes greatly to diminish the number of noxious insects, and
for a series of years renders them entirely innocuous. This continued rain
may, for example, take place at the pairing time of certain insects, which
will greatly obstruct them ; or at the time when the insects are in the cater-
pillar or larva state, when thousands die in consequence of bad weather,
and our fields, orchards, and woods are cleared of a dangerous enemy for
many years. Thus in the spring of 1832, after incessant rain, Kollar saw
the caterpillars of the white-thorn butterfly (Papilio cratae'gi), which for
many years had not only stripped all the hedges, but also done considerable
106 MEANS CONTRIVED BY NATURE TO LIMIT
injury to the fruit-trees, dying by thousands, as if of a dropsy. The cater-
pillars swelled, became weak, and died. If they did attain the pupa state,
they suffered from the same evil, and the perfect insect was very rarely
developed, on which account the gardens in the following years were entirely
spared.
337. Late frosts are also very beneficial, as they entirely destroy many
insects in their larva state. Kollar had an opportunity early in the summer
of 1833 of observing great devastations on the fir-trees in the neighbourhood
of Vienna, by a species of saw-fly ( Tenthredo rufa King). The larva of
this insect had attacked certain parts of a young forest of Scotch pine, and
the question was how their ravages were to be prevented from increasing-
next year. Fortunately, in the month of May, a moderate frost set in, and
thousands, of these larvae were seen hanging to the twigs, as if scorched. In
this manner their increase was limited for the future.
338. A multitude of insects are also destroyed by inundations, particu-
larly such as undergo their transformations in the earth, or live upon it in
all their stages, more especially if the inundation happens when they are
near their final transformation. In meadows the different species of May-
bugs ( Jfelolonthidae) suffer by this means ; in kitchen gardens, the mole-
cricket; in orchards, the pupa of the small winter-moth (Geometra bru-
mata), when the water overflows the gardens late in the autumn, at the
time when the moth is usually developed from the pupa lying in the earth.
Besides the means of preserving an equilibrium by storms, and the effects
of the elements, nature employs a multitude of others, although not so
speedy and efficient, to the same end.
339. To these belong the enemies of the destructive insects, which we meet
with in all classes of the animal kingdom. Among the mammiferous ani-
mals the bats hold a conspicuous place for their destruction of insects. We
only see them flying about in the twilight, precisely at the time when many
moths leave their hiding-places and hover round the flowers. As they live
almost entirely on insects, they no doubt devour great numbers of the
hurtful sorts ; and perhaps it is to be ascribed to this circumstance that
fruit-trees standing near houses, churches, barns, &c., suffer less from insects
than isolated trees. Bats do not confine themselves to moths, but eat
the beetles which fly about in the evening ; and, among others, some of the
weevils injurious to the flowers and buds of fruit-trees, as the Curculio
(Anthonomus) pomorum, and pyri. These creatures, as they do no injury,
should therefore be carefully preserved.
340. To the insectivorous mammalia also belong various sorts of mice, the
mole, badger, hedgehog, squirrel, fox, and wild swine. Whether the
benefits derived from them hi this way counterbalance the mischief which
many of these creatures cause, it is difficult to determine. At all events,
the squirrel and the hedgehog deserve to be spared.
341. Birds contribute much more than the mammiferous animals to the
destruction of injurious insects. Many caterpillars know instinctively how to
conceal themselves from the birds which prey on them ; in many their
covering of stiff hair acts as a protection against their enemies ; others
remain all day between rolled-up or flatly-united leaves, and only go out to
feed at night ; others find sufficient protection in the buds, into which they
soon penetrate. Gregarious caterpillars live while they are changing their
skin, and when they are going into the pupa state, in webs, in which they
THE MULTIPLICATION OF INSECTS, 107
are inaccessible to birds. Others live under the bark of trees, and even deep
in the wood. Notwithstanding these and other obstacles, a great number
are yearly devoured by the birds, particularly during the breeding season.
In winter a multitude of birds, driven by hunger into the villages, diligently
search the branches of trees for the eggs of many sorts of moths that are
glued to them, and which yield a scanty sustenance to these frugal animals.
Reaumur states that the green-finch tears open the strong nest of the yellow-
tail-moth (Bombyx chrysorrhce'a), and consumes the young caterpillars.
342. Among the birds of the woodpecker race, the green and red wood-
peckers (Picus viridis and major), the nut- hatch (Sitta cassia), and the tree-
creeper (Certhia familiaris), may be considered the most useful. Although
these birds seek beetles chiefly, and consequently contribute to the diminu-
tion of the long-horned and weevil tribes of beetles, they also consume a
number of caterpillars ; but it must be acknowledged, that they also devour
the honey-bee,
343. Among birds of the sparrow tribe, the starling deserves particular
notice. It lives in summer chiefly in pastures, but comes in spring and
autumn in great flocks to the meadows and orchards, where it devours a
great number of insects, pupae, and larvae. The chaffinch is a determined
consumer of caterpillars and moths' eggs. The titmice are particularly use-
ful, viz. the ox-eye and torn -tit; then the goldfinch, redbreast, and red- start,
and also the wagtails.
344. The cuckoo also particularly deserves to be spared ; it not only devours
many of the smaller smooth-skinned larvae, but even consumes the hairy
caterpillars of many moths, particularly of the Itombycidae. On examining
the intestines of a cuckoo, in the month of September, Kollar found therein,
besides the remains of various insects, a great quantity of the skins of the
caterpillar of the large .Bombyx pini, which is one of the largest European
species, and has very stiff hair. The inner coat of the stomach was entirely
covered with hair, but a close inspection with the magnifying-glass showed
that the hair was not the hair of the stomach of the cuckoo, as some orni-
thologists suppose, but only the hair of the caterpillars. This bird may
therefore be of very essential service when there is a superfluity of the
caterpillars of the lackey or processionary moths (jBombyx neustria or
processionea).
345. It is sufficiently known that great service is rendered by the whole
race of crows to meadows and fields. Their favourite food consists of the
larvae of the cockchafer, which are thrown up by the plough, and which they
also draw out of the earth with their strong beaks. It is a wonderful provision
of nature, that exactly at the time that the insects injurious from their
great numbers appear, the greatest number of the insectivorous birds have
hatched their broods, and their voracious young are ready to be fed upon
them.
346. Insectivorous birds are also sometimes granivorous, and feast readily
on our fruit, particularly cherries ; but the injury they cause in this respect
is not to be compared to the use they are of in destroying insects. At least
we never hear of universal devastation caused by birds, though we do by
insects.
347. Among amphibious animals which destroy insects, lizards hold a
conspicuous place. Grasshoppers are the favourite food of many species.
Frogs and toads also devour many insects.
108 MEANS FOR ARRESTING THE PROGRESS OF
348. Besides mammalia, birds, and amphibious animals, Nature, to restore
the equilibrium among her creatures, and particularly to prevent the prepon-
derance of some sorts of insects, makes use chiefly of insects themselves,
namely, those which feed upon others, and which by degrees obtain a supe-
riority over those that are hurtful to us.
349. Thus many sorts of beetles, particularly of the family of ground-
beetles (Carabidae), destroy a multitude of the pupae of moths lying in the
earth. Many flies, allied to our house-fly, but much larger, lay their eggs
in living caterpillars and destroy them. But the most useful are the /chneu-
monidse. The females of this numerous family, 1300 species of which Pro-
fessor Gravenhorst has described in Europe alone, lay their eggs entirely hi
the bodies of other insects.
350. The manner in which these IchneumonidcB accomplish their work of
destruction is highly curious and interesting. All the species are furnished
at the end of the body with an ovipositor, composed of several bristles
attached together, with which they pierce the larvae of other insects, and
introduce their eggs into the flesh of the wounded animals. In some this
sting is longer than the whole body, sometimes more than an inch long,
namely, in those species which seek the objects of their persecution in the
interior of trees or wood that has been much and deeply perforated by the
insects which reside within. They perceive, either by their sense of smell
or by their antennae, that their prey is at hand, and introduce their eggs,
not without difficulty, into the bodies of the larvae living in the wood. Some
attack caterpillars feeding openly on plants, others perforate the various
excrescences, or gall-nuts, which also contain larvae : there are even many
species, scarcely visible to the naked eye, which lay their eggs in the eggs of
other insects, such as butterflies, and thus anticipate their destruction. The
eggs are hatched within the body of the living insect, and the young para-
sites, in the most literal sense, fatten on the entrails of their prey. At last
the wounded caterpillar sinks, the enemies escape through the skin and
become pupae ; or the caterpillar, notwithstanding its internal parasites,
enters the pupa state, but instead of a butterfly, one or more /chneumonidae
appear. To these wonderful animals we often owe the preservation of our
orchards, woods, and grain.
351. Besides the above-mentioned Jchneumonidae, ants, field or tree bugs,
and many sorts of spiders, contribute greatly to the extirpation of various
insects.
Subsect. 7. Means devised by Art for arresting the Progress of Insects in Gardens,
or of destroying them there.
352. Insects may be destroyed in all their different stages ; in some, how-
ever, with greater ease than in others. Some can only be taken or killed
when in the perfect state, from the difficulty of discovering their eggs, or
from their small size, or from the short period which elapses between the
hatching of the insect and its maturity ; for example, the aphides. Others
can only be destroyed in the perfect state, with great difficulty ; such as the
different butterflies. A great number of the insects which infest British
gardens are only to be destroyed in the larva state ; while some, such as the
gooseberry-moths, may be destroyed in every stage. We shall briefly
indicate the different practices which may be had recourse to in different
stages, for deterring or destroying insects, by the gardener ; leaving particular
INSECTS, OR DESTROYING THEM. 309
details till particular insects come to be mentioned, when treating on the
culture of the plants which they attack. We shall commence with opera-
tions connected with the perfect insect, and take in succession the eggs, the
larvae, and the pupae.
353. Deterring the Perfect Insect. — The perfect winged insect may, in some
cases, be deterred from approaching plants by covering them with netting or
gauze, the meshes of which are sufficiently small to exclude the insect, but
not too small to prove injurious to the plant by excluding light and air. Wasps
and flies are in this manner excluded from vineries and peach-houses while
the fruit is ripening. Bunches of grapes against the open wall are also
protected by putting them in bags of woollen netting or gauze. Choice
plants in pots are sometimes protected from wingless insects by placing the
pot containing the plant in the midst of a saucer which surrounds the pot
with water, which it is found the insect will not cross. The stems of plants,
such as dahlias and gooseberries, are sometimes protected by a zone of
glutinous matter, on wool, tow, or paper, over which the insect will not
venture. A remarkable mode of deterring some insects from entering houses
by the windows is described hi the Architectural Magazine, vol. ii., as
practised in Italy, and known even in the time of Herodotus. This is
simply to place before the openings of the window a net of white or light-
coloured thread, the meshes of which may be an inch or more in diameter.
The flies seem to be deterred from entering through the meshes from some
inexplicable dread of venturing within. If small nails be fixed all round
the window-frame at the distance of about an inch from each other, and
thread be then stretched across both vertically and horizontally, the network
so produced will be equally effectual in excluding the flies. It is essential,
however, that the light should enter the room on one side of it onty ; for if
there be a thorough light either from an opposite or side window, the flies
pass through the net without scruple. (W. Spence in Transact. EntomoL
Society, vol. i.) It would appear to be a general principle, that winged
insects may be deterred by meshes of such a size as will not admit them
with their wings expanded, and also that insects will not enter from bright
light into darkness, more especially if deterred by the slightest obstacle, such
as the threads stretched across before large openings in Italy.
354. Preventing the Perfect Insect from laying its Eggs. — Insects may
be prevented from laying their eggs on plants within reach by surrounding
them with a netting or other screen ; or, in some cases, by sprinkling the
plant with some liquid containing a very offensive odour. Thus moths are
prevented from laying their eggs on gooseberry-bushes by hanging among
them rags dipped in gunpowder and tar ; and probably there are various
cheap liquids that might be used in the case of fruit-trees, and perhaps even
forest-trees, and possibly for deterring butterflies from depositing their ova
on the cabbage tribe. Insects which deposit their eggs in the soil cannot
easily do so when the soil is very hard, and may therefore be enticed to depo-
sit them in portions of soil made soft on purpose. Thus boxes or large pots
filled with rotten tan, sunk in the soil, form an excellent nidus for the eggs
of the cockchafer, and will prevent that insect from laying them in the com-
mon soil of a garden. Hoeing or digging patches of soil here and there
throughout the garden or plantation will have a similar effect, to a certain
extent ; and after some weeks, when the larvae are some lines in length,
the soil may be sifted, and the insects taken out and destroyed. While
110 MEANS FOR ARRESTING THE PROGRESS OF
loosening the naked soil serves as a trap for the cockchafer, covering that soil
with straw is found to act as a defence against them ; and hence one of the
principal uses of mulching in the rose-gardens and tree-nurseries in the
neighbourhood of Paris.
355. Catching the Perfect Insect, so as to prevent it from depositing its
eggs. — Though this cannot he done to any great extent with winged insects,
such as the butterfly, moth, and some flies, yet it may be employed in the
case of the cockchafer, the rose-beetle, &c., which may be collected by
children ; and in the case of wingless insects, such as wood-lice, ants, and
earwigs, which may be enticed into hiding-places by food, or by other
means. Hay, mixed with crumbs of bread, and tied up in little bundles, —
or, what is better, stuffed into empty flower-pots or boxes, — will attract wood-
lice ; and the material may be taken out daily, and the insects destroyed,
after which it may be replaced, occasionally adding some fresh gratings of
cheese. Ants may be entrapped by sweetened water put in narrow-necked
bottles and sunk in the soil ; or, better, by moist sugar, mixed with hay,
and put loosely into flower-pots in the same manner as for wood-lice.
Earwigs may be caught by placing hollow bean-stalks in their haunts, to
which they will retire in the day-time, when they can be shaken out of the
stalks into a vessel of water. A simple and effectual trap for both wood-lice
and earwigs is composed of two pieces of the bark of any soft rough-barked
tree, such as the elm, placed inside to inside, so as to leave in the middle
between them a very slight separation, tying the two pieces of bark together
by a wand or twig, part of which is left as a handle, and laying the trap
where the insects abound. They will retire between the pieces in the
day-time, which can be quickly lifted up by the twig and shaken over a
vessel of water. No bait is required for this trap, the more tender part of
the bark being eaten by the wood-lice and the earwig. The same bark-trap
will also serve for millepedes, beetles, and, to a certain extent, for ants.
The most effective mode of destroying ants in frames or hothouses is by
placing toads in them. One toad will be sufficient for a frame or a hot-
house. The toad places himself by the side of an ant-path, and by stretching
out his tongue as the insects pass him, draws them in and devours them. Mr.
"Westwood suggests to us, that, where ants abound, it is most advisable to
watch for the period when the winged males and females swarm ; when this
is perceived, they should be destroyed by beating them down with the spade,
and turning up the nest. By this means the coupling of the sexes is pre-
vented, as well as the formation of fresh colonies.
350. Destroying the Perfect Insect. — This is effected in the open air by the
use of washes or decoctions in the case of the aphides ; or, in the case of
the wasp, by hot water being poured into its nest, or sulphur being burnt
in it ; or by pouring salt and water into ants' nests ; or by lighting a fire over
the holes of burrowing insects, &c. In plant-houses, the perfect insect, such
as the red spider, the green fly, &c., is destroyed by fumigation with tobacco-
smoke, accompanied at the same time by steaming, which is found to con-
dense the oil of the tobacco on the leaves of the plants. The perfect insect
is also destroyed in hothouses by the sublimation of sulphur, which may be
mixed with lime or loam, and washed over the heating flues and pipes, or
placed on a hot stone or plate, or in a chafing-dish. Dusting the leaves of
plants under glass with sulphur, in a state of powder, is found to destroy
the red spider. Beetles, wood-lice, ants, and other crawling wingless
INSECTS, OR DESTROYING THEM.
Ill
insects, are also destroyed by tempting them with food containing poison.
A remarkable but very efficient mode of destroying the vine-moth in
France has been discovered by Victor Audouin, which might in many cases,
we have no doubt, be adopted in British gardens. This mode is founded
on the practice of lighting fires during the night in vineyards, to which
the moths are attracted and burn themselves. M. Audouin has modi-
fied this practice in a very ingenious manner, which has been attended
with the most effective results. He places a flat vessel with a light on the
ground, and covers it with a bell-glass besmeared with oil. The pyralis,
attracted by the light, flies towards it ; and, in the midst of the circle which
it describes in flying, it is caught and retained by the glutinous sides of the
bell-glass, where it instantly perishes by suffocation. Two hundred of these
lights were established in apart of the vineyard of M. Delahante, of about four
acres in extent, and they were placed about twenty-five feet from each other.
The fires lasted about two hours ; and scarcely had they been lighted, when
a great number of moths came flying around, which were speedily destroyed
by the oil. The next day the deaths were counted. Each of the 200 vessels
contained, on an average, 150 moths. This sum multiplied by the first
number gives a total of 30,000 moths destroyed. Of these 30,000 insects,
we may reckon one fifth females, having the abdomen full of eggs, which
would speedily have laid, on an average, 150 eggs each. This last number,
multiplied by the fifth of J)0,000, that is to say, by 6000, would give for the
final result of this first destruction the sum of 900,000. On the 7th of
August, 180 lamps were lighted in the same place, each of which on an
average destroyed 80 moths, or a total of 14,400. In these 14,400 moths
there was reckoned to be, not only one sixth, but three fourths, females :
but, admitting that there was only one half females, or 7200 ; and, multi-
plying this by 150 (the number of eggs that each would have laid), we have
a total of 1,080,000 eggs destroyed. Two other experiments were made on
the 8th and 10th of August, which caused the destruction of 9260 moths.
(Gard. Mag. vol. xiii. p. 487.)
357. Luring away the Perfect Insect. — Attracting the perfect insect from
the plant or fruit by some other kind of food to which they give the pre-
ference, and which is of less value to the gardener, may perhaps sometimes
be effected. Thus honeyed water in narrow-mouthed glasses,
such as fig. 6, is used to entrap wasps and flies from wall- fruit ;
and decayed fruit or small portions of meat, placed under
hand-glasses in the following manner, may be used for a simi-
lar purpose ; — Take a common hand-glass, — the hexagonal or
any other form Fig. 6. Fly-glass
will do (fig. 7) ; remove in the
apex the whole or part of three
of the panes, «, 6, c. Then take
a second hand-glass, which must
be of the same form as the first,
and place it on the roof of the
first, so that the sides of the one
may coincide with the sides of
Fig. 7- Hand-glasses prepared for making a fly-trap.
the other ; next stop all the interstices between the bottom of the one and
the eaves of the other, at c, /, g, with moss, wool, or any suitable substance,
i2
112
MEANS FOR ARRESTING THE PROGRESS OF
Fig. 8. Plan of a fly -trap.
which will prevent the entrance or exit of flies. The bottom hand-glass
must rest on three pieces of bricks, fig. 8, to form
an opening underneath. The appearance of the trap
when completed is simply that of one hand-glass
above another, fig. 9. Frag-
ments of waste fruit are laid on
the ground, unler the bottom
hand-glass, to attract the flies,
which, having once entered,
never descend again to get out,
but rise into the upper glass, and buzz about under its
roof, till, fatigued and exhausted, they drop down, and
are seen lying dead on the roof of the under glass. One
of these traps, placed conspicuously on the ground be-
Fig. 9. Hand-glasses ar- fore a fruit-wall or hothouse, acts as a decoy to all
ranged as a fly-trap. kinds of wjnge(J insects. (Gard. Mag. vol. ii. p. 152.)
358. Collecting the Eggs of Insects. — The eggs of insects, after being depo-
sited on the bark or leaves of plants, may sometimes be collected by hand ;
for example, when they are laid in clusters or patches, so as to form a belt
round the twig, as in the lackey-moth ; or when they are covered with
fibrous matter, as in the .Bombyx dispar, which lays its eggs in large circular
or oval spots, containing 300 or more each, on the bark of trees or hedges,
and covers them with a yellow wool. The eggs of the yellow-tail moth are
laid on the leaves of fruit-trees, in a long narrow heap, and covered with
gold-coloured hair, whence the scientific naine^Bombyxchrysorrhcea, which
makes them very conspicuous ; but the leaves may easily be collected,
and the eggs destroyed. The satin-moth, jBombyx salicis, which, in its
larva state, feeds on the leaves of willows and poplars, often stripping entire
trees, when it becomes a perfect insect, lays its eggs in July, in small spots
like mother-of-pearl, on the bark of the tree ; and as they are conspicuous,
they may easily be scraped off. Practical men in general are too apt
to undervalue the effects of hand-picking, whether of the eggs or larvae of
insects ; not reflecting that every insect destroyed by this means, is not only
an immediate riddance of an evil, but prevents the generation of a great
number of other evils of the same kind. Circumstances have forced this on
the attention of the French cultivator, and the following facts will place the
advantage of hand-picking in a strong light. In 1837, M. V. Audouin,
already mentioned, was charged by a commission of the Academic des
Sciences, to investigate the habits of a small moth, whose larva is found to
be exceedingly injurious in vineyards in France. During the month of
August, women and children were employed during four days in collecting
the patches of eggs upon the leaves, during which period 18(1,900 patches
were collected, which was equal to the destruction of 11,214,000 eggs. In
twelve days from twenty to thirty workers destroyed 482,000 eggs, which
would have been hatched in the course of twelve or fifteen days. The
number of perfect insects destroyed in a previous experiment, by an expensive
process, was only 30,000. (Gard. Mag. vol. xiii. p. 486.) Many insects, how-
ever, deposit their eggs singly or in very small quantities, or in concealed places ;
and the eggs being in these cases very small, cannot be removed by art.
359. Preventing Eggs from being hatched. — Eggs, after being deposited, may
INSECTS, OR DESTROYING THEM. 113
sometimes be destroyed, or prevented from hatching, by the application of
washes, or a coating of glutinous adhesive matter, such as gum, glue, paste, soft
soap, sulphur, and clay, or in some cases clay alone. A mixture of lime and
water will not always have the effect of preventing the hatching of the eggs ;
because, when the egg begins to vivify and swell with the heat of the spring,
the lime cracks and drops off. This, however, is not the case when the
lime is mixed with soft soap, which renders it elastic. Water raised to the
temperature of 200° will destroy the eggs of most insects ; and when these
are deposited on the bark of the trunk of an old tree, or the well -ripened
branches of a young hardy tree, water at this temperature may be applied
freely. For young shoots in general the temperature should not exceed 130°
or 150°. It should be remembered that insects, in depositing their eggs,
always instinctively make choice of places where the newly-hatched insect
will find food without going far in search of it. Hence they never lay them
on walls, stones, glass, boards, or similar substances ; and therefore the atten-
tion of gardeners, when searching for ova, should be directed much more to
the plants which nourish the insects, than to the walls or structures which
shelter the plants. (See 311.)
360. Collecting or destroying Larvae. — Insects are much more injurious to
plants in their larva state than they are in any other ; because, as we have
already seen (312), it is in this stage of their transformations that they chiefly
feed. With the exception, however, of several of the wingless or crawling
insects, and certain bugs and beetles, larvae are in general not difficult to dis-
cover, because, for the most part, they live on those parts of plants that are
above ground ; but some live on the roots of plants, and these are among the
most insidious enemies both of the gardener and the farmer. The ver blanc,
or larva of the cockchafer, in France, and that of the wire- worm, in England,
are perhaps the most injurious of all underground larvae, and those over
which the cultivator has least power. Underground larvae may be partially
collected, but not without much care and labour, by placing tempting baits
for them in the soil. As they live upon roots, slices of such as are sweeter
and more tender may be deposited at different depths and at certain dis-
tances, and the places marked, and the soil being dug up once a day, the insects
may be picked off and the baits replaced. Slices of carrot, turnip, potato, and
apple, form excellent baits for most underground larvae. Such as attack leaves
— as, for example, those of the gooseberry — may be destroyed in immense
quantities by gathering the leaves infested by them, as soon as the larvae
become distinguishable from the leaf by the naked eye. Instead of this
being done, however, it too frequently happens that the larvae escape the
notice of the gardener till they are nearly full grown, and have done most
of the mischief of which they are capable. Hand-picking has been found
most serviceable in preventing the injury caused by the bla«k caterpillar on
the turnip leaves, which, in certain seasons, has proved destructive of the
entire crop. It may also be applied to the destruction of the cabbage cater-
pillars. Here, also, we may notice the beneficial effects of picking out and
destroying young onion plants infested by the grub of the onion-fly. This
ought to be done as soon as the plants appear sickly, because the grubs
arrive at maturity in a very short time ; and, by destroying the plant, future
generations of the fly are prevented. Grub-eaten fruit ought also to be
picked up as soon as it falls to the ground, before the enclosed grub has
time to make its escape into the earth, and which it would do in a very short
114 AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS CONSIDERED.
time, the fruit not falling until the grub has arrived at its full size. The
larvse of some kinds of saw-flies envelop themselves in a kind of web in
the day-time, and only go abroad to feed during the night. Webs of this
sort may be seen in great numbers, in the early part of summer, on thorn
hedges, fruit-trees, spindle-trees, and a great many others ; and they might
readily be collected by children or infirm persons, and thus myriads of
insects destroyed. The larva may be destroyed, both in its infant and adult
state, by dashing against it water in which some caustic substance has been
dissolved, such as quicklime or potass ; or a bitter or poisonous infusion may
be made, such as tobacco-water. While the larvae are not numerous, or the
plants infested by them are tender and highly valued, they ought to be collected
by hand ; and in the case of the larvse of mining insects, in which the larva
is concealed within the epidermis of the leaf, there is no way of destroying
them but by gathering the leaves, or crushing the insects between the finger
and thumb.
SGI. Collecting the Pupa or Chrysalids. — Insects may be destroyed in the
pupa state by collecting their chrysalids or cocoons, when these are placed
above ground, as is most commonly the case with those of moths and butter-
flies. These are commonly deposited in crevices in the old bark of trees, or
in sheltered parts of walls or buildings ; rarely on young shoots or in the
tender parts of plants, because, when the perfect insect comes forth, it no
longer requires such food. Often the larva descends into the soil, there to
undergo its pupa state ; and in some cases it may be destroyed by water-
ing the soil with boiling water, or by deep trenching ; the surface soil, con-
taining the insects, being placed in the bottom of the trench. As the eggs
and chrysalids require the presence of air for their vivification and maturity
no less than the seeds of vegetables, they are consequently, when deposited
in the soil, always placed near the surface ; and hence they may be destroyed
either by heaping earth on the surface, or by trenching or digging down the
surface soil, so that the eggs or pupae may be covered at least to the depth
of six inches. How long vitality will be retained under such circum-
stances is uncertain. In destroying the cocoons of insects, care should be
taken not to destroy those of the insect's enemies, such as the cocoons of the
spider, or those of the ichneumon flies. These are sometimes deposited in
heaps on the bark of trees, and are individually not larger than the egg of a
butterfly. The gardener ought to be able to recognise them, because they
are his best friends.
This general outline will be sufficient to show the necessity of every gar-
dener, who would be a master of his profession, studying the natural history
of insects, and more especially of those which are known to be injurious or
useful to him, whether in the open garden or in plant-structures. It is only
by such a study that he can be prepared to encounter an insect which he
has never heard of before, and that he will be able to devise new modes of
counteracting the progress of, or destroying, already known insects. For
this purpose we recommend to his study the work of Kollar already men-
tioned, and next Mr. Westwood's Introduction to the modern Classification
of Insects.
SECT. IV. — Amphibious Animals, considered with reference to Horticulture.
362. The frog, TJana temporaria L., and the toad, Bufo vulgaris Fleni,,
are found useful in gardens, because they live upon worms, snails, slugs, and
BIRDS,
115
terrestrial insects. The toad being less active than the frog, and being capable
of living a longer period without food, is better adapted for being shut up
in frames, or kept in stoves. Both prefer a damp and shady situation ; and
where they are intended to breed, they should have access to a shallow pond,
or shady ditch. The ova of the frog is deposited in clusters in ditches and
shallow ponds, about the middle of March ; and the young, or tadpoles, are
hatched a month or five weeks afterwards, according to the season : by the
1 8th of June they are nearly full-sized, and begin to acquire their fore
feet ; towards the end of that month, or the beginning of the next, the
young frogs come on land, but the tail is still preserved for a short time
afterwards. The common toad is a few days later in spawning than the
frog. Its ova are deposited in long necklace-like chains in shallow water
in shady ponds or ditches. There is one species, B. Calamita Laurent, the
Natter-Jack, which inhabits dry localities, and is a much more active
animal than the toad, but much less common.
363. The common Eft, Z/acerta palustris Z>., and L. aquaticus Z,., are
occasionally met with hi gardens hi damp situations ; and they live upon
aquatic insects, snails, worms, &c. ; but nevertheless, from their disagree-
able appearance, we cannot recommend their introduction. On the contrary,
we think they ought to be destroyed either by art, or by their natural
enemies, such as the turkey, weazel, &c. The ova are deposited on aquatic
plants about the same time as those of the toad.
SECT. V. — Birds, considered with reference to Horticulture.
Birds are, upon the whole, much more beneficial than injurious to gar-
dens ; and being also larger animals and more familiar to every person living
in the country than insects, very little requires to be said respecting them.
We shall briefly notice the commonest English birds of the different orders ;
taking as our guide Jenyns' Manual of British Vertebrate Animals.
364. Raptores (Seizers). — Birds with feet formed for grasping : food, en-
tirely animal substances. This order includes the eagle (ylquilaZ,.) and fal-
con (Falco Z/.), which may be considered injurious to gardens by scaring away
other birds which are useful. It also includes the sparrow-hawk (^ccipiter
/ringillarius Will.), which preys upon the smaller birds and quadrupeds,
and also on amphibite ; on which account it may be considered as partly in-
jurious and partly useful. This may also be said of the kite (Jfilvus
Zctinus Sav.) The kestril, or wind-hover hawk (Falco Tinnunculus L.) is
peculiarly valuable for killing beetles, and it also destroys slugs and snails.
It is peculiarly fit for a garden, because cats dare not venture to attack it.
The white owl, or barn-owl (/Strix flammea Z/.), with tawny yellow
plumage, white underneath, is one of the most valuable birds of this order,
because it feeds principally upon mice, snails, and slugs, and occasionally
devours other small animals, such as rats, and sometimes, but rarely, fish.
It is common in every part of the kingdom ; it comes abroad about sunset,
and collects its food during the night. It may be known from the tawny
owl or wood-owl by screaming in its flight, but never hooting like that
species. " If this useful bird caught its food by day," Mr. Waterton
observes, " instead of hunting for it by night, mankind would have ocular
demonstration of its utility in thinning the country of mice, and it would
be protected and encouraged everywhere. It would be with us what the
116 BIRDS, CONSIDERED WITH
ibis was with the Egyptians. When it has young, it will bring a mouse
to the nest about every twelve or fifteen minutes. But in order to have a
proper idea of the enormous quantity of mice which this bird destroys, we
must examine the pellets which it ejects from its stomach in the place of
its retreat. Every pellet contains from four to seven skeletons of mice. In
sixteen months from the time that the apartment of the owl on the old
gateway at Walton Hall was cleaned out, there has been a deposit of above
a bushel of pellets." (Essays on Nat. Hist. 3rd edit, p. 13.) The tawny
owl (£trix Aluco Tamm.) with reddish-brown plumage, is found only in
woods, where it builds in the hollows of old trees, or amongst ivy. It preys
upon various small quadrupeds and birds ; it comes abroad only during the
night, and has a clamorous and hooting note. By destroying small birds,
this owl becomes injurious to the gardener as well as useful, and therefore
he ought chiefly to encourage the barn-owl. For this purpose a picturesque
tower might be formed in some retired situation in the flower-garden or
shrubbery, or on one of the angles of the kitchen-garden wall, like a watch-
tower, where it would prove ornamental ; and a brood of young owls might
be brought to it, and supplied abundantly with mice till they were full-grown,
and able to provide for themselves. The time to procure the young birds
is about the end of April ; or the eggs might be procured and hatched in
the bark-bed of the stove, &c. There are some other species of owl occa-
sionally found in England, but they are too rare to be of any practical use.
365. Insessores (Perchers). — Birds with feet adapted for perching : food,
chiefly insects and the smaller quadrupeds, but partly fruits and seeds. This
order includes a number of birds which are interesting to gardeners. The
shrikes (Lanius L.}, of which there are two species, feed on small birds, mice,
snails, and insects. The fly-catchers (Muscicapa? L.) feed on insects taken
on the wing ; and among these the cultivated or hive-bee does not escape.
The water ouzel (Cinclus aquaticus Bechst.) feeds on aquatic insects, and
is capable of diving for them. The missel- thrush (Turdus viscivorus L.)
lives on insects and berries, particularly on those of the mistletoe. The
field-fare (T. pilaris L.) feeds on haws and other berries, and also on in-
sects and worms. The song- thrush (T. musicus L.) feeds on berries, in-
sects, and snails ; as does the blackbird and the redwing ( T. iliacus L.)
The red-breast (Sylvia Rubecula Lath.} feeds on insects and worms; and
also, when the food is scarce, on seeds or crumbs of bread. The black- cap
(Sylvia Atricapilla Lath.) lives chiefly on insects; the wag-tail (Motacilla,
L.) on aquatic insects. The titmouse (Parus L.) lives chiefly on insects,
but will also eat seeds. The greater titmouse (P. major), when hard
pressed for food, lives upon the honey-bee ; and, according to Mr. Main,
sometimes destroys great numbers of them. The bird " seats himself at
the door of the hive, and taps with his bill to provoke the bees to come
forth. The first bee that comes out is instantly seized by the middle and
carried off to a tree, and there beaten against a branch till it is nearly dead.
The bird then separates the head and thorax, which it swallows, from the
abdomen, which it rejects, as containing the sting, and then flies back
for another victim." (Ladies' Mag. of Gard. vol. i. p. 52.) The bearded
titmouse, an inhabitant of fenny districts, lives on snails and other land
molluscse. The lark (^lauda L.) feeds on insects and small seeds. The
bunting (Emberiza Z/.) feeds principally on seeds. The CM bunting,
found in Devonshire and some of the adjoining counties, is said to feed on
REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 117
the berries of the Solanum Dulcamara. The chaffinch, the house-sparrow,
the tree-sparrow, and different other species belonging to the genus Frm-
gllla, feed on insects and seeds ; sometimes on berries ; and when food is
scarce, on the buds of trees. They also eat the anthers of Crocuses and
other spring flowers. In severe winters the buds of the Gooseberry and
Currant tribe are sometimes devoured by the common house-sparrow;
and this even in the neighbourhood of London, where it might be suppose d
this bird would find food at all seasons. The bullfinch, cross-bill, and
starling, live on insects and worms, and occasionally grain. The raven
(Corvus Corax Z.) lives on mice, rats, poultry and other animals, as well
as on carrion. The carrion crow (C. Corone Z/.) and the hooded crow (C.
Cornix L.) have similar habits. Mr. Waterton considers the carrion crow
as merely a variety of the raven ; " he rises long before the rook, and retires
to rest later than that bird. Indeed, he is the first bird on wing in the
morning, and the last at night, of all our non-migratory, diurnal British
birds. He feeds voraciously on ripe cherries, and in autumn eats walnuts ;
but he destroys many worms and caterpillars ; though when his young are
in the nest, he seizes game and young poultry wherever he can find them."
(Essays on Nat. Hist.) The rook (Corvus frugllegus L.) lives principally
on the grub of the cockchafer, the wireworm, and other insects ; but will
occasionally devour corn ; and, during the winter season, is very destructive
to turnips. The jackdaw (C. JZonedula Z,.), the jay, and the magpie, feed
on a great variety of animal and vegetable substances. The woodpecker
(Picus Z/.), of which there are several species, feeds on ants and other
insects ; more especially on the larva of the timber-eating species, which it
extracts by means of its long tongue, after having perforated the wood with
its bill. Neither the titmouse nor the woodpecker, Mr. Waterton observes,
ever bore into the hard and live wood. The wryneck (Funx Torquilla Z/.)
lives principally on ants; and the common creeper (Certhia familiaris Z/.),
which is generally dispersed through the country, and is remarkable for the
great facility with which it climbs up the trunks of trees, feeds entirely on
insects. The nuthatch (£itta europae'a L.) lives occasionally on insects,
but principally on nuts, which it breaks with its bill after having firmly
fixed them in the crevices of old trees. The cuckoo feeds principally on
caterpillars and other insects. The swallow and the martin feed entirely on
insects taken on the wing ; they appear about the end of April or beginning
of May, and depart in October. The goatsucker (Caprimulgus L.) lives
on insects, particularly on cockchafers, which it seizes on the wing, and on
butterflies ; but this bird is more frequently found hi solitary woods than in
gardens or frequented places.
366. The greater number of birds which frequent gardens belong to this
order ; and while they do good by devouring insects, snails, and worms,
they are also to a certain extent injurious, by eating fruits and attacking
newly-sown or germinating seeds. The singing-birds are the best for
destroying soft-winged insects, such as moths and butterflies. Of all the
birds of this order, perhaps the hedge-sparrow is the most harmless, and the
house-sparrow the most mischievous. The former lives upon the seeds of
weeds or other plants that lie upon the surface of the ground, and it rarely
attacks buds; while the house -sparrow scratches up newly-sown seeds and
crops the tops of seedling plants when they are just penetrating through
the surface of the soil, such as peas : it also eats the smaller fruits, and,
118 BIRDS, CONSIDERED WITH
when other food is wanting, attacks buds. The robin devours currants, more
especially about the time the young robins leave the nest, in June, when
the currants are beginning to ripen. Blackcaps, whitethroats, and bull-
finches, eat currants, strawberries, and raspberries ; and of the latter fruit,
bullfinches are particularly fond. Gooseberries, being too large for the
soft-billed birds, as soon as they ripen are attacked by blackbirds and
thrushes ; and the fondness of these birds for ripe cherries has long been
notorious. The wren and the fly- catcher are purely insectivorous ; and
the tomtits, though they sometimes destroy buds, yet are far more useful
than injurious, from the number of caterpillars which they devour.
367. Rasores (Scratchers}. — Birds with feet not formed for scraping: food,
chiefly seeds and terrestrial vermin. The ringdove, and different other species
of doves, live on all kinds of grain and seeds, and, during severe weather, on
the leaves of turnips and other cultivated plants ; and some of them occasion-
ally eat the smaller snails and slugs. This is the case with the domestic
pigeon ; though it more frequently lives on peas and grain. The turkey lives
on snails, slugs, worms, lizards, frogs, and terrestrial insects, together with
corn and seeds of almost every other kind. The peacock lives on similar food,
and will even attack small snakes. The Guinea pintado, the domestic cock,
and the pheasant, are omnivorous, eating roots as well as animals, fruits, and
seeds. The corm of .Ranunculus bulbosus, where it abounds, is greedily
eaten by the pheasant. The grouse (Tetrao Z/.) frequents woods of pines,
birch, and juniper, and feeds on the berries of the latter, and on the buds
and tender spray of the two former. The black grouse feeds on berries, and
on the tops of heath and birch. The common partridge feeds on seeds and
insects, and especially on the pupae of ants. Few of these birds concern the
gardener, except the turkey, peacock, and pheasant, which may be useful
in pleasure-grounds in picking up vermin.
368. Grallatores (Waders). — Birds with legs adapted for wading: food,
chiefly animals and grain. The plover (Charadrius Z,.), of which there are
several species, haunts moors and other open districts, and lives on worms and
insects. The heron feeds principally on fish and small reptiles. The stork,
which sometimes appears in Suffolk, lives on reptiles, insects, small quadru-
peds, such as mice, rats, &c., and might be usefully domiciliated in gardens ;
as might the crane, as an ornamental object, and because it feeds on aquatic
plants, worms, and small reptiles. The woodcock ($c61opax Z.), a winter
visitant, lives on insects and worms ; as does the snipe. The water-hen
(Galllnula Lath.\ and the coot (Fulica Z,.), feed on aquatic insects, seeds,
and vegetables. The birds of this order may be said scarcely to concern the
gardener.
369. Natatores (Swimmers}. — Birds with feet adapted for swimming, om-
nivorous. The goose (^4'nser J5m*.), of which there are several species, and the
swan (Cygnus Meyer) live upon grain of all kinds, aquatic vegetables,
and grass. The common gull (Zarus canus L.) is an inhabitant of the sea-
coast, but frequents inland districts during the winter months, where it lives
upon worms, snails, and small fish. As it does not touch seeds or vegetables
of any kind, it is kept in gardens in various parts of Scotland. The common
duck (^4vnas .Boschas Z.) feeds naturally on aquatic insects and vege-
tables, fish, and molluscous animals, and is the most useful bird of this
order for occasional admission into gardens. Ducks, however, when placed
in a garden to destroy vermin, require to be withdrawn once a day, and
REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 119
either starved, or fed with grain, before being sent back again to eat the
vermin.
As a general conclusion to be drawn from this section, the gardener
will learn on the one hand to be cautious how far he destroys birds of any
kind ; but he will also, on the other, watch the operations of birds, and
when he finds them committing depredations on newly- sown seeds, on seeds
coming through the ground, on flowers, or on fruits, have recourse to some
mode of deterring without destroying them.
370. The different modes of deterring birds may be reduced to the follow-
ing : — Excluding by netting, or other coverings, supported at a few inches'
distance from the rising seedlings, fruit, flower, or plant to be protected ; setting
up scares, of different kinds, such as mock men or cats, mock hawks or other
birds of prey, miniature wind-mills or clapper-mills ; lines with feathers tied
at regular distances, placed at a few inches' distance above the rows of newly-
sown peas, or other seeds sown in drills ; over rows of crocuses or other
dwarf spring flowers, or over beds or entire compartments. A system of
dark worsted threads, placed in front of wall-trees at a few inches' distance
from the leaves, will scare a\vay most birds ; because, taking the worsted
string for a twig, and lighting on it, it turns round by the grasp, and sinking
at the same time by the weight, the bird falls, and if this happens to him on
a second attempt, he will be deterred for the future. The following scare is
founded on an idea given by Mr. Swainson in the Encyclopedia of Agricul. 2d
edit., p. 1112 : — Let poles, ten or twelve feet high, be firmly fixed in the
ground, in conspicuous parts of the garden, each pole terminating in an iron
spike six or eight inches long ; pass this spike through the body of a dead
hawk in the direction of the back -bone : it will thus be firmly secured, and
give the bird an erect position ; the wings being free, will be moved by every
breeze, and their unnatural motion will prove the best scarecrow either for
ravenous or granivorous birds, more particularly the latter. Cats are found
useful in walled gardens as scares to birds, as well as for other purposes.
R. Brook, Esq., of Melton Lodge, near Woodbridge, in Suffolk, has four or
five cats, each with a collar and light chain and swrivel, about a yard long, with
a large iron ring at the end. As soon as the gooseberries, currants, and rasp-
berries, begin to ripen, a small stake is driven into the ground, or bed, near
the trees to be protected, leaving about a yard and a half of the stake above
ground; the ring is slipped over the head of the stake, and the cat being thus
tethered in sight of the trees, no birds will approach them. Cherry trees and
wall-fruit trees are protected in the same manner as they successively ripen.
Each cat, by way of a shed, has one of the largest-sized flower-pots laid on its
side, within reach of its chain, with a little hay or straw in bad weather, and
her food and water placed near her. A wall of vines between 200 and SOO
yards long, in Kirke's Nursery, Brompton, the fruit of which, in all pre-
vious seasons, had been very much injured by birds, was one year completely
protected from them, in consequence of a cat having voluntarily posted
herself sentry upon it. (Hort. Trans. 2d series, and Gard. Mag. vol. xii.
p. 429.) A stuffed cat has also been found efficacious. Crows and rooks are,
in some parts of the country, deterred from lighting on sown wheats by pieces
of rag dipped in a mixture of bruised gunpowder and tar, and stuck on rods,
which are placed here and there over the field, and the rags renewed every
three or four days. Of course this scare only operates where the birds have
been previously accustomed to be shot at. The most certain mode of scaring
120 THE SMALLER QUADRUPEDS, CONSIDERED
away birds, however, is to set boys or other persons to watch and sound a
wooden clapper all round the fruit, or seeds, which may be ripening, or
germinating.
371. The destruction of birds is most judiciously effected by traps, or by
poisoning, because neither of these modes operates like the gun in scaring
away others. " The report of fire-arms is terrible to birds ; and, indeed, it
ought never to be heard in places in which you wish to encourage the pre-
sence of animated nature. Where the discharge of fire-arms is strictly
prohibited, you will find that the shiest species of birds will soon forget
their wariness, and assume habits which persecution prevents them from
putting in practice. Thus the cautious heron will take up its abode in the
immediate vicinity of your mansion ; the barn-owl will hunt for mice under
the blazing sun of noon, even in the very meadow where the hay-makers are
at work ; and the widgeons will mix, in conscious security, with the geese,
as they pluck the sweet herbage on your verdant lawn ; where the hares
may be seen all the day long, now lying on their sides to enjoy the warmth
of the sun, and now engaged in sportive chase, unbroken in upon by enemies,
whose sole endeavour is to take their lives." (Essays on Nat. Hist., 3d ed. p.
251.) One of the simplest bird traps, and one also of a very effectual descrip-
tion, is to smear some of the twigs of the trees in which they are expected to
alight with bird-lime. Every country boy can suggest the modes of collect-
ing birds together by regular supplies of food, which may be poisoned by
arsenic, or netting may be so contrived as to be pulled down over the birds
and secure them.
SECT. VI. — The smaller Quadrupeds, considered with reference to Horti-
culture.
A few of these deserve notice, partly as the enemies of gardens, and partly
as the subduers of other garden enemies ; and in order that none deserving
notice may escape, we shall take them in scientific order.
372. Ferce ( Wild Beasts). — The badger (J/eles Cuv.) burrows in the ground
and comes abroad in the night to feed, devouring indiscriminately animal and
vegetable substances. The martin (M ustela Foina Z,.) inhabits the vicinity of
houses, and preys on poultry, game, rats, moles, &c. It breeds in hollow trees.
The polecat (M. Putorius L.) is a common inhabitant of woods and planta-
tions in all parts of the country, and preys on game, poultry, eggs, and all
the smaller quadrupeds, amphibiae, snails, slugs, and worms. The ferret
(M. Furo Zr.), considered by some as the polecat in a domesticated state,
is employed to destroy rabbits and rats. The weazel (M. vulgaris Gmel.)
is common in the vicinity of barns and outhouses. It devours young birds,
rats, mice, moles, frogs, toads, lizards, snakes, snails, slugs, &c. Mr.
Waterton, after recommending this animal to farmers, says : " But of all
people in the land, our gardeners have most reason to protect the weazel.
They have not one single word of complaint against it — not even for dis-
turbing the soil of the flower-beds. Having no game to encourage, nor
fowls to fatten, they may safely say to it, ' Come hither, little benefactor,
and take up thy abode amongst us. We will give shelter to thy young ones,
and protection to thyself, and we shall be always glad to see thee.' And
fortunate, indeed, are those horticultural enclosures which can boast the
presence of a weazel ; for neither mouse, nor rat, nor mole, can carry on
their projects with impunity whilst the weazel stands sentinel over the
WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE.
121
garden. Ordinary, and of little cost, are the apartments required for it. A
cart-load of rough stones, or of damaged bricks, heaped up in some seques-
tered corner, free from dogs, will be all that it wants for a safe retreat and a
pleasant dwelling. Although the weazel generally hunts for food during the
night, still it is by no means indolent in the day-time, if not harassed by
dogs or terrified with the report of guns." (Essays, &c. p. 302.) The otter,
which inhabits the banks of rivers, lakes, and marshes, swims and dives with
great facility, and is destructive to fish, on which it preys. The fox and the
wild cat prey on birds and small quadrupeds. The domestic cat is too well
known and too useful where rats, mice, or birds are to be deterred or de-
stroyed, to require further notice : but where birds are to be preserved or
encouraged, cats are their greatest enemies. "Cats amongst birds," Mr. Water-
ton observes, " are like the devil amongst us : they go up and down seeking
whom they may devour. A small quantity of arsenic, about as much as the point
of your penknife will contain, rubbed into a bit of meat, either cooked or raw,
will do their business effectually ." The mole (Talpa europaesaZ,.) burrows
beneath the surface, but never to a great depth, throwing up hillocks at in-
tervals. It feeds on worms and the larvae of insects, and, according to some,
on roots. It breeds twice a year, in spring and autumn ; and as it carries
on its operations chiefly in the night-time, the runs and hills may be watched
early in the morning, and the animals dug out wherever they give signs of
movement. They may also be taken by traps, of which there are several
kinds ; or poisoned by putting a little arsenic in worms, or in pieces of
meat ; or by the use of nux vomica. They may also be caught by sinking
in their runs narrow-mouthed vessels of water, into which the animals will
descend to drink without being able to get out again ; or these vessels may
have false covers similar to those set in the runs of rats. The shrew (£orex
.Z/.), of which there are three species, inhabits gardens, fields, and hedge-
rows, and preys on insects, and also on vegetable substances. It may be
caught by a water-trap in the same
manner as the mole, or by an inverted
flower-pot sunk in the soil, and slightly
covered with litter or leaves, fig. 10, or
subdued by employing some of its natu-
ral enemies. The hedgehog ( JS'rinaceus
L.) resides in hedges, thickets, &c., re-
maining concealed in the day-time, but
coming abroad at night in quest of
worms, Snails, slugs, and even frogs and Fig. 10. Inverted flower-pot, for catching mice.
snakes. It also lives on roots and fruits. Hedgehogs are occasionally kept
in gardens for destroying frogs, toads, lizards, snails, slugs, and worms ; and
in kitchens, for devouring beetles, cockroaches, woodlice, and other terrestrial
insects. Care is requisite, however, that they are not annoyed by cats,
which, though they cannot devour them, will, if not prevented, soon force
them to quit a habitation which is not natural to them. The spines of the
hedgehog are soft at its birth, and all inclining backwards ; but they become
hard and sharp in twenty-four hours. The bat, of which there are several
species indigenous, lives entirely on insects caught on the wing. It forms
the natural food of the owl. The dog, which belongs to this order, is well
known in gardens and country residences for his property of watching and
attacking rats and other vermin.
122 THE SMALLER QUADRUPEDS CONSIDERED.
373. Gllres {Dormice}. — The common squirrel feeds on birds, acorns, nuts,
and other fruits ; and though he is very ornamental in woods, he should be
but sparingly admitted into pleasure-grounds. The dormouse lives on similar
fruit to the squirrel, and builds in the hollows of trees. The field-mouse
may be caught and subdued in the same manner as the shrew. The field-
mouse in the Forest of Dean had become so destructive in 1813, that after
trying traps, baits with poison, dogs, cats, &c. with little success, at last the
plan of catching it by holes was hit upon. These holes were made from
eighteen inches to two feet long, sixteen or eighteen inches deep, about the
width of a spade at the top, fourteen or fifteen inches wide at the bottom,
and three or four inches longer at the bottom than at the top. The object
was to get the bottom of the hole three or four inches wider every way than
the top, and the sides firm, otherwise the mice would run up the sides and
get out again. The holes were made at twenty yards apart each way, over a
surface of about 3200 acres : 30,000 mice were very soon caught, and the
ground was freed from them for two or three years. As many as fifteen
have been found in a hole in one night ; when not taken out soon, they fell
on and ate each other. These mice, we are informed, used not only to
eat the acorns when newly planted, but to eat through the stems of trees
seven and eight feet high, and an inch and a half in diameter : the part
eaten through was the collar, or seat of life. (Billingtoris Facts on Oaks and
Trees., &;c. p. 43.) The black and the brown rat are omnivorous, and the
latter takes occasionally to water and swims readily. Both are extremely
difficult to extirpate, and the various modes of entrapping them are too
numerous and well known to require description here. The hare feeds
entirely on vegetables, and is very injurious where it finds its way into
gardens and young plantations. It eats the bark of several trees, and is
particularly fond of that of the Laburnum. Various mixtures have been
recommended for rendering the bark of young trees obnoxious to the hare,
and an ointment composed of powdered sloes and hogs'-lard is said to prove
effectual. Stale urine of any kind, mixed up with any glutinous matter
that will retain it on the bark, has also been recommended. The rabbit is
more injurious to gardens than the hare, because it is much less shy, and
much more prolific. It may be deterred from injuring the bark of trees by
the same means as the hare, and from eating pinks, carnations, and other
evergreen herbaceous plants, by surrounding them with a tarred thread sup-
ported by sticks at the height of six or eight inches from the ground ; or by
a fence, formed of wires about eighteen or twenty inches long, placed upright,
with the tops pointing outwards, the wires being connected by one horizontal
wire at the bottom and another at the middle. When hares or rabbits are
to be excluded from pleasure-grounds, a wire- wove fence is requisite ; and
where it is intended that the effect of the irregularity of the margin of the
plantation should not be impaired by the formality of a fence the lower part
of which is as close as basket-work, and consequently more like a fence of
boards painted green, than an invisible fence, which it is commonly called,
the mode is to have three parallel lines of fences, two or three yards apart.
The outer fence may consist of iron posts and rods, no closer together than
is necessary to exclude horses, cattle, and deer ; the second fence should be
such as will exclude sheep ; and between this fence and the outer one there
may be several large bushes, or low trees, with branches reaching to within
the height of a sheep from the ground. The third fence need not be more
DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS OF PLANTS CONSIDERED.
123
than two feet high, with an iron wire about a foot higher along the top,
and with the wires sufficiently close together to exclude hares and rabbits ;
and between this fence and the sheep-fence there may be several shrubs,
with their branches resting on the ground. Thus, by the distribution of the
Fig. 11. Triple fence : a., for excluding cattle ; b, sheep fence ; c, hare and rabbit fence.
materials which commonly form one fence into three fences, the outer margin
of the plantation may be made to appear as free and irregular as if there
were no fence at all. See fig. 11.
374. Ungulata (Hoofed Animals). — The ox, the sheep, the goat, the deer,
the horse, the ass, and the hog, belong to this order ; and the means of pro-
tecting gardens against them, or of using the animals or their manure so as
to become subservient to gardens, are well known, and already pointed out
in the Suburban Architect and Landscape Gardener, and in our chapter on
Manures, p. 56.
CHAPTER V.
DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS OF PLANTS, CONSIDERED WITH
REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE.
THERE are various diseases and accidents to which plants are liable, some
of which come little under the control of the gardener, and others he can
avert or subdue. The principal diseases which affect garden-plants are the
canker, mildew, gum, honey dew, and flux of juices.
375. The canker chiefly affects fruit-trees, and of these perhaps more
particularly the apple ; and some apples are constitutional^ more liable to
disease than others, — for example, the Ribston Pippin. The canker exhibits
itself in small brown blotches, which afterwards become ulcerous wounds, on
the surface of the bark, and soon extend on every side, eating into the wood,
and sooner or later becoming so large as ultimately to kill the tree. The
causes generally assigned are, the unsuitableness of the soil, the unpropitious-
iiess of the climate, and the unfavourableness of the seasons ; and here the
124 ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES OF PLANTS,
matter generally rests. Now, though we cannot make a soil just as we would
wish, still its improvement is within our influence ; and though we cannot
change the climate in our neighbourhood, we can at least accommodate our
operations to its character. A tree planted in a proper manner, with its
collar little, if anything, beneath the surface, in a deep friable loam, resting
upon a dry bottom, and where the climate is moderately favourable, will
seldom show any sign of canker. Whenever a tree is planted deep, — that is,
when the collar is buried a foot or more beneath the surface, — there the
canker will be apt to appear, however favourable other circumstances may
be. This aptness to canker will be increased almost to certainty, if the
ground should be deeply dug, or trenched, and supplied with rank manure
near the tree, as then, being forced to obtain its nourishment from a greater
depth, it will require a higher temperature and more sunlight to inspissate
and elaborate its crude juices.
376. To prevent canker, where good soil is only of very moderate thick-
ness, and where the subsoil is a ferruginous gravel, or a stiff cold clay, it is
not only necessary to drain the ground and plant upon the surface ; but the
trees should be set on the top of mounds from six inches to a foot above
the surrounding level, and from four to eight feet in diameter ; the bottom
of these mounds being covered with some hard substance, such as stone,
slate, &c., to prevent the roots descending, and to lead them out as it were
in a horizontal direction. No manure whatever should be incorporated
with the soil, unless it should be very poor indeed : but it may be applied
as a mulching round the mound, which will tend to keep the roots sufficiently
moist and also near the surface. If these points were attended to, we should
hear little of canker, unless in places naturally very damp, where more
than a fair average of rain falls ; or where, from the prevalence of clouds,
there is a deficiency of sunshine. In such places the shoots grow so luxu-
riantly during summer, that they are yet soft and spongy, and filled with
crude juices in the end of autumn. The frost sets in, freezes these juices,
bursts the sap-vessels, and the decay of the shoots, or brown blotches, and
ultimate canker, are the consequence. The only preventive in such cases is
to plant on hillocks, and in soil made light and poor : the wood will then
be less luxuriant and better ripened.
377. "What has been said respecting the prevention of canker will also
apply to its cure. No scrubbing, scraping, or anointing will be of the least
use. Cutting down the trees and allowing them to shoot afresh may be of
benefit, if the canker has been produced by one very unfavourable season ;
grafting them with hardier sorts will succeed, if the evil arises from unfa-
vourableness of climate ; but neither of these methods will be of permanent
benefit, when the evil proceeds from soil or deep planting. In such cases,
where the trees are very bad, the best method is to destroy them gradually,
and plant young ones hi a proper manner, leaving some of the old trees until
the young ones commence bearing. If the trees are not very old, nor yet
too far gone, it will be advisable to take them up carefully, cut away all the
cankered wood, plaster up all the wounds with a compound of clay and cow-
dung, plant them in fresh soil on hillocks, and give no manure unless what
is supplied for mulching. Such trees will generally become quite free of
disease and bear splendid crops. A number of years ago, in a large kitchen-
garden in the neighbourhood of London, a great number of fruit-trees were
dispersed in the different quarters in a miserable state from canker. The
CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 325
gardener appropriated a quarter in the garden for the reception of these
trees ; had the ground thrown into wide and high ridges : on the top of these
ridges the trees were planted, and last summer they presented a fine healthy
appearance, and were well stocked with good fruit. The soil was a stiff
clayey loam.
378. The gum, by which is meant an extraordinary exudation of that
secretion, takes place chiefly in stone-fruit trees, such as the Peach, Cherry,
Plum, &c., from a cut, bruise, bend, or other violent disruption of the tissue,
or by injudicious pruning; often, however, without any visible cause. The
gum on the young shoots of Peach-trees is analogous to the canker on Apple-
trees, and seems to be caused by a cold wet soil, or a cold wet climate. Trees
subject to this disease will live many years, and bear abundantly, though
sometimes they are destroyed by it. For the gum we know of no remedy.
379. Mildew appears in the form of a whitish coating on the surface of
leaves, chiefly on those of herbaceous plants and seedling trees. Deficiency of
nutriment is favourable to the production of mildew ; it seems also to prefer
glaucous-leaved plants, as the Swedish Turnip, Rape, and Peas, which are par-
ticularly subject to it in dry weather. Some varieties of fruit-trees are more
liable to mildew than others ; for instance, the Royal George and the Royal
Charlotte Peaches are often attacked, when other sorts, growing contiguously,
are free from the disease. The mildew is supposed to be produced by innu-
merable plants of a minute fungus, the seeds of which, floating in the air, find
a suitable nidus in the state of the surface of the leaf, and root into its
stomata. This favourable state for the appearance of the disease seems to
be promoted by various circumstances. It sometimes proceeds from a ten-
derness in plants, produced from sowing or planting too thick. It exhibits
itself in a season of dry weather, when the leaves become in a languid state,
produced often by the roots being prevented from drawing moisture from below,
by injudicious surface watering. It also shows itself after a season of wet
weather, if the drainage is defective, and the leaves have become surcharged
with crude juices. More especially does it present itself in either of these cir-
cumstances, when the roots and branches of a plant are placed very differently
relatively to moisture and temperature. For instance, it is very apt to
make its appearance in a peach-house, if the border should be cold and wet,
and the top of the tree in a warm arid atmosphere. The same effect will be
produced when the atmosphere is genial and moist, and the border allowed
to become too dry. Cucumbers grown in Pine stoves, will often become
much infested with mildew in the winter months ; because unless the pines
should be in fruit, they will neither enjoy the requisite temperature, nor
a sufficiently moist atmosphere. In many cases, also, the disease proceeds
from the soil being exhausted ; from containing too much inert carbonaceous
matter, or becoming soured or sodden from want of drainage. In such cases
trees are often completely cured by replanting properly in fresh soil. The best
temporary specific for arresting the disease, is washing the affected parts
with a composition of water and flower of sulphur. If the plants are tender,
it will be advisable to shake the sulphur in a state of powder on the affected
parts when dry. In both cases it will be necessary to guard against bright
sunshine, by partial shading. In some cases the labour of sulphuring may
be dispensed with, by at once cutting off the affected leaves and shoots.
Where the mildew is liable to be produced by drought, it may frequently
be prevented by copiously watering the soil, by which the late Mr. Knight
126 ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES OF PLANTS CONSIDERED.
prevented this disease from attacking his late crops of Peas. The rust
in com crops is produced by a fungus in the same manner as the mildew ;
but as it chiefly concerns the agriculturist, we refer the reader to Professor
Henslow's Report of the Diseases of Wheat, Jour. Ag. Soc. Eng., vol. ii. p. 1.
380. Honey dew is a sweet and clammy exudation from the surface of the
leaves of plants during hot weather, and it is supposed to be occasioned by
the thickening of the circulating fluids in the leaf, which being unable to
flow back into the bark with their accustomed rapidity, the sugary parts find
their way to the surface. The disease is common in the Oak, Beech, Thorn,
and in many other plants. Hitherto no remedy has been applied to it in
general cases, as though it weakens plants it seldom kills them. When,
however, it appears on plants in a state of high cultivation, for instance, in a
peach-house, or on a peach- wall, no time ought to be lost in applying the
syringe or garden-engine, and even rubbing it off the leaves if necessary,
otherwise the shoots or branches affected will be apt to be destroyed. Some
persons suppose the honey dew to be occasioned by the aphides, as the
exuviae of those insects are often found on leaves affected with this disease.
381. Blight is a term which is very generally applied to plants when under
the influence of disease, or when attacked by minute fungi or insects. In
some cases the continued action of dried air, and cold frosty winds, preventing
the flow of the sap, may bring on a disease which might be called blight,
exclusive of either the action of insects or of fungi ; but by far the greater
number of instances of what is called blight are produced by these two causes.
In general the fungi may be destroyed by the application of powdered sulphur,
and the insects by some of the different means that have been already pointed
out (352 to 361).
382. Flux of Juices. — Under this term are comprehended the bleeding, or
flow of the juices of the vine and other plants, when accidentally wounded,
or pruned too early in autumn, or too late in spring ; and the discharge of the
descending sap, or the cambium, in a putrid state between the bark and the
wood, which frequently happens in elm- trees, and is incurable. The flux of
the rising juices seldom does much injury, and may generally be prevented
by pruning before the sap is in motion.
383. The accidents to which plants are liable are chiefly confined to the
plants being broken or bruised, and the general remedy is amputation of the
parts. When the section of amputation is large, it is best to cover the
wound with some adhesive composition, which will exclude the weather,
and not impede the growth of the bark over the wound ; but this subject
will bo noticed more in detail when we come to treat of pruning.
384. A number of other plant diseases have been described and named by
writers on Botany, but they are of very little interest to the practical gar-
dener, because they rarely occur when plants are properly treated, or occur
only in old age, or in a state of natural decay ; or because, when they do occur,
they seldom admit of any remedy. Those diseases to which some plants
are more liable than others, will be mentioned when these plants are treated
of; for example, the rot in the Hyacinth, the dropsy in succulents, the blis-
tering of the leaves in Peach-trees, &c.
127
PART II.
IMPLEMENTS, STRUCTURES, AND OPERATIONS OF
HORTICULTURE.
CHAPTER I.
IMPLEMENTS OF HORTICULTURE.
385. WITH the progress of gardening a great many tools, instruments,
utensils, machines, and other articles, have been invented and recommended ;
and some of these are without doubt considerable improvements on those
previously in use; while, on the other hand, many would be rather im-
pediments than otherwise in the hands of an expert workman. The truth
is, that for all gardening in the open air, and without the use of pots for
growing plants, or walls or espaliers for training trees, the only essential
instrument is the spade. There is no mode of stirring the soil, whether by
picks, forks, or hoes, which may not be performed with this implement.
It may be used as a substitute for the dibber, or trowel, or perforator (in
planting or inserting stakes) ; instead of the rake and the roller in smoothing
a surface and rendering it fit for the reception of the smallest seeds ; and
after these are sown, the spade may be employed to sprinkle fine earth over
them as a covering, by which indeed that operation may be performed more
perfectly than by " raking in." The only garden operation on the soil which
cannot be performed with the spade, is that of freeing a dug surface from
stones, roots, and other smaller obstructions, which are commonly " raked
off ; " but as the removal of small stones from the soil is of very doubtful
utility, and as at all events these and other obstructions can be hand-
picked, the rake cannot be considered an essential garden implement. The
pruning-kmfe might in general be dispensed with in the training of young
trees, by disbudding with the finger and thumb ; but as the branches of
grown-up trees frequently die or become diseased, and require cutting off,
the priming-knife may be considered the most essential implement next to
the spade ; and with these two implements the settler in a new country
might cultivate ground already cleared so as to produce in abundance every
vegetable which was found suitable to the climate and soil.
386. But though a garden of the simplest kind may be cultivated with
no other implements than a spade and a knife, yet for a garden containing
the improvements and refinements common to those of modern times, a
considerable variety of implements are necessary or advantageous. Some
of these are chiefly adapted for operating on the soil, and they may be
designated as tools ; others are used chiefly in pruning and training plants,
and may be called instruments ; some are for containing plants or other
roots, or for conveying materials used in cultivation, and are properly uten-
sils ; while some are machines calculated to abridge the labour of effecting one
or more of these different purposes. We shall arrange the whole in groups
according to their uses, previously submitting some general observations.
K 2
128 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CONSTRUCTION AND USE
SECT. I. — General Observations on the Construction and Uses of the Imple-
ments used in Horticulture.
Implements may be considered with reference to the mechanical prin-
ciples on which they act, the materials of which they are constructed, their
preservation and their repairs.
387. All tools and instruments, considered with reference to the mechanical
principles on which they act, may be reduced to the lever and the wedge ;
the latter serving as the penetrating, separating or cutting, and sometimes
the carrying part ; and the former, as the medium through which, by motion,
force is communicated to the latter. All the different kinds of spades,
shovels, and forks have their wedges in the same plane as the levers ; all
the different kinds of picks, hoes, and rakes have their wedges fixed at
right angles to the levers. The blades of knives and saws are no less
wedges than the blades of spades or rakes, only their actions are somewhat
more complex ; every tooth of the saw acting as a wedge, and the sharp
edge of a knife consisting of a series of teeth so small as not to be visible
to the naked eye, but in reality separating a branch by being drawn across
it, on exactly the same principle as the saw. The series of combinations
which constitute machines, when analysed, may be reduced to levers,
fulcrums, and inclined planes ; and utensils depend partly on mechanical
construction, and partly on chemical cohesion. It is only by understanding
the principles on which an implement is constructed that that part can be
discovered where it is most vulnerable when used, or most liable to decay
from age. In all tools and instruments the vulnerable point is the fulcrum
of the lever, or the point where the handle is connected with the blade or
head. Another reason why failure generally takes place in that part is, that
the handle is there generally pierced with a nail or rivet, which necessarily
weakens the wood by breaking off or separating a number of the fibres. In
general, the power or efficiency of any tool or instrument, supposing it to
be properly constructed, is as its weight taken in connexion with the motion
which is given to it by the operator. Hence strong-made implements of
every kind are to be preferred to light ones ; and this preference will be found
to be given by all good workmen.
388. In the construction of implements, the levers or handles are for the
most part made of wood, and the wedges or operating parts of iron or steel.
The wood in most general use for handles in Britain is ash ; and next to the
ash, oak : but for lighter tools, such as the hoe, rake, the scraper, besom,
&c., pine or fir deal is sufficient. Handles to implements are of four kinds :
first, cylindrical and smooth from one extremity to the other, as in the hoe,
rake, &c. ; second, cylindrical, or nearly so, but dilated at one or at both
extremities, as in the pick, hatchet, &c., such handles being called helves ;
third, cylindrical and smooth, but with a grasping piece at one end, as in
the spade, shovel, &c. ; and fourth, angular or rough throughout, as in the
pruning-knife, hammer, hedgebill, &c. The reasons for these forms of
handles are to be found in the manner of using the implements : one hand
of the operator is run rapidly along cylindrical handles, as in the hoe and
rake ; in the dilated handles, one hand slides along between two extremities
till it reaches the dilated part of the head, which wedges firmly into the
hand ; and, this dilated part being in the direction of the operating part of
the tool, adds considerably to its strength. This is the case in the pick, and
OF THE IMPLEMENTS USED IN HORTICULTURE. 129
in the hatchet, in which implements, without the dilations at both extre-
mities of the handle, as well as in some degree in the middle part, it would
be difficult for the operator to bring down an oblique blow with sufficient
accuracy. Without the cross-piece or perforated handle of the spade, the
operator could not easily lift a spitful or turn it over ; and hence we find,
that in using the Flemish and other Continental spades, that have no grasping
piece at one end, the operator never attempts to turn over the spitful, but
merely throws it from him in such a manner that the surface falls towards
the bottom of the furrow. No pruning-knife or hedgebill could be grasped
firmly in the hand if it were cylindrical ; and unless these instruments are
held firmly, it is impossible to cut obliquely with sufficient precision. The
iron of all instruments should be of the best quality, and the cutting edges
of blades, and sharp perforating points, should be of steel for greater hard-
ness and durability.
389. Next to the importance of having implements properly constructed,
is that of keeping them constantly in good repair. For this purpose the
iron or steel parts require to be occasionally sharpened on a grindstone or by
other means ; or to have additions of iron or steel welded to them by the
blacksmith or cutler. All implements, when not in use, should be kept
under cover in an open airy shed or tool-house ; some, as the spade, pick,
&c., may rest on the ground; others, as the scythe, rake, &c., should be
suspended on hooks or pins ; and smaller articles, such as trowels, dibbers,
&c., placed in a holster rail. This is a rail or narrow board fixed to the
wall in a horizontal direction, an inch 01* two apart from it at the lower
edge, and somewhat farther apart at the upper edge. Other small articles
may be laid on shelves, and pruning- knives kept in drawers. No imple-
ment ought to be placed in the tool-house without being previously
thoroughly cleaned ; and all sharp-edged implements, such as the scythe,
hedgebill, &c., when laid by and not to be used for some time, should have
the blades coated over with grease or bees'-wax, and powdered over with
lime or chalk to prevent the grease from being eaten off by mice, as well
as by combining with it to render it more tenacious, of a firmer consist-
ence, and less easily rubbed off. In coating the blade of a scythe or hedge-
bill, or the plate of a saw, with wax or grease, it should be first gently
heated by holding it before a fire ; and afterwards the wax or grease should
be rubbed equally over every part of it, and the powdered chalk or lime
dusted on before the grease cools. When the instruments are again to be
brought into use, the blades should be held before the fire, and afterwards
wiped clean with a dry cloth. The same operation of greasing should also
be applied to watering-pots laid by for the whiter, when these have not been
kept thoroughly painted. Every implement ought to have its proper place
in the tool-house, to which it should be returned every day when work
is left off. In well-ordered establishments, fines are agreed on between the
master and his men, to be imposed on all who do not return the tools to their
proper places in due time, and properly cleaned.
SECT. 2. — Tools used in Horticulture.
By tools are to be understood implements for performing the commoner
manual operations of horticulture, and they may be included under levers,
picks, hoes, spades, forks, rakes, and a few others of less consequence.
390. The common lever, fig. 12, is a straight bar of wood shod with iron, or
130
TOOLS USED IN HORTICULTURE.
Fig. 12. The common lever.
of iron only, and is used for the removal of stones or large roots, which rest
on, or are embedded in the soil. The advantage gained is as the distance
from the power, applied at o, to the fulcrum
6; and the force of the power is greatest
when it is applied at right angles to the di-
rection of the lever. The handspoke, or
carrying lever, belongs to this species of tool,
and is simply a pole, tapering from the two extremities to the middle, by means
of one or two of which, tubs or boxes, or other objects, furnished with bear-
ing hooks, can be removed from one place to another. Two of these poles,
joined in the middle by cross-bars or boards, form what is called the hand-
barrow — a carrying implement occasionally useful in gardening. Sometimes,
to render a detached fulcrum unnecessary, the operating end of the lever is
bent up, so that the elbow or angle, fig. 13,
e, serves as a fulcrum. When the ope-
rating end terminates in claws, like those
°f a common hammer, it is termed a crow-
bar, d, and is extremely useful for forcing
Fig. is. Kneed lever and crowbar. Up stakes or props which have been firmly
fixed in the ground. Sometimes the upper extremity of the bent lever and
crowbar are made pointed and sharp, so as to serve at the same time as per-
forators, as shown in both the kneed lever and crowbar. Every garden
ought to have one of these tools ; and perhaps the most generally useful is
the kneed lever, forked at the extremity, fig. 13, c.
391. Perforators, fig. 14, are straight rods of iron, or of wood pointed with
iron, for making holes in the ground, in which to insert stakes for supporting-
tall or climbing herbaceous plants, standard roses, climb-
ing roses, or other shrubs, and young trees. The
pointed iron rod, with a solid ball at top, e, i, is most in
use for inserting pea-sticks, and the smaller props in dug
gardens, as well as for inserting branches in lawns to
shelter tender shrubs hi the winter time, or
to prevent small plants from being trodden
upon. The wooden stake, pointed with
iron, f, is used for making holes for larger
posts for protecting or supporting trees in
parks and pleasure-grounds. It is driven
in with a wooden mallet, and afterwards
Fig. u. Perforators. puued out by passing an iron bar through
the ring at g, one man taking hold of each end of the bar. The
other bars are inserted by alternately lifting them up and letting
them drop down, and they are pulled up either by hand or, in
the case of fig. 14, ft, by passing a stick or handle through the
eye at the top. The solid ball ?', is for the purpose of adding
F.
p^
to the weight of the rod, and which, of course, when lifted to rator /or
considerable height, adds greatly to its power in falling. The amateurs.
perforator, fig. 15, having a handle i, and a hilt for the foot, A1, is chiefly
adapted for amateurs and ladies.
392. The dibber, fig. 16, is a perforator for inserting plants, and sometimes
also for depositing seeds or tubers in the soil. It is most suitable for plant-
ing seedlings, because these have a tap root, and few lateral fibres. Dibbers
TOOLS USED IN I10KTJUULTUUE.
131
I n m
Fig. 16. Dibbers.
Fig. 18. Cast-iron
sheaths for dibbers.
are very commonly formed of the upper part of the handle of a spade, as /,
? after the lower part has been broken, be-
lt ^^1 come decayed, or is no longer fit for use.
I I Tiiis is sometimes shod with iron, which
f f renders it more durable when it is to be
used in stiff or gravelly soils. Sometimes
a piece of a kneed branch is formed into a
dibber, as shown at m. For planting cuttings of the shoots
of shrubs or herbaceous plants, either in the open ground
or under glass, small dibbers, n, are used, some for inserting pjg. ^ Potato-
cuttings of heaths, not thicker than a quill; but these the dilber.
gardener forms for himself. The potato-dibber, fig. 17,
has a hilt for the foot, and a handle and shank as long as
that of the spade. For the potato and other larger
dibbers, cast-iron sheaths, fig. 18, are sometimes fitted
to the lower extremities, to render them more durable.
393. Picks^ fig. 19, combine the operation of perforating with that of
separating, breaking, loosening, and turning over ; and the pickaxe adds that
of cutting. As the blow given by the pick on the soil, or on a root, is
almost always given in a vertical direction, the helve is made cylindrical,
excepting where it joins the head, and here it is dilated, so as to wedge into
the hand of the operator, and serve to guide the direction of the stroke. The
common pick is shown at a, the pickaxe at &, and the mattock at c. The
narrow pointed end of the common
pick is used for penetrating into the
hardest soils; and the broad or chisel
end for separating and turning over
softer soils. The pickaxe b is for
separating and turning over soft
soils containing numerous roots of
trees; those roots lying in a direction
at right angles to the operator, being
cut off with the chisel at one end
of the prongs, and those roots lying
in the opposite direction, by the chisel at the opposite end. The pick c, fre-
quently called a mattock, and a grubber, or grubbing-axe, is principally used
for grubbing up small trees or bushes. The pick a is essential to the toolhouse
of the commonest garden, being frequently required for loosening gravel walks,
where repairs or alterations are to be made, or more gravel to be added.
394. Draw Hoes, figs. 20 and 21. — The common draw hoe, and all its
varieties, are merely picks of a
lighter kind, with the prongs
dilated into blades. They are
used for penetrating, moving,
and drawing, the soil, for the
purpose of disrooting weeds,
forming furrows in which to sow
seeds, or drawing the earth up
to plants. For light, easily-
worked soils, the blade may be
broad and narrow in depth ; for
Fig. 19. Picks.
Fig. 20. Draw hoes.
132
TOOLS USED IN HORTICULTURE.
stronger soils, it should be less broad, and the iron should be thicker ; and
for thinning seedlings, such as onions, lettuce, or turnips, the blade need not
be more than two inches broad. The triangular hoe, fig. 20, a, is useful in
light soils, and for separating, by its acute angles, weeds which grow close to
the plants, to be left, and also for thinning out seedlings ; but for loosening
the soil among seedling- trees, or other plants growing close together on strong
soil, the pointed or Spanish hoe or pick, fig. 21, deserves the preference.
One of these tools has a short handle, and is used for
stirring the soil in narrow intervals among the plants
sown broadcast hi beds ; the other is worked with a long
handle, like a common draw- hoe ; and it has a cross-
piece on the neck of the blade, which serves as a guide
to the operator in directing the blade perpendicularly
downwards, instead of to one side, when it might ma-
terially injure tap roots. In France and other parts of
the Continent, there is an almost endless variety of hoes
and hoe-picks, a number of which will be found figured
Fig 21. Spanish hoes. and described m the Gard, Mag^ and in the Emyc. of
Gard., 3d ed., 1832. Sometimes a draw hoe and a rake, or a draw hoe and
a hoe pick, are fixed back to back, as shown in fig. 20 ; but these instru-
ments are not much used. The common draw hoe, also shown in fig. 20,
will suffice for most garden purposes.
395. Scrapers, fig. 22, are narrow pieces of board,
or of sheet-iron, fixed to a long handle in the same
manner as a draw hoe, and used to scrape the worm
casts from lawns or walks. Where worms are kept-
Fig. 22. Lawn-scraper. under by the use of lime-water, these tools are
scarcely necessary.
396. Thrust hoes, fig. 23, may be considered as intermediate between
the draw hoe and the spade. The
common form is shown at o, and a
modification of it at e; but 6, the
blade of which is of steel, and sharp
on every side, so as to cut either
backwards or forwards, or on either
side, is a more efficient implement ;
though in the hands of a careless ope-
rator it is liable to wound the plants,
among which it is used for loosening
the soil, or cutting up the weeds.
Booker's hoe, c, is a very powerful im-
plement, but liable to the same objec-
tion ; as is Knight's hoe, d. Thrust
hoes are best adapted for light soils, and for cutting over annual weeds; they
are also most suitable for hoeing between plants in rows, where the branches
reach across the intervals ; because no vertical stroke being ever given by the
thrust hoe, as with the draw hoe, the branches are less likely to be injured.
The hoes a and e are, perhaps, the strongest and safest for general use.
397. Spades, fig. 24. — The spade consists of the grasping-piece or handle,
or upper extremity, a ; the shaft, which joins the handle to the blade b ;
the hose, or pail of the blade into which the handle is inserted, c ; the hilts,
Fig. 23. Thrust-hoes.
TOOLS USED IN HORTICULTURE. 133
which arc two pieces of iron which crown the upper edge of the blade for the
purpose of receiving the foot of the operator, d, d ; and
the blade, e. As the hilt or tread projects over the
blade, however useful it may be in saving the soles of
the shoes of the operator, it is found in many soils to
impede the operation of digging, by preventing the
blade from freeing itself from the soil which adheres
to it. Hence, in some parts of the country, instead
of a hilt being put on the spade to save the shoes of
the operator, a plate of iron about two inches broad,
Fig. 24. Spades. with leather straps, called a tread, is tied to his shoe,
arid effects the same purpose, while the spade requires much less cleaning.
The spade e is for free easily worked soil, and is that most frequently
used in gardens ; /, having the lower edge of the blade curved, enters
more easily into stiff soil, while the upper part of the blade on each
side of the hose being perforated, no soil can adhere there, and there-
fore spades of this form clean themselves, and in working are always
quite free from soil. The spade, </, has a semicylindrical blade, and
is without hilts ; it is chiefly used in executing new works, such as canals,
drains, ponds, &c., in strong clayey soil. In consequence of the cylindrical
form of the blade, and the lower extremity of it being applied to the soil
obliquely, it enters the ground as easily as the blade of the spade /, while
the sides separate the edges of the slice of earth from the firm soil ; and,
after it is lifted up, serve as a guide in throwing it to a distance. There is
a variety of this spade in which the blade, instead of being semi-cylindrical,
is a segment of a cylinder, and rather broader at the bottom or cutting edge
than at the tread. This breadth at the entering edge diminishes friction on
the sides of the upper part of the blade, by preventing them from pressing
hard against the earth while passing through ; in the same manner as the
oblique setting of the teeth of a saw prevents friction on the sides of the
blade. This spade also, from the greater breadth of the lower part of its
blade, lifts more completely the loose soil at the bottom of the furrow. It is
chiefly used in engineering works, and in digging or trenching stiff soil. The
handles of spades are almost always formed of sound root- cut ash, and their
blades of good iron pointed with steel. The blade is not set exactly in the
same plane as the handle, but at a small angle to it, in consequence of which,
when the blade is inserted in the soil, the elbow formed between the blade and
the handle serves as a falcrum ; and the handle being thus applied to the
lever at a larger angle, has considerably more power in raising up the spitful.
Were the blade fixed to the handle in the same plane, and the blade in-
serted in the soil perpendicularly, the first exertion of the operator would
be employed in gaining that angle, which, in the former, is produced for
him by the manner in which the handle is joined to the blade. In the
Flemish and other continental spades, the blade is always fixed on in the
same plane as the handle ; but in these cases the blade is longer than it is
with us, and it is always entered at a considerable bevel ; and besides, the
soil is generally lighter than in Britain, and requires less exertion to pene-
trate and separate it.
Shovels are seldom required for garden purposes, the broad blade of the
spade, fig. 24, e, serving as a substitute.
398. Turf-spades, fig. 25, are used for the purpose of paring very thin
134
TOOLS USED IN HORTICULTURE.
layers of turf from old pastures, for forming or repairing lawns or pleasure-
grounds, laying grass edgings, collecting turf' for forming composts for plants,
and for other purposes. One form, s-. — <\
ft, frequently called a breast-plough,
from the handle being pressed on by
the breast, has the edge of the blade
turned up so as to separate the strip
of turf to be raised, from the firm
turf : another form, i, is used after Fig. 25. Turf-spades.
the turf has been cut or lined off into ribbons or bands, by the tool called
a turf-racer.
399. Turf-racers, or verge -cutters, fig. 26, are tools used either for
cutting grassy surfaces into narrow strips to be afterwards raised up by the
turf spade, or for cutting the grass edgings or verges of walks. The com-
mon verge-cutter, /r,
has a sharp reniform,
or crescent - shaped
blade; and the wheel
verge-cutter, /, is a
thin circular plate of
steel, with a sharp-
Fig. 26. Verge-cutters or turf-racers. edged circumference,
fixed to a handle by an axle, and operating by being pushed along before
the operator. It is well adapted for cutting off the spreading shoots or
leaves of grass edgings which extend over the gravel, without paring away
any part of the soil. As the edges of these tools are very easily blunted,
they require to be made of steel, and frequently sharpened. M'Intosh's
wheel verge-cutter, fig. 27, is designed for cutting grass verges on the sides
of walks. With this instrument a man
may cut as much in one day as he would cut
in four or five days with the common verge-
cutter without wheels. Bell's verge-cutter,
instead of a wheel, has a broad bent plate of
iron, through the middle of which the
cutting coulters are inserted, and fixed and
Fig. 27. M'Intosh's wheel verge-cutter, adjusted by screws. It is described and
figured in Gard. Mag. vol. xiv. p. 177. In cutting turves from a piece of
grass land, the line is first stretched in order that the cutting may be per-
formed in a perfectly straight direction. This is also the case in cutting the
verges of straight walks, but in cutting those of curved walks the eye alone
serves as a guide. In gardens and pleasure-grounds of moderate extent, a
sharp-edged common spade may be used as a substitute for the turf-spade,
and also for the turf-racer and verge-cutter.
400. The trowel and the spud, the latter of which is also used
as a spade cleaner, belong to this group of tools. Though the
spud, fig. 28, can hardly be considered as a fit tool for a pro-
fessional gardener, yet, with a suitable handle, it forms a most
convenient walking-stick for the amateur gardener ; because by
it he may root out a weed, or thin out a plant, wherever he sees Fig> 2s.
it necessary. The transplanting trowel, fig. 29, o, is a very Garden spud.
useful tool wherever careful and neat gardening is practised; because
TOOLS USED IN HORTICULTURE.
13f>
by two of these, one in each hand, growing- plants can be
taken up with balls, put temporarily into pots, and carried
from the reserve ground to the flower beds and borders, where
they can be turned out into the free soil, without sustaining any
injury. The trowel 6 is used for taking up plants and to lift soil
as a substitute for the hand, in potting plants. A trowel with
flat blade and a forked point is sometimes used for raising up
weeds from gravel or grass, and is called a weeding-trowel. The
weeding-hook, which is a narrow strap of iron forked at the
lower extremity, and a wooden handle at the other, is
also used for raising weeds. There is a variety of this,
with a fulcrum, for rooting daisies and other broad-leaved
weeds out of lawns, fig. SO. The use of the fulcrum is
to admit of a long handle which renders it unnecessary p.
for the operator to stoop. Some of these tools have short
handles, to adapt them for infirm persons and children.
401. Transplanters, figs. 31 and 32. — These
tools are used as improved substitutes for the
transplanting trowel. In Saul's implement, fig.
31, the blades are opened by pressure on the lever
a ; and in the spade transplanter, fig. 32, the blades
are pressed together by moving the sliding-piece,
6, downwards ; and when the plant is carried to its
place of destination, they are opened by moving it
upwards. Both these transplanters are more
adapted for amateurs than for professional garden-
ers, and the manner in which they are to be used
is sufficiently obvious from the figures. Trans-
planters of this kind are generally supposed to be
of French origin, but we are informed that the
instrument of which fig. 31 is an improvement
was an invention of the Rev. Mr. Thornhill,
sT Saul's vicar of Staindrop, in the county of Durham, about
transplanter. 1820 ; who used it extensively on his farm for
transplanting turnips.
402. Forks, figs. 33 and 34. — The forks used in gardening are of two
kinds; broad -pronged forks, fig. 34, for
stirring the soil among growing plants, and
as a substitute for the spade in all cases
where that implement would be liable to
cut or injure roots ; and round -pronged
forks, fig. 33, for working with littery dung,
a, or for turning over tan, b. There are
hand- forks of both kinds, fig. 33, c, and
fig. 34, d, for working in glass-frames,
hotbeds, or pits. The digging-fork is al- Figt 34.
most as essential to every garden as the forks.
spade ; and, wherever there are hotbeds, dung linings, or
Fig.33. Dung and tan- tan, the dung-fork with three prongs, fig. 33, a, and the
tan-fork with five prongs, &, cannot be dispensed with.
The three -pronged digging- fork, see fig. 34, is used for shallow digging,
or pointing fruit-tree borders, and also for taking up potatoes ; and the
136
TOOLS USED IN HORTICULTURE.
Garden rakes-
two-pronged fork is for stirring the soil in narrow intervals between rows,
and also for digging up carrots, parsnips, horse-radish, &c.
403. Rakes, figs. 35 and 36, are used for freeing the surface soil from
stones and other ob-
stacles, for raking off
weeds or mown grass
or fallen leaves, and
for covering in seeds.
The common garden
rakes, used for rak-
ing soil and gravel,
differ chiefly in size.
See fig. 36 . The F5*'
daisy-rake, fig. 35, a, has broad teeth,
lancet-pointed, sharp at the edges, and
set close together; and it is used for
Fig. 35. Daisy and grass rakes. tearing off the heads or flowers of daisies,
plantains, dandelions, and other broad-leaved plants, which appear in grass
lawns, in the early part of the season ; and thus it renders the necessity of
mowing less frequent. The short grass rake, fig, 35, 6, is formed of a thin
piece of sheet-iron, cut along the edge so as to form a sort of comb, and
riveted between two strips of wood, as shown in the figure. It serves for
raking off cut grass, and also, to a certain extent, as a daisy-rake.
404. Besoms are used in horticulture for sweeping up mown grass, fallen
leaves, and for a variety of purposes. The head or sweeping part is formed
of a bundle of the spray of birch, broom, or heath, and lately the suckers of
the snow-berry have come into use for this purpose. The handle is formed
of any light wood, such as willow, poplar, or deal. One or more besoms are
essential to every garden, and they require to be frequently renewed. For
lifting matters collected together by the broom or grass rake, two pieces of
board are used by the operator, one in each hand, by which the smallest
heap of leaves or grass can be quickly and neatly lifted up, and dropped into
a basket or wheel-barrow. The pieces of board may be about 18 in. long,
from 6 in. to 9 in. broad, and J in. thick.
405. Beetles and Rammers^ fig. 37, are useful tools even in small gardens,
for beating down newly-laid turf edgings ; for ramming and consolidating the
soil about posts and foundations, and for a va-
riety of other purposes. For example, where
part of a gravel walk is taken up and relaid,
unless the newly moved soil and gravel are
consolidated, or rammed down, to the same
degree as the old part, there will be a depres-
d sion in that part of the walk, which will in-
crease after the sinking in of rain, and thus
require continual additions. In fig. 37, a is
the common turf beater or beetle, the head or beating part of which is
commonly made of a block of wood, though it would be much better
of a plate of cast iron, because that would be heavier ; b is the common
wooden beater, which is also used as a rammer, the whole of which is
formed of wood ; c und d are two rammers, in which the heads are formed
of cast iron, and which are very superior tools, invented by Anthony
Fig. 37. Beetles and rammers.
INSTRUMENTS USED IN HORTICULTURE. 137
Strutt, Esq. To retain the handle in the socket, a slit is made in the han-
dle, and a small wedge entered in it, and afterwards it is driven home till it
assumes the appearance shown in the section at e. The great art in conso-
lidating turf or gravel with the beetle or rammer, is to bring down the tool in
such a manner as that the face of the head may be perfectly parallel to the
surface to be acted upon. When the operator does not succeed in this, he
will be warned of it by the jar which the tool will transmit through his hands.
406. The mallet, fig. 38, a, is formed of a piece of any tough wood, such as
elm or oak, or of fir, though in the latter case it should have a ring at each
end to prevent its splitting. It is used for driving
posts, and there is a smaller or hand mallet for
using with the pruning chisel, and as a substitute
for a hammer in driving in short stakes. In using
Wooden mallet and a mallet, as in using the beetles, the centre of the
garden hammer. striking part of the head should always be brought
down on the centre of the stake or other object to be struck ; otherwise
the full power of the tool will not be obtained, and a jar on the hands of
the operator will be produced.
407. The garden hammer, fig. 38, b, is used for nailing wall-trees, and for a
great variety of purposes, and it differs from the common carpenter's hammer
in having a projecting knob, c, in the head, to serve as a fulcrum in drawing
out nails from walls, without injuring the young shoots. Considered by itself,
the common hammer may seem an insignificant tool ; but viewing it as in-
cluding all the different kinds of hammers used in rendering metals malleable,
and in joining constructions and machines of various kinds together, by means
of nails and pins, it appears one of the most important of all implements.
See Moseley's Illustrations of Mechanics, p. 238.
**====!s=1^&^ 408- The garden pincers, fig. 39, besides the pincing part,
<*• *^^ have a clawed handle for wrenching out nails, and are useful
F'g' 39incerTdeH in gardens for tnis and a variety of other purposes. Some
have a knob, which enables them to be used also as a hammer.
SECT. III. — Instruments used in Horticulture.
Instruments are distinguished from tools by having sharp cutting edges,
and being adapted for operating on plants rather than on the soil ; and they
are also generally smaller than tools, and have for the most part handles
adapted for grasping. Those used in horticulture are chiefly knives, bills,
shears, and scythes.
409. Garden Knives. — Three kinds of knives are required in every garden,
the cabbage-knife, a large rough handled instrument, with a hooked blade,
for cutting and trimming Cabbages, Cauliflowers, Turnips, and other large
succulent vegetables, when gathered for the kitchen ; the pruning -knife,
fig. 40, a, for cutting the branches and twigs off trees and
shrubs, forming cuttings, &c. ; the budding-knife, 6, and
the grafting-knife, c, used in performing the operations
Fig 40 Ga"n knives. of buddin? and grafting> and also in making smaller
' cuttings. Where heaths and other small-leaved plants
are propagated by cuttings of the points of the shoots, a common pen-knife
is requisite, as well as a pair of small scissors for clipping off the leaves ; but
these instruments are so familiar to every one that it is unnecessary to describe
138 INSTRUMENTS USED IN HORTICULTURE.
them. Formerly garden-knives were distinguished from those in common use
by having blades hooked at the points, for more conveniently hooking or tear-
ing off shoots or leaves ; but this mode of separating shoots or branches being
found to crush that part of the shoot which was left on the living plant, and
by that means render it liable to be injured by drought or by the absorption
of water, a clean draw-cut has been resorted to as not liable to these objec-
tions ; and this requires a blade with a straight edge like those of the prun-
ing-knives now in general use. All knives which are used by the practical
gardener should be without moveable joints, and they should be carried in a
sheath in the side-pocket, that no time may be lost in searching for them in
other pockets, or hi unfolding of the blade from its case. At the same time
the master gardener and the amateur ought to carry a folding pruning-knife
in his pocket for occasional use, in correcting the faults or supplying the
omissions of his workmen. There are folding pruning-knives combining in
the same handle a saw, a chisel, a file, a screw driver, &c., but these are for
the most part more curious than useful. The
asparagus-knife, fig. 41, has a blade about
eighteen inches long, hooked and serrated, and Fi£- 41- Asparagus-knife.
is used for cutting the young shoots of Asparagus when in a fit state for the
table. It is thrust into the soil so as, when drawing it out, to cut the shoot
from two to five inches under the surface, according to the looseness of the
soil, and the taste of the consumer for asparagus more or less coloured at the
points. Where green Asparagus is preferred to what is thoroughly blanched,
such a knife is hardly requisite, as the buds may be cut off by the surface
with a common cabbage-knife.
410. Sill-knives or Hedge-bills are large blades fixed to ends of long
handles for cutting off branches from young trees, and for cutting up the sides
of hedges instead of shears. The advantages in using them in preference to
shears is, that they have a clean smooth section instead of a rough one,
which, as already observed, admits drought and moisture, and also stimulates
the extremities of the branches to throw out numerous small shoots, and
these, by thickening the surface of the hedge, exclude the air from the inte-
rior, in which, ultimately, the smaller shoots die, and the hedge becomes
thin and naked. The most complete set of instruments of the bill kind is
that used in Northumberland, and described by Blaikie in his Essay on
Hedge-row Timber. One of these instruments, fig. 42, ought to be hi eveiy
Fig. 42. The scimitar bill-knife.
garden-tool house. The handle of this bill-knife, or scimitar, as it is called,
is four feet in length, and the blade eighteen inches in length, the former
deviating from the direction of the latter to the extent of six inches, as
shown by the dotted line in the figure ;
this deviation is made in order to admit
the free action of the operator's arm, while
Fig. 43. Dress bill-knife. he ig standing by the gide of a hedge? and
cutting it upwards. Fig. 43 is what is called a dress-bill for cutting the sides
of very small hedges, or such as are quite young.
411. Pruning Saws are of different kinds, but they may be all reduced to
draw saws, fig. 44, a, and thrust or common saws, such as those in common
INSTRUMENTS USED IN HORTICULTURE. 139
use by carpenters. Draw -saws have the teeth formed so as to point to the
operator, fig. 44, &, and only to cut when
the blade is drawn towards him. Thrust-
saws have the teeth or serratures formed at
• . right angles to the edge of the blade, so as
JVyuy//^*// *° cut cniefly when pushed or thrust from
i d c tne operator, but partly also when drawn
Fig. 44. Garden-saws. towards him. The draw-saw is always used
with a long handle, and is very convenient for sawing off branches which are
at a distance from the operator. In both these saws the line of the teeth is
inclined about half the thickness of the blade to each side, as shown at d;
the advantage of which is, that the blade passes readily through the branch
without the friction which would otherwise be produced by the two sides of
the section. Draw-saws being subjected to only a pulling strain, do not
require so thick a blade as thrust-saws; and, for that reason, they are also
much less liable to have the blades broken or twisted, and are less expensive.
412. Pruning chisels are chisels differing little in some cases, fig. 45, e,
from those of the common carpenter, fixed to the end of a long
handle, for the purpose of cutting off small branches from the
stems of trees at a considerable height above the operator. The
branch should not be larger than \\ in. in diameter at the part
to be amputated, otherwise it cannot be so readily struck off
at one blow. In performing the operation two persons are
requisite : one places the chisel in the proper position and holds
it there, while the other, with a hand-mallet, gives the end of
the handle a smart blow, sufficient to produce the separation
of the branch. If properly performed, the section does not
Fig 45. Pruning- re(luire any dressing ; but sometimes there are lacerations of
chisels, the bark, which require to be trimmed off with the hooked
part, g, of the chisel, /.
413. Shears, in regard to their mode of cutting, are of two kinds : those
which separate by a crushing cut, as in the common hedge-shears, fig. 46,
the grass- shears, and verge-
shears ; and those which se-
parate by a draw or saw
cut, as in the pruning-shears,
fig. 47. The common hedge-
Fig. 46. Shean for clipping hedges and box edgings. shears IS used in gardens for
topiary work, cutting hedges of privet, and other small-leaved slender- twigged
hedge-plants, which do not cut so readily with the hedge-bill ; and it is
more especially used for clipping box edgings. The pruning-
shears, fig. 47, have one blade, which, by means of a rivet,
moves in a groove, by which means this blade is drawn across
the branch in the manner of a saw, and produces a clean or
draw-cut ; that is, a cut which leaves the section on the tree
as smooth as if it had been cut off by a knife. There are in-
struments of this kind of various sizes, from that of a pair of
common scissors, for pruning roses or gooseberry bushes, to
such as have blades as large as those of common hedge-
shears, with handles four feet long, which will cut off branches
from two to three inches in diameter. All of them may be Fig. 47. Pruning-
economically used in gardens, on account of their great power, theart.
1
140
INSTRUMENTS USED IN HORTICULTURE.
Fig. 48. Garden axe.
and the rapidity and accuracy with which operations are performed by them.
Fig. 47 shows two instruments commonly known as Wilkinson's shears,
which are well adapted for pruning shrubs, and for the use of amateurs.
Roses are better pruned by instruments of this kind than by knives, as unless
the latter are kept very sharp, the softness of the wood, and the large
quantity of pith it contains, yield to the knife, and occasion too oblique a
section, in consequence of which the shoot dies back much farther than if
the section were made directly across.
414. The Axe, fig. 48, can scarcely be dispensed
with in gardens, for the purpose of sharpening props
or other sticks for peas, &c. ; and a larger axe, as
well as a common carpenter's saw, may be required
where branches are to be broken up for fuel for the
hot-house furnace, or other fires.
415. Verge-shears, fig. 49, a, are shears of the crushing kind used for
clipping the edges of grass- verges, which they do without cutting the soil, as
is commonly the case when any of the different descriptions of verge-cutters
already described (399) are used. The blades of these shears operate in a
vertical plane, or what is called held edgewise.
416. Grass-shears, fig. 49, &, are used instead instead of the scythe for
clipping the grass round the roots of
shrubs or other flowering plants on
lawns ; but as they are very apt to
go out of order, the common hedge-
shears is generally used in prefer-
ence; the stooping necessary in using
the hedge-shears being found by the
operator less laborious than that of
keeping the blades of the long-
handled shears in a cutting position.
The blades of these shears work in
a plane parallel to the surface of the
ground, from which they are sup-
ported behind by two castor wheels,
or in other words, they work flat-
Fig. 49. Verge and Grass-shears. «,•«/>
\\ LSC .
417. The Short- grass Scythe, fig. 50, c, is essential wherever there are
grass- verges on lawns, because though in many cases the mowing machine
may be used on broad surfaces, it is not so convenient for verges and small
irregular places as the scythe.
The blade of the scythe cuts ex-
actly on the same principle as
that of the saw, and it requires
to be frequently sharpened by a
hand-stone or whet-stone, as well
as occasionally ground. The ^s^r-— ~^ <i
blade of the garden-scythe re-
quires to be fixed to the handle
in such a manner as that when
the handle is held by the operator standing upright, the plane of the
blade shall be parallel to the plane of the ground. In the case of field-
INSTRUMENTS USED IN HORTICULTURE. 141
scythes, where the ground is rough, the plane of the blade may be very
nearly in the same plane as that of the handle ; by which means the inequa-
lities of the ground's surface will chiefly be struck by the back of the blade,
and never by its edge. The daisy -knife or daisy-scythe, fig. 50, d, is a two-
edged blade, lancet-pointed, and is used for mo whig off the heads of
daisies, clover, and other exogenous plants in lawns, which renders less fre-
quent the necessity of mowing with the scythe. In using this instrument,
the handle, which ought to be angular, is held firmly with both hands, and
the blade, which ought to be at least four feet from the operator, is moved
rapidly to the right and left parallel to the plane of the surface, the operator
advancing as in mowing.
418. Other Instruments. — There are several other instruments which are
occasionally used by amateurs ; such as the averruncator, which may be
described as a cutting-shears fixed to the extremity of a long handle, and
operated on by means of a cord and pulley. Its use is to enable a person
standing on the ground to thin out branches in standard fruit trees, which it
readily does, though frequently with a considerable loss of time. An amateur
however, who prunes his own orchard, will find this a useful instrument ;
though, if he has an attendant, the hooked pruning- chisel, fig. 45, /, is prefer-
able. The grape-gatherer, or flower-gatherer, consists of a shears fixed at
the extremity of a long handle, and which clips and holds fast at the same
time. It is occasionally useful for gathering flowers from the upper parts of
stages in green-houses, or from plants against walls, or on poles, that cannot
be conveniently reached by hand ; it is also used for gathering grapes which
cannot be otherwise conveniently reached. There is also an instrument of
this kind without a long handle, called a flower-gatherer, which clips off a
flower and holds it at the same time, and is used by ladies in gathering
roses. Scissars with long handles, for thinning grapes, are required where that
fruit is cultivated to the highest degree of perfection. The fruit-gatherer is
an amateur's instrument, of which there are several varieties ; but they are
very little used. Instruments for scraping the moss or bark off trees, gouges
for hollowing out wounds in their trunk or branches, climbing-spurs, and
some other instruments belonging to this section, and perhaps more fanciful
than useful, will be found described in the Encyclopaedia of Gardening,
edition 1831.
419. Chests of Tools and Instruments, for amateurs, are made up by the
ironmongers ; and one sold by Messrs. Cottam and Hallen, Winsley-street,
Oxford-street, for three guineas, contains the following articles : — Tools, 1
draw-hoe (fig. 20), 1 triangular draw-hoe (fig. 20, a), 1 thrust-hoe (fig. 23,
a), 1 rake (fig. 3G), 1 trowel (fig. 20, 6), 1 hammer, (fig. 38, &), 1 pruning-
chisel (fig. 45), 1 priming-shears, 20 inches long, 1 ditto, a foot long (fig.
47), 1 clipping-shears for hedges and box-edgings (fig. 46), 1 shears for
clipping and holding flowers, 1 shears for thinning grapes, 1 pruning-knife
(fig. 40, a), 1 budding-knife (fig. 40, c), 1 draw-saw (fig. 44, a), and 1 han-
dle in two parts, which, when joined, form a length of four feet, for screwing
into those tools and instruments which require a handle of that length. The
box which contains these articles is 1 ft. 10 in. long, 1 0 in. wide, and 6 in.
deep. Among the disadvantages attending the use of these implements are :
the loss of time that is incurred in screwing on and unscrewing the han-
dle, the liability of the screws to become rusty and unfit for use, and the
lightness of the implements, with the exception of the shears, by which they
142
UTENSILS USED IN HORTICULTURE.
are not so effective as they ought to be. To a working gardener or
amateur, therefore, they are altogether out of the question ; but for ladies
emigrating to other countries, they may serve as an inducement to gardening
recreations.
SECT. IV. — Utensils used in Horticulture.
Garden utensils are vessels for containing growing plants ; for carrying
different articles used hi culture, such as soils, water, &c. ; for preparing soil
or other matters, such as the sieve ; and for protecting plants. The principal
are the plant pot or box, the watering-pot, the basket, the sieve, and the
bell glass.
420. Earthenware pots for plants are made by the potter in what are
called casts, each cast containing about the same quantity of clay, and costing
about the same price, but differing in the sizes of the pots so much, that
while in the first size there are only two pots to a cast, in the tenth size there
are sixty, as in the following table : —
Inches
Inches
diam.
daep.
1st
size has 2 to the cast, called
twos, being
18
12
2d
4 „
fours
12
10
3d
6 „
sixes
9
8
4th
8
eights
8
7
5th
12 „
twelves
7
6
6th
16
sixteens
6
7
7th
24
twenty-fours,
5
6
8th
32 „
thirty-twos
4
5
9th
48 „
forty-eighths
3
4
10th
60 „
sixties
2
2*
llth
80
thumbs or eighties,
H
2
These are the sizes of the London potters ; but at Liverpool the sizes and
the proportions are somewhat different. The sizes are from No. 1, which is
20 in. in height and diameter, to No. 37, which is 2 in. in height and
diameter, as shown in fig. 51. About London the sizes of pots in most
Fig. 51. Sizes of garden pots in Liverpool.
general use are, twenty-fours, which are 5 in. in diameter and 6 in. deep ;
thirty -twos, which are 4 in. in diameter and 5 in. deep ; and forty-eights,
which are 3 in. in diameter and 4 in. deep. When pots in which plants
have been grown are to be laid aside for future use, they should be thoroughly
cleaned within, because the smallest particles of earth adhering to the inner
surface of the pot, when the pot is again filled with fresh soil, will, by the
rough surface produced, cause that soil so to adhere to the sides of the pot,
that the ball of earth, when the plant is to be shifted, cannot be turned out
of the pot without being broken in pieces. The garden pots in common use
UTENSILS USED IN HORTICULTURE. 143
about London are generally made between a fifth or a sixth part narrower
52 53 54
Fig. 52. Propagating-pot. *
Fig. 53. Pot with raised bottom, to prevent the entrance of worms.
Fig. 54. Pot with raised bottom, to prevent the entrance of worms.
Fig. 55. Pot with channelled bottom, to facilitate the escape of water.
Fig. 56. Ornamental pot, with the base serving as a receptacle for drainage-water.
at bottom than at top ; but for particular purposes, such
as that of growing hyacinths, pots are made almost
equally wide throughout, and deeper than usual in pro-
portion to their width. For striking cuttings, or grow-
ing seeds, there are pots made broad and shallow, some-
times called pans or store pots. There are also pots for
aquatics, made without holes in the bottom to permit
the escape of water ; others for marsh plants, without
holes in the bottoms, but with holes in the sides half way
between the bottom and the top, so as to retain the
lower half of the soil in a marshy state. There are
pots made with a slit on one side (fig. 52), for the pur-
pose of introducing the shoot of a plant to be ringed in
order to cause it to produce roots — (a small wooden
box is much better, as being less porous) ; others with
a large hole in the side for the same purpose ; some
with concave bottoms, with the intention of putting the
water hole out of the reach of worms (figs. 53 and 54) ;
others (fig. 55) with grooves in the bottom to prevent
the retention of water by the attraction of cohesion,
when the pot stands on a flat surface ; and there are
pots fixed within pots, so that the space within the outer
and the inner pot shall be water-tight, in order to con-
tain water or moist moss, so as to keep the soil hi the
inner pot of comparatively uniform moisture and tem-
perature. There are pots made in two parts (fig. 56),
the lower serving as an ornamen-
tal base — so as to give the pot a
somewhat classical character — and
Fig. 57. Pot with pierced . .-, . . , -,
rims and bands for in- at the same time as a receptacle
troducing wirework. for the water that drains through
the pot. Pots are also made with rims pierced with
holes, so as to construct on them a frame of wirework
for training climbers, as in fig. 57. There is also what
is called a blanching-pot (fig. 58), which is placed over
plants of sea-cale, rhubarb, £c., for blanching them, Fi«- 58-
L2
144
UTENSILS USED IN HORTICULTURE.
having a moveable top, which can be taken off at pleasure, to admit light or
to gather the produce. Boxes of boards, however, are found more econo-
mical. There are also square-made pots, which, it is alleged, by filling up
the angles left by round pots, allow of a greater quantity of soil being obtained
in a given space in beds or shelves under glass ; and pots with one side
flattened, and with a pierced ear or handle, to admit of hanging the pot against
a wall or a trunk of a tree. Many other fanciful pots might have been figured
and described ; but in the general practice of gardening all these peculiar pots
(figs. 62 to 58) may be dispensed with ; and, in truth, with the exception of
the last forms (figs. 57 and 58), they are only found in the gardens of some
amateurs. It, is useful, however, to know what has been done or attempted in
this way, in order to prevent a waste of time in repeating similar contrivances.
421. From the porosity of the material of which common earthenware
plant-pots are made, it is evident that when the soil within the pot is moist,
and the pot placed in a warm dry atmosphere, the evaporation and transpi-
ration through the sides must be considerable ; and as evaporation always
takes place at the expense of heat, this must tend greatly to cool the mass
of soil and fibrous roots within (252 and 257.) This may be prevented by
glazing the exterior surface of the pot ; but as this would add to the ex-
pense, and be chiefly useful in the case of plants in pots kept in rooms, it is
seldom incurred. To prevent evaporation in rooms the double-pot is sometimes
used, or single pots are surrounded by moss, or cased in woollen cloth or bark of
trees : in plant-houses, the atmosphere is, or ought to be, so nearly saturated
with moisture by other means, as to reduce the evaporation from the pots to
a degree that cannot prove injurious. From the bad effects of this evaporation
in warm countries may be traced the practice in these countries of growing
plants in wooden boxes, which was probably instinctively hit upon, without
any reference to principles. The advantage which earthenware pots have
over boxes is, that they can be made round, by which means shifting is
effected with much greater ease than it can be with any rectangular utensil.
422. Earthenware saucers for pots are made and sold on the same prin-
ciple as pots, viz. : in casts ; a cast of saucers for sixties or thumbs costing
as much as a cast for thirty-two, or
sixes. Saucers are chiefly used in
living rooms, or in other situations
where the water which escapes from
the hole in the bottom of the pot
would prove injurious; and to pre-
vent this water from
oozing through the
porous material of
the saucer, it is
sometimes glazed on
the inside. There
are also saucers, or Fig. 59. isolating-
flats, as they are Sauc«r-
Fig. 60. Annular water-saucer. called, made with raised platforms in
the centre, for the pots containing the plants to stand in ; in some cases, in
order that they may stand dry and not be liable to be entered by earth-
worms ; and in others, in order to surround them with water, and thus isolate
them from the attacks of creeping insects, such as wood-lice, ants, &c.
Utensils of this kind are also used for supporting boards in the open garden,
UTENSILS USED IN HORTICULTURE. 145
so as to isolate them, and of course the pots which stand on them, from
wingless insects, snails, worms, &c. Fig. 59 shows one of these utensils,
which might easily be substituted by a common saucer and whelmed pot.
An annular saucer, fig. 60, for containing water, is used either for protecting
plants in pots or plants hi the open ground ; and if lime-water or salt-water
is used, they will prove a very effectual protection from snails, slugs,
wood-lice, ants, and other creeping wingless insects. A very ingenious
substitute for this utensil has lately been invented by Mr. Walker, of
Hull. It is founded on the galvanic principle of alternate plates of zinc
and copper producing a galvanic shock, and is therefore called the
Galvanic Protector. Take slips of zinc four or five inches in breadth, in
order to inclose the plant or bed to be protected, as with a hoop ; but in
addition to the mere rim or frame of zinc, rivet to it, near the upper edge,
a strip of sheet-copper one inch broad, turning down the zinc over this so
as to form a rim, composed of zinc, copper, and zinc. The deterring effect is
produced by the galvanic action of the two metals ; and thus, when the snail
or slug creeps up the rim of zinc, it receives a galvanic shock as soon as its
horns or head touch the part where the copper is inclosed, causing it to recoil
or turn back. A more beautiful application of science in the case of deter-
ring insects is rarely to be met with, and it will not cost more than Qd. a lineal
foot. (Gard. Chron. vol. i. p. 115, and 165; and Gard. Mag. 1841.)
423. Rectangular boxes for growing plants are commonly formed of wood,
but sometimes slate is substituted. Wood, however, as a better non-con-
ductor both of heat and moisture, deserves the preference. A neat and
most convenient plant-box was invented by Mr. M'Intosh, fig. 61, and
used by him for growing orange-trees.
It differs from the orange-boxes used
in the gardens about Paris in having
the sides tapered a little, and also in
having all the sides moveable. Two
of the sides are attached to the bottom
of the box by hinges, and are kept in
their places by iron bars hooked at each
end, which slip into hasps fixed in the
sides, as shown in the figure ; the other
sides, which are not hinged, lift out at
leisure, being kept in their places at
Fig. 61. Plant-box. bottom by two iron studs, which drop
into holes in the bottom. These boxes afford greater facilities than the French
orange-boxes for the gardener to take them to pieces, without disturbing the
trees, whenever he wishes to examine or prune their roots, to see whether
they are in a proper state, as regards moisture, or to remove the old, and put
hi fresh soil. The inside of these boxes can also be painted, or covered with
pitch, as often as may be judged necessary ; which will of course make them
much more durable, and the trees may be removed from one box to another
with the greater facility.
424. Wooden tubs are very commonly made use of on the Continent to grow
orange-trees, and they are made of different heights and diameters from one
to two or three feet. When the roots of the trees are to be examined, or
old soil to be removed and fresh soil added, the cooper is sent for, who sepa-
rates the staves, and after the gardener has finished his operations, replaces
146
UTENSILS USED IN HORTICULTURE.
them again and fixes the hoops. In the warm summers of France and Italy,
as already observed, it is found much better to grow plants in wooden boxes
or tubs, than in any description of earthenware vessel.
425. Watering-pots are made of tinned iron, zinc, and sometimes of
copper. There are a variety of sizes and shapes in use in British gar-
dens : for plants under glass, which are placed at a distance from the
spectator, pots with long spouts are required; and for pots in shelves
over the head of the operator and close under the glass, flat pots with
spouts proceeding from the bottom, and in the same plane with it, are
found necessary. Watering-pots have been contrived with close covers,
containing valves to regulate the escape of the water through the spout, by
the admission or exclusion of the atmosphere at pleasure ; but these are
only required for particular situations and circumstances. The watering-pot
very generally fails at the point where the spout joins the body of the pot,
and the two parts ought therefore to be firmly attached together, either by
separate tie-pieces, or by one continuous body, which may be so contrived
as to hold the roses of the pot when not in use, as exemplified in
Money's pot, to be hereafter described. The rose is generally mo veable ;
but as, after much use, it becomes leaky, it is better, in many cases,
to have it fixed, with a pierced grating in the inside of the pot over
the orifice of the spout, as in metal tea-pots. This grating, Mr. Beaton
suggests, should be moveable, by being made to slide into a groove like
a sluice, in order that it may be taken out and cleaned occasionally.
Fig. 62, a, represents a watering-pot with a kneed spout, for watering plants,
without spilling any
water between pot and
pot ; because, by means
of the knee or right
angle made at the extre-
mity of the spout, the
running of the water is
instantly stopped by
quickly elevating it,
which is by no means
the case when the spout
is straight throughout
its whole length : b
shows the face, and c the
Fig. 62. Sucker, kneed-spoiited, and overhead, watering-pots. * edge of a Very fine rose
of copper for screwing on the end of the kneed spout, for watering seedlings.
Fig. 62, d, shows a sucker watering-pot, by which the objects effected by the
kneed pot are attained more completely. There is a sucker or valve in the
lid, by which the air is perfectly excluded ; and when this valve is shut, not
a particle of water can escape ; but when it is slightly raised by the pressure of
the thumb of the hand by which the operator holds the pot, the water instantly
escapes, and can be stopped in a moment : f, an overhead watering-pot, for
watering plants close under a glass roof, and above the head of the spectator.
426. Moneys Inverted Rose Watering-pot, fig. 63, has the spout
made of copper, and in three distinct parts; so that it serves instead
of three different pots ; and when furnished with common roses as well
as with inverted ones, no other pot need be required for a small garden.
UTENSILS USED IN HORTICULTURE. 147
The first and largest spout, a, is fixed to the body of the pot in such
a manner as not to get easily out of repair : this is effected by filling up
the angle between the spout and the pot by a hollow compartment, with
iron sides, &, in the top of which are two openings, c, and d; the larger, c, for
holding the middle Jfl •
piece of the spout
when not in use, or the
larger rose; and the
other, d, for holding
the smaller rose. The
larger rose, e, is used
without the middle
piece of the spout, and
it delivers the water
upwards ; and the
smaller rose,/, which
can only be used with
the middle tube of the FiS- ^ &<>*&* inverted-rose watering-pot.
spout, delivers the water downwards, exactly over the object or space to be
watered. The screw-joints by which the roses are attached to the spouts
are perfectly water-tight, and being made of copper are not liable to rust
and get out of repair. The advantage of using the roses in inverted positions
is, that the action of the water is more definite ; and of using them with the
face of the rose upwards, that the shower produced comes down more gently.
For watering small seeds in pots, the holes in the roses ought not to exceed
the fiftieth part of an inch in diameter. One watering-pot of this descrip-
tion may be kept for select purposes, and for the use of amateurs or ladies; but
for open air gardening the common zinc watering-pot, with a fixed rose,
is quite sufficient; adding, for more refined purposes, the pot fig. 62, a.
427. Sieves for sifting soil, and screens of wire for separating the larger
stones and roots from soil to be used in potting, are required in most gardens.
The screen, fig. 64, is not only used for mould, but also for gravel, and some-
times for tan. It consists of a wooden frame
filled in with parallel wires half an inch apart,
surrounded by a rim of three or four inches in
breadth, and supported by hinged props, which
admit of placing the screen at any required
angle. The soil to be screened must be dry and
well broken by the spade before it is thrown on
Fig. 64. Wire screen, for toil, old the screen. For gravel two screens are some-
tan, or gravel. times required ; one with the wires half an inch
apart, to separate the sand and small gravel from the stones ; and another,
with the wires one inch apart, to separate the larger stones from the smaller
ones; those which pass through the screen being of the fittest size for approach-
roads and carriage- drives ; while the largest stones which do not pass through
are adapted for common cart roads. In small gardens sieves may be substi-
tuted for screens. The smallest may have the meshes a fourth of an inch in
diameter, and the larger half an inch. The wire of the smaller sieves should
always be of copper, but of the larger sieves and of screens it may be of iron.
428. Carrying utensils are sometimes wanted in gardens, though flower-
pots, baskets, and wheelbarrows, form very good substitutes. The mould-
scuttle is a box of any convenient shape of wood or iron, with a hoop-formed
148 UTENSILS USED IN HORTICULTURE.
handle, for carrying it ; sometimes it is formed like the common coal-scuttle,
but rectangular. The pot-carrier, fig. 65, is a flat
board about eighteen inches wide and two feet long,
with a hooped handle, by means of which, with
one in each hand, a man may carry three or four
dozen of small pots at once, which is very convenient
in private gardens where there are many alpines
Fig. 65. Pot-carrier. in pots, and in nurseries where there are many seed-
lings or small cuttings.
429. Baskets. — Several different kinds of baskets are used in gardens.
They are woven or worked of the young shoots of willow, hazel, or other
plants, or of split deal or willow, or of spray ; but by far the greater number
of baskets are made of the one year's shoots or wands of the common willow,
£alix viminalis. They are for the most part used for carry ing articles from
one point to another, though some are employed as a substitute for a garden
wallet, others are used for growing plants; some for protecting plants
from the sun or the weather, and others as utensils for measuring by bulk.
As every gardener and country labourer ought to understand the art of basket-
making for ordinary purposes, in order to fill up his working time during
inclement weather, we shall first shortly describe that operation.
430. Basket-making. — One year's shoots of the common willow, or of
some other species of that family, are most generally used. The shoots are
cut the preceding autumn, and tied in bundles, and if they are intended to
be peeled, then- thick ends are placed in standing water to the depth of three
or four inches ; and when the shoots begin to sprout in spring they are drawn
through a split stick stuck in the ground, or an apparatus consisting of two
round rods of iron, nearly half an inch thick, one foot four inches long, and
tapering a little upwards, welded together at the one end, which is sharpened
so that the instrument may be readily thrust through a hole hi a stool or^small
bench, on which the operator sits. In using it, the operator takes the wand
in his right hand by the small end, and puts a foot or more of the thick end
into the instrument, the prongs of which he presses together with his left
hand, while with his right he draws the willow towards him, by which the
bark is at once separated from the wood : the small end is then treated in
the same manner, and the peeling is completed. Every basket consists of
two parts : the framework of the structure, and the filling in or wattled
part. The principal ribs in common baskets are two : a vertical rib or
hoop, the upper part of which is destined to form the handle ; and a hori-
zontal hoop or rim, which is destined to support all the subordinate ribs on
which the wands are wattled. The two main ribs are first bent to the
required form, and made fast at their extremities by nails or wire. They
are then joined together in their proper position, the one intersecting the
other ; and they are afterwards nailed together, or tied by wire at the points
of intersection. The operation of wattling is next commenced, by taking
the small end of a wand, and passing it once or twice round the cross formed
by the points of intersection ; after which one, or perhaps two secondary-
ribs, are introduced on eack side of the vertical main rib. The wattling is
then proceeded with a little further, when two or more secondary ribs are
introduced ; and the process is continued till a sufficient number of subordi-
nate ribs are put in to support the wattling of the entire structure. The
whole art, as far as concerns the gardener, will be understood from the fol-
lowing figures: —
UTENSILS USED IN HORTICULTURE. 149
Fig. 06 shows the handle and rim of what is called the Scotch basket,
made fast at the points of intersection.
Fig. 67. Handle, rim, and ribs of a Scotch basket.
I ?ig. 66. Handle and rim of a Scotch basket.
Fig. 67 shows the same skeleton, with the ribs of one side added, and the
wattling or woven work commenced.
Fig. 68 represents the commencement of what is called the English mode of
basket-making ; in which three parallel rods of two or three feet in length,
according to the intended diameter of the bottom of the basket, are laid flat
on the ground, and three other rods of the same length laid across them at
right angles, as at a ; and next the weaving process is commenced, as at 6.
Fig. 68. Commencement of basket
making in the English manner.
Figs. 69 and 70 show the progress of weaving the bottom ; the latter being
what ultimately becomes the under side, and the former the upper side.
Fig. 69. Upper side.
Fig. 7ft- Underside.
150 UTENSILS USED IN HORTICULTURE.
Fig. 71 shows the bottom complete, the under side of it being uppermost.
Fig. 71. Bottom of the English basket complete. •
Fig. 72 shows the bottom turned upside down, the points of some of the
radiating ribs cut off; some of the rods which are to form the side ribs in-
serted ; and the side weaving commenced.
Fig. 72. Side weaving commenced on the English batket.
UTENSILS USED IN HORTICULTURE. 151
Fig. 73 shows the basket nearly completed, with part of the rim finished,
and the rod on which the handle is to be formed inserted.
Fig. 73. The English basket nearly complete. Fig. 74. Working the sides of the English basket.
Fig. 74 shows the rim completed and part of the handle plaited.
Further details will be found in the Arboretum Britannicum, vol. iii. p.
1471, but those above given will be sufficient to enable any person of ordinary
ingenuity to construct every kind of wickerwork, whether baskets or hur-
dles, that can be required for a garden.
431. Carrying -baskets of different sizes are required in gardens for carrying
plants for being transplanted, seeds, sets or roots for planting, vegetables or
fruits from the garden to the kitchen, and for a variety of other purposes. A
basket for hanging before the operator when pruning or nailing wall trees,
is sometimes made of wands, and occasionally of split wood ; but a leathern
wallet, to be hereafter described, is greatly preferable. Larger and coarser
baskets than any of these are used for carrying soil, manures, tanner's bark,
weeds, &c., and are commonly called scuttles, creels, &c.
432. Measuring-baskets are formed of particular dimensions, the largest
seldom containing more than a bushel, and others half-bushels, pecks, and
half-pecks. There are also pint baskets, punnets, pottles, and thumbs,
which are utensils in use in the London fruit and vegetable markets for con-
taining the more valuable vegetables, such as mushrooms, early potatoes,
forced kidney beans, and the more choice fruits. The bushel basket is gene-
rally made of peeled wands, but the others of split willow wood, or split
152
UTENSILS USED IN HORTICULTURE.
deal. Fig. 75 represents a punnet
manufactured in the latter manner,
the construction of which will be un-
derstood by any person who under-
stands the English mode of basket-
making.
433. Baskets for growing plants
were a long time hi use in the open
Fig. 75. Punnet basket. garden, being plunged in spring, and
taken up in the following autumn ; the object being to take up fruit-trees or
other tender shrubs with a ball, and with most of the fibres. At present
baskets for growing plants are chiefly used in orchidaceous houses, the basket
being filled with moss ; but as they are found to be of very short duration,
wire baskets are substituted, earthenware pots with perforated sides, or a sort
of open box formed of short rods, laid over one another, at the angles, some-
what in the manner of a log-house.
434. Portable Glass Utensils for plants are chiefly of two kinds : the bell-
glass, fig. 76, and the hand-glass, fig. 77. Bell-glasses
vary in dimensions from the large green bell-glass,
eighteen inches in diameter and twenty inches in height,
used in the open garden for protecting cauliflowers in
winter and cucumbers in summer, to the small crystal
bell, three inches in diameter, and
two inches high, for covering new-
ly-planted cuttings. Whenever
the propagation of tender plants by
cuttings, or by the greffe £touffe, is attempted, bell-
Fig. 77. Cast-iron hand- Slasses are essential. The common hand-glass is formed
glass in two parts, the either square, or of five or more sides on the plan, and
roof and tides. with the sides commonly eight or twelve inches high.
The framework is of lead, cast-iron, tinned wrought-iron, copper, or zinc ;
the last is much the cheapest, and also the lightest, and when kept well
painted, it will last as long as cast-iron, which with the moisture of the soil
soon becomes rusty at the lower edge. Cast-iron hand-glasses being very
heavy, are commonly formed in two pieces ; and when the form is square, as
in fig. 77, air is very conveniently given by changing the position of the cover-
ing part, as shown in the figure.
435. The folio whig substitute for bell-glasses may be readily adopted by
any gardener who can get pieces of broken window-glass from his frames or
hothouses, and who has a glazier's patent diamond, which differs from the
Fig. 76. Bell-glasses.
Fig. 78- Substitutes for bell-glasses.
MACHINES USED IN HORTICULTURE.
common diamond in this, that any person can cut with it. Having procured
the diamond and several pieces of broken window-glass, cut the latter into-
figures appropriate in size and form for the sides of four or six-sided prisms,
as shown in fig. 78. When the pieces of glass are properly cut out by a
wooden or card pattern, join them together with strips of tape, about three-
eighths of an inch wide, made to adhere to the glass with India-rubber
varnish. After the glass is formed, varnish over the tape, and the whole will
be found firm and durable. A loop may be formed at top either of the tape
or of wire, so as to lift them by. Glasses of this sort may be made from
six inches to a foot in diameter, and will at all events be found useful for
striking cuttings or protecting rising seeds. An excellent substitute for
hand-glasses will be described under the section on structures.
436. Powdering-boxes for plants are required for dusting them with
powdered lime, sulphur, coarse snuff, powdered charcoal, fine sand, &e.
One of the most convenient forms is that of the common dredge-box, but
for the light powders an appendage to be hereafter described may be added
to the common bellows. All powders intended to rest on the leaves of
plants should be dusted over them when they are moist with dew, or by
having been previously watered.
437. Other Utensils. — We have omitted to mention some used in very
extensive gardens, botanic gardens, and nurseries; such as the glazed
packing-box ; the earthenware shelter, which may be described as an inverted
flower-pot, with the sides perforated with holes, or with a large opening on-
one side ; plant-shades of various kinds ; utensils for entrapping or destroying,
vermin ; bulb-glasses ; cast-iron pots for burning tobacco ; and a few other
articles not in general use, or readily substituted by others of a more simple
and economical kind.
SECT. V. — Machines used in Horticulture.
Machines differ from other horticultural implements in being less simple
in their construction, and in their action, enabling the operator to abridge
labour. The principal gardening machines are the wheelbarrow, roller,,
watering engines, garden-bellows, and transporting or transplanting machines..
438. Wheelbarrows for gardens are of two kinds : one of large dimensions
for wheeling littery dung, tan, short grass, leaves, haulm, or weeds ; and
another of moderate size (fig. 79), for wheeling soil and gravel. They are
generally constructed of wood,,
with the wheel also of wood
and shod with iron ; but some
wheelbarrows are formed en-
tirely of cast and wrought
iron ; they are, however, too
heavy for wheeling anything,
Fig. 79. Garden wheelbarrow. excepting littery dung or other
light matters, and they are far from being so durable as a wooden barrow,
when the latter is kept well painted. Some dung and tan barrows have the
body or box attached to the handles or levers, commonly called trams, by
moveable iron bolts, so that it can be readily taken off and carried by two
men into places where the entire barrow with its wheel could not be
admitted; for example, in filling the bark pit of a stove with tan or
leaves. There is a third kind of barrow used by engineers, in deep cuttings,
which has shallow sides of an equal height on every side of the bottom of
154
MACHINES USED IN HORTICULTURE.
the barrow ; it is well suited for carrying heavy subsoil, or stony materials,
but is not required in gardens. For general purposes, a middle-sized bar-
row, between the dung barrow and the mould barrow, like that of which
we have given a figure, is sufficient.
439. Rollers are essential in even the smallest garden, for compressing and
smoothing gravel walks and lawns. They are formed of solid cylinders of
stone, or hollow cylinders of cast iron, and a very convenient width is four
feet. Cast iron rollers are always easiest to draw, from the greater diameter
of the cylinder. The operation of rolling is most effective after the soil or
Fig. 80. Read's garden syringe. '
gravel has been softened by recent rains, but is at the same time
sufficiently dry on the surface not to adhere to the roller.
440. The watering engines used in gardens are the syringe,
the hand- engine, and the barrow-engine. There are several
kinds of syringe, but the best at present in use is decidedly
that of Read (fig. 80). Its two points of superiority are,
a ball-valve, d, which can never go out of repair, and an
air-tube, e, which allows the air above the piston to escape
during the operation of drawing in water, by which means
the labour of syringing is greatly diminished. There is a cap,
a, for washing away insects from wall- trees, and throwing lime-
water on gooseberry bushes and other standards in the open
garden, and for water-pines overhead ; a cap, &, for sprinkling
plants in forcing-houses, which throws the fluid in a light and
gentle moisture almost like dew, and which is also used for
washing the leaves of trees and plants when frost-nipped in the
cold nights that often prevail during the spring, and which
operation should, of course, be performed before sun-rise. There
is also a cap, c, <£, which is used when great force is required,
more particularly in washing trees against walls ; and this cap
is also used in dwelling-houses for extinguishing fires. Trees
against walls are frequently covered with netting, and when it
becomes necessary to syringe these, the netting, when the cap,
6, is used, requires to be removed, but with the cap, c, d, it may
be kept on. For all small gardens this syringe will serve as a
substitute for every other description of watering engine. Read's
pneumatic engine (figs. 81 and 82), the former to a scale of 1 J
in. to 1 ft., differs from Read's hand-syringe in effect, by forcing
out the water in one continuous stream, and thus at once com-
bining the character of a syringe and of an engine. By this
engine, a volume of air is compressed to an indefinite extent, by
the working of the piston for forcing out the water, and without
any sensible increase of labour to the operator. The manner in Fig. si. Read's
which this is effected will be understood by the section, fig. 82,
in which a is the piston and cylinder, as in Read's syringe ; &,
MACHINES USED IN HORTICULTURE.
155
a case in which this syringe, and also the discharge-tube (c), are in-
closed ; d, a small hole in the side of the discharge tube ; and e, a valve
at the bottom of the discharge tube :/is a ball-valve to the suction tube, by
which the water is drawn up from a watering-pot, pail, or any other vessel.
On the motion of drawing up the piston (a), the water
enters by/; while, by pushing down the piston, the
valve at / is closed, and the water is forced up the
valve at e, into the discharge tube ; but as some more
water is forced into this tube than can pass through
it, it escapes by the small opening at d into the vessel
of air in which the working barrel and the discharge
tube are encased. As the air cannot escape from this
vessel, it is necessarily compressed by the water which
enters through the small opening at d ; and, conse-
quently, when the piston, a, is drawn up, and no longer
forces up the water in the discharge tube, c, the action
on that tube is kept up by the expansion of the com-
pressed air which shuts the valve at e, and, conse-
quently, forces the water along c. The great beauty
Fig. 82. section of Read's of this arrangement is, that no exertion of the operator
pneumatic hand-engine. js J08t - nor can he exert himself without producing
a corresponding result ; for if, by rapid and powerful action, he drives much
water into the air vessel, the greater degree in which the air is compressed will
force the water with the more rapidity through the discharge tube, c. This
engine is 3 ft. long, and 2^- in. in diameter ; it weighs only between 51b. and
Gib. ; works with remarkable ease, and is so little liable to go out of repair,
that Mr. Read warrants it to last a lifetime. Read's barrow engine, fig, 83,
is an oval copper vessel, containing twenty-six
gallons, particularly adapted for large conser-
vatories and forcing houses. It will pass
through a door- way two feet wide, and is so
portable that it may be carried up or down
stairs by two men. The great power of this
engine depends on the air vessel, indicated by
a dotted circular line, in the body of the en-
gine, in which all superfluous force is em-
ployed in condensing air, as in Read's pneu-
matic engine, so as to form a reservoir of
power ; and in the proximity of the bent ful-
crum, a, to the handle or lever, &, by which
the weight c, being brought near to the ful- Fig. 83. Read's barrow engine.
crum, the power applied at b is proportionably increased. In most engines
of this kind there is no pneumatic reservoir, and the distance between the
weight, c, and the fulcrum, a, is much greater. The construction of the pis-
ton, valves, &c., is similar to that of Read's hand-engine, so that this barrow-
engine is not only a machine of great power, but not liable to go out of
repair. Mr. Read, who has been attending to this subject the greater part
of his life, considers this engine as his masterpiece.
441. Garden-bellows. Bellows are used hi gardening for dusting plants
with powdery substances, such as quicklime, powdered tobacco leaves, sul-
phur, &c., and for fumigating them with tobacco-smoke. Read's fumigating-
bellows (figs. 84 and 85) answers both purposes. It consists of a pair of
]56
MACHINES USED IN HORTICULTURE.
bellows, fig. 84, a, to which is attached a canister, 6, with a moveable
nozzle, through which the smoke escapes, c. The details of the canister are
Fig. 84. Read's fumigating bellows.
shown in the section, fig. 85, which is one third of the natural size. In
this section d is the bottom socket or cap ; e, the plunger, which keeps down
the tobacco ; /, the nozzle of the bellows ; and g, the tube by which the
smoke escapes, unscrewed to show the ball-valve.
In using this machine, unscrew the bottom socket
of the canister, and turn up the canister, so that
the perforated plunger may fall to what becomes,
when in use, the upper end h; put in the to-
bacco, or tobacco-paper, replace the socket, hold
the apparatus in the position shown by fig. 84,
hold the bottom of the canister over a piece of
lighted paper, expand the bellows, and the flame
will rush in and ignite the tobacco. Then by
continuing to use the bellows in the ordinary way,
the tobacco will be consumed in smoke, which
may be directed by means of the issue pipe c at
pleasure. Immediately after using the machine,
immerse the canister, which will now be very hot,
in water ; unscrew the top and bottom, and wash
and wipe the valves and pipe, so as to leave the
whole perfectly clean. If this is not attended to,
the oil of the tobacco will soon form a thick
glutinous coating, which will prevent the valve
jk from acting properly. When a large house is to
be filled with tobacco smoke, a fumigating pot,
Fig. 85 Section of the canister of
Read's fumigating bellows.
such as fig. 86, may be i sed. It is
made of sheet-iron, holds about
three pounds of tobacco, and is
placed on the outside of the house,
with the smoke-tube entering it Fis. SG. iron fumiyating-pot.
through a hole made on purpose in the front wall or front glass. In tin's
figure a is the handle by which the pot is carried, b the pipe by which the
MACHINES USED IN HORTICULTURE. 157
smoke is introduced to the house, and which is attached to a moveable lid,
and, c, a tube to which the bellows is applied, and which enters the pot im-
mediately under a perforated moveable bottom. A substitute for a pot of
this kind is often formed by two flower-pots, a smaller one being placed upside
down within a larger, and the tobacco placed in the former. In fumigating
plants in houses, it will be found advantageous to fill the house at the same
time with steam, by watering the pipes or flues, or by other means. The
steam condenses the oil of the smoke, and leaves it on the leaves and points
of the young shoots in the form of globules of oil, on the surface of the glo-
bules of water. A pair of common bellows may be rendered fit either for
powdering plants or fumigat-
ing them, by substituting a
piece of tinned iron, fig. 87, a,
resembling in shape those tin
scales used in the retail of
Fig. 87- Powdering. bellows. «••'.! ,, A i /• i - i
meal, in the flat end of which,
6, are two small valves l£ of an inch in diameter, with a hole between them,
to which a screw cap is fitted for introducing the dust or the tobacco to be
burnt. It is evident that the air which enters through the valves by the up-
stroke of the bellows, raises the dust or smoke in the interior, which is ejected
by the down-stroke ; and, by repetition, the whole powder introduced, or the
whole smoke produced by the ignition of the tobacco-leaves, will be thrown
out. (Gard. Mag. vol. iii. p. 30.) We consider this to be much the best
description of garden-bellows for dusting plants with sulphur.
442. The mowing-machine is used for shearing lawns, where the surface
is smooth and even, and kept free from worm-casts and all matters that
would interfere with the cutting part of the machine, which is formed
exactly on the model of the engine for shearing the surface of woollen-cloth
described in Ure's Dictionary of Manufactures, p. 1324. The machine crops
and collects at the same time in a box the grass cut by it, and is altogether
very complete in its action where the lawn to be cropped is suitable ; but
for ordinary garden purposes most gardeners seem to prefer the short grass-
scythe, and leave the mowing-machine to the amateur, for whom it forms an
excellent exercise.
443. Other machines. — In the Encyc. of Gard. will be found described
various machines for transporting large boxes or tubs containing plants, such
as Orange-trees ; machines for transporting and for transplanting large trees,
for regulating temperature, for entrapping or detecting the enemies of gar-
dens, and for some other purposes ; but few of these are adapted for the
present work. It may be stated here, that the principle on which all the
best machines for transporting plants in large boxes or tubs, or transplanting
large trees with balls to their roots, is the same : viz. two windlass axles are
supported on four props, which rise out of two horizontal beams, and the
box or tree being raised by means of the windlasses, is retained in that posi-
tion till it is conveyed to its destination, either by means of two horizontal
beams, by manual labour, as if they were the levers of a hand-barrow ; or
by placing wheels under them, in the manner of a cart or waggon. The
best machine of this kind for removing Orange- trees in boxes, is that used at
St. Margaret's, near London, and described in the Gardener's Magazine, vol.
x. p. 136. From the description of this machine it is obvious that it will
answer either for transporting trees in boxes, or trees or shrubs with large
M
158 MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES USED IN HORTICULTURE.
balls; though, to convey the latter to any distance over rough roads, larger
wheels would be requisite than those which belong to the machine referred
to. See our Appendix.
SECT. VI. — Miscellaneous Articles used in Horticulture.
In complete gardens, containing all the varieties of plant-structures, a
number of articles are required for the purposes of cultivation and high
keeping which can neither be classed as implements nor structures. Even
in the smallest gardens, mats for protection, props for support, nails and ties
for fastenings, and tallies for naming and numbering plants, are essential.
444. Articles for protection. — Bass mats, woven from ribands or strands of
the inner bark of the lime-tree, and imported from the Baltic, are in general
use, both to protect from the cold by counteracting radiation, and to shade
from the sun. Canvas, bunting, and netting of different kinds, and oiled
paper frames, are used for the same purposes. Netting of straw ropes,
formed by first stretching ropes as weft at regular distances, and then crossing
them by others as woof, are sometimes used to protect wall-trees. Another
mode of protecting trees by straw ropes, is by placing poles against the wall,
1 in front of the trees, at from four feet to six feet asunder ;
j thrusting their lower ends into the earth about eighteen inches
or t\vo feet from the wall, and making them fast at top to the
coping, or to the wall immediately under it ; straw or hay ropes
are then passed from pole to pole, taking a turn round each,
and leaving a distance of about eighteen inches between each
horizontal line of ropes. Straw ropes may also be used to pro-
tect early rows of peas or other plants, by first hooping over
each row, and afterwards passing three or four ropes from hoop
to hoop. Of course they act by checking radiation, and their
influence will be greatest when they are placed between a foot
and eighteen inches from the wall, the amount of heat reflected
back diminishing in a geometrical ratio according to the distance
Fig. 88. wup* of of the covering from the body to be protected. Wisps of straw
straw for being tied to a string, fig. 88, and hung in lines one above another in
used at protect. ^Q^ Qf ft Wft^ are ^Q ^^ ^ ^ game pU1.poge as stmw
ropes, and in sheltered places are perhaps better.
445. Mats of straw or reeds are used for protecting plants in the open
garden, and also for covering glazed sashes, whether of pits, frames, or
hothouses. Every gardener ought to know how to construct these, in order
to be able to employ his men within-doors in severe weather. The following
directions are given by P. Lindegaard, late gardener to the king of Denmark,
who used them extensively, and who states, that they produce a considerable
saving of fuel, afford a great security from accidents, such as breaking glass,
and not only retain heat much better than bass mats, but, from their greater
porosity, allow the steam of moist hotbeds to pass off more readily. When
a heavy fall of snow takes place during the night, bass mats are not so easy
to get cleaned and dried the next morning as straw mats, because they
retain the moisture, and get frozen and stiff by the frost penetrating through
them ; and hence the next evening they cannot be put on again without the
risk of breaking the glass. Mr. Lindegaard found four hundred straw mats
sufficient to cover four hundred lights, for which if he had used bass mats,
about twelve hundred would have been required. These mats are made of
MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES USED IN HORTICULTURE.
159
rye or wheat straw, or of reeds, and only in the winter time, when the
weather is unfit for working out of doors. They are made in frames in the
following manner : — An oblong square (fig. 89) is formed of four laths, along
Fig. 89. Mode of making stratc mats.
the two ends of which, a, a, are driven as many nails as you wish to have
binding cords, 6, 6, of which the usual number is six to a width of four feet,
as the strength of the mat depends chiefly on the number of these cords.
The cords are of tarred rope-yarn ; on these the straw, or reeds, is laid in
handfuls, and bound to each longitudinal cord by other cords, which, for
greater convenience, are made up in little balls, c, c. These cords are also of
tarred rope-yarn. When a mat is finished, the cords are tied together at
the top or finishing end, the mat is then detached from the frame, and its
sides chopped straight with an axe. These mats are more conveniently
made by two men than by one man ; and by placing the frame upon a raised
plank or bench, than by placing it on the ground, and obliging the men to
stoop. When straw is used, that of rye is the best, and will last, even in
Denmark, three years : reeds last longer. In the most severe weather these
mats are rolled on the glass lengthways of the mat ; that is, from top to
bottom, by which the direction of the straw is at right angles to that of the
sash bar, which prevents the glass from being broken; and over this covering,
in very severe weather, reed mats may be laid with the reeds in the same
direction as the sash bar, so that the water may run off them as it
does off the thatch of a house, and keep the mats below quite dry. Where
reeds cannot be got, mats of rye or wheat straw may be substituted ;
because it is evident, that having the straws or reeds laid in the direction
of the slope of the glass, must be attended with great advantages by
throwing off the rain instead of absorbing it. (Gardener's Magazine, vol.
v. p. 416.) The usual dimensions of these mats are six feet by four
feet, because that size answers for covering frames and pits of the ordinary
dimensions ; but when they are to be used for covering the sloping glass
of hothouses, they should be made of sufficient length to reach from the
coping to the ground, covering the front glass or front parapet. A ring of
twisted wire should be placed exactly in the centre of the upper end of each
mat, and to this ring a cord should be attached, for the purpose of being
passed over a pulley to be fixed on the coping-board, or on the back wall
M2
160 MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES USED IN HORTICULTURE.
immediately under it, or on the top rail of the uppermost sash 61' the roof.
This cord must be at least twice the length of the mat, in order that, when
the mat is drawn down and rolled up, the end of the cord may be within
reach of the operator on the ground at the front of the house. Another
ring ought to be fixed to the centre of the lower end of the mat, for the
purpose of fastening it to the front sill when it is drawn over the roof. When
the mats are removed from the roof, and rolled up during the day, the
cord is loosened from the ring, and lies on the roof, ready to be refastencd to
it, to draw the mats up the next evening. A second layer of mats might be
drawn up over the former, hi a direction across the sashes, so as to throw off
the rain in the manner of thatch, by attaching a cord to one corner of each
end of the mat, passing these cords over two pulleys, and laying on the mats
like tiles on a roof. Drawing up two mats, however, the one immediately
over the other, would be much less trouble, and would, excepting in the
cases of heavy rains or thawing snows, keep out the cold sufficiently well.
Where the roof is divided by wooden rafters, the mats should be exactly the
width of the sash, so as to fit in between them : but where it is not so divided,
the mats should overlap one another in the manner of slates — that is, one
half the number of mats should first be drawn up, leaving half the width of
a mat between each, and afterwards the remaining half should be drawn up
so as to cover the intervening spaces, and overlap a foot over the mat at each
side. It is much to be regretted that mats of this kind are so little used in
England, especially in country places, where straw is abundant and cheap ;
for being made at a time when little other work can be done, and of a mate-
rial of very little value, and retaining heat much better than any other
covering, they would prove a great saving of fuel and of the labour of
attending on fires, as well as insure the safety of plants. Mr. Shennan, a
gardener of great experience, who used these mats extensively, observes, in
the Gardener's Magazine for 1827, that he considers the revival of the old
system of covering with straw or reeds, and the system of heating by water,
as the greatest improvements that have been introduced into the forcing
department in his time.
446. Wooden fihutters form an excellent covering for the sashes of pits and
frames ; and though they are more expensive at first, yet from their great
durability when kept well painted, they are found by market-gardeners to
be the cheapest of all coverings in the end. Boards do not retain heat so
effectively as reeds or straw, but they exclude rain and wind better than
that material ; and by being kept an inch or two above the glass by the
cross-bars which bind the boards together, a space is left sufficient to check
radiation, and to prevent the escape of heat by conduction. If boarded shut-
ters could be kept about six inches from the glass, and air excluded from
entering at top and bottom and at the sides, radiation would be effectually
returned, and less risk of the escape of heat by conduction incurred than
when the boards touch the sash-bar ; but this would require great care in
excluding the air from the sides and ends. All the frames and pits in the
gardens at Syon are covered by boarded shutters, and all those in the exten-
sive forcing-ground of Mr. Wilmot of Isleworth. Narrow shutters of this
kind might be contrived for hothouse roofs, so as to produce a great saving
of heat. Canvas would, in many instances, repel wet and check radiation
as well as deal boards, and might be put on much quicker ; but the great
objection to it is its liability to be disturbed by high winds, — unless, indeed,
MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES USED IN HORTICULTURE. 161
it is attached to wooden frames, which occupy as much time in taking off
and putting on as wooden shutters, and are much less durable.
447. Asphalte covers have lately been used for protecting glass roofs, and
promise to be a very suitable, and, at the same time, cheap and durable
material. The following account of a trial of this article at Dalkeith, near
Edinburgh, by Mr. M'Intosh, is abridged from the Gardeners Chronicle of
Feb. 13th, 1841. Pocock's patent asphalte roofing is sold in pieces 16 in.
by 32 in., at 4^d. each, or about if d. the square foot. Its weight is only
sixty pounds to the hundred feet square. It has been exposed to severe
frost and to a heat of 220° without injury : being a non-conductor of heat,
it is alike useful for protecting from cold and for shading from the sun. In
texture the material resembles the improved patent felt, and appears to be a
combination of hair and long fibrous substances, intimately united by exces-
sive pressure, which gives it strength, durability, and an even surface ; and
being saturated with an asphaltic composition, it is completely waterproof.
Mr. M'Intosh has used it to cover 300 feet in length of cold pits; and he has
also a number of shutters made of the same material for covering the lights
of forcing pits. Frames are formed of a top and bottom rail, and two side-
rails, 1^ inches thick by 2^ inches broad : to the top and bottom rails two
pieces of wood, 1^ inches by 11 inches, are fastened, and another of like size
at the middle of the frame across it, attached to the side- rails. To these the
asphalte covering is secured by copper tacks, but iron or tin tacks, made
warm and cooled in oil, will answer as well ; thus forming shutters 6 feet by
4 feet, weighing 241bs., and costing 6s. each, that is, 2s. 3d. for asphalte
covering, 2d. for tacks, and 3s. 7d. for timber and labour. These water-
proof shutters Mr. M'Intosh finds vastly preferable to Russia mats, and has
no doubt they will last for ten or twelve years, if not longer ; for while not
in use, they can, after being well dried, be stored in a dry, airy loft or shed.
From the nature of the material they will not take oil paint with advantage ;
but may, perhaps, be improved if thinly coated with tar and strewed over
with white sand every three or four years. It is evident that temporary
coverings to plants against walls, or in the open garden, might as readily be
formed of these asphalte covers as of boarded shutters.
448. Oiled-paper frames were formerly much used, both as protection
from cold, and as shades from the sun. They are made by gluing paper
to a wooden frame, divided into panes in the manner of a window by narrow
thin laths. The paper used is what is called fine cartridge, but unsized :
printers' demy will do. A ream of this consists of 480 sheets, each 1 ft. 10 in.
by 1 ft. 5 in. ; so that the panes of the frame should be made of the latter
dimensions. They are oiled with common linseed oil boiled, and mixed
with a little white lead, being previously pasted on with a paste made of
starch boiled up with a little glue. Frames of this kind may be used with
advantage as a substitute for glazed frames in covering newly-sown seeds, or
in striking cuttings ; for though oiled paper excludes light, it is a powerful
conductor of heat. Oiled-paper sashes have been also extensively used for
growing cucumbers and melons, and, above all, for protecting fruit-trees
while in blossom. For the latter purpose the length of the frames may be
made in lengths equal to nearly the height of the wall, and each frame
hinged on one side to a temporary rafter, and kept fast at the other by a
turn button of wood. When the frames are to be kept open, they can be
tied to stakes in a simple and expeditious manner, such as will readily occur
o every gardener.
162
MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES USED IN HORTICULTURE.
449. Oiled-paper caps are also constructed for protecting or shading her-
baceous plants in the open garden, and more especially for protecting the
young shoots of Dahlias when newly planted out in spring, and their flowers,
from the frost of autumn. In low situations, near water, Dahlias are gene-
rally blackened by frost five or six weeks before this takes place in high
grounds ; but by the use of such caps as we are about to describe, the plants
may be protected from perpendicular frosts until the roots are ripe. A cap
or head for this purpose is shown in figs. 90 to 93. Fig. 90 represents the
' .91
«
!).) c
Figs. 00 to 93. Oiled paper cap for protecting Dahlias and other flowers.
stake which supports the cap, in which a, d, represents a hooked wire
attached to the stake, and adapted to an eye in the stem of the cap, to make
sure of holding the latter fast ; 6, shows the four side branches to which the
Dahlia-shoots are tied ; c, a wooden peg for fastening the tenon of the cap
into the mortice of the stake ; and e, the surface of the ground. Fig. 91 is
a geometrical elevation of one side of the frame of the cap, in which is
shown, /, the summit where the two ribs that form the four angles of the
cap cross each other, into which the stem, </, is inserted ; A, shows the edge
of the mortise ; i, the lower wire • fr, the upper wire ; and /, one of the ribs.
Fig. 92 is a perspective view of the skeleton of the cap, in which m repre-
sents the point where the two ribs cross, and the hole in the tenon for the
peg, c, in fig. 90 ; and o, the eye for the hook, d. Fig. 93 is a perspective
view of the stake and cap represented inserted in the ground, in which p
represents the side branches, to which ought to be attached the stems of the
dahlias ; and c, the surface of the ground. The size of the caps is about
eighteen inches on the side, and the length of the stake is four feet ; but in
constructing them the workman will, of course, adjust the length of the
stake and the diameter of the cap to the height and breadth of the plant to
be protected. These caps are the invention of Mr. John Turnbull (Gard.
Mag. xiii. p. 212), who says they will endure for many years with but
little repair. A cap of wickerwork, for the same purpose, is described in
the Gardeners' Chronicle, vol. i. p. 181. It consists of an inverted shallow
basket, to which is attached a tube made of the same material, through which
the Dahlia stick is passed ; and a peg being inserted between the stick and
MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES USED IN HORTICULTURE.
163
the tube, it is thus firmly fixed at any height required. It measures twelve
inches in diameter in the widest part, and is three inches and a half in
depth.
450. Wicker-work hurdles are useful in gardens for sheltering low plants
from high winds, for placing horizontally over seedlings to protect them from
birds, and, in various positions, for shading plants. They are constructed
of upright stakes fixed in the ground, or in holes in a board, at regular dis-
tances of from four inches to eight inches, according to the size of the mate-
rials and the dimension of the hurdle, and these stakes are filled in or wattled
with small rods, wands, or spray. When kept dry, they will last three or
four years, if the stakes are made of willow, or of any of the soft woods ; and
from four to six or seven years, if they are made of hazel, oak, ash, or any of
the hard woods.
451. Props for plants vary in form, dimension, and material, from the
small wires used for supporting hyacinths in water-glasses, and the sticks of
six inches in length, used for supporting plants in pots, to cast-iron rods of
six or eight feet in length, and pillars for roses and other climbers, formed
of the stems of young fir-trees, of from ten to twenty feet in length, as in
fig. 94. All the varieties of wooden props may be
reduced to four kinds : — 1. Straight rods with the
bark on, but with all the side branches cut off,
varying in size from the shoot of one year to the
stem of a fir of twenty years' growth. These
are used for every purpose, from the tying up of
plants in pots to the support of lofty climbers, in-
cluding between these extremes tying up dahlias
and standard roses. 2. Branches or stems, with
all the side branches and branchlets retained, used
for the support of climbing annual stems, such
as peas, kidney-beans, tropaeolums, &c., but only
suitable when these plants will grow in the open
ground ; when grown in pots, wire frames, or a
regular framework of laths, are more in accord-
ance with the artificial state in which the plants
are placed. 3. Wooden rods, formed out of laths
or deal by the gardener or carpenter, regularly
tapered and pointed, and in some cases painted.
These are chiefly used for choice plants in pots, but partly also in the
open garden. 4. Iron rods, from short pieces of wire to rods of cast or
wrought iron, for supporting dahlias, standard roses, and other plants, and
with or without spreading heads for climbers. Fig. 95 shows a variety of
these rods, which may be had of the principal London ironmongers. All
iron work, before being used in the open air in gardens, would be rendered
more durable if thoroughly heated and painted over with oil, the effect of
which is, to prevent the action of the atmosphere on the surface of the iron,
by carbonising it. After this operation painting may be dispensed with,
excepting for ornament. It is in general, however, better to paint them,
and the colour should be black, blue -black, or some very dark shade of green.
A light green, and white, are of all colours the most to be avoided in an
artistical point of view ; because the first is too like nature, and the second
is too glaring and conspicuous.
164
MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES USED IN HORTICULTURE.
V
Fig. 95. Cast and wrought iron props for sttpporting climbers.
452. The durability of wooden props may, perhaps, be increased by soaking
them in Burnett's anti-dry-rot composition ; or if they are made of deal, by
first kiln-drying them, and afterwards soaking them in linseed oil. After
the oil is thoroughly dried, which will require two or three weeks, the sticks
may be painted. Sticks of red deal, treated in this manner, will remain
good for upwards of twenty-five years. (Hort. Reg., i. p. 301.) Mr. Mas-
ters is of opinion (Gard. Mag., xv. p. 321) that the duration of hop-poles
may be doubled by kyanising ; but little benefit has been yet derived from
it in the case of props for garden plants. Mr. W. H. Baxter (Gard. Mag.,
xv. p. 542) found kyanising of little or no use.
453. Garden tallies and labels are articles by which names or numbers are
attached to plants, and they are of many different kinds. The materials
are wood, iron, zinc, lead, or earthenware, and the forms are still more
various than the materials. The most durable are those of lead, with the
name or number stamped with a steel punch or type, and rendered con-
spicuous by having the letters filled in with white lead paint. The most
common are made of wood, with the numbers, in imitation of the Roman
numerals, cut with a knife. To form tallies to receive numbers of this
description, take firm ash rods, about an inch or an inch and a half in dia-
meter ; saw them into lengths of ten or twelve inches ; point the lower end
rather abruptly, and either plane or cut with a knife a surface sufficient to
receive the number required on the upper half. This kind of tally may be
made during winter and wet weather, when little else can be done, and a
stock kept on hand for use, if required. They are found to last eight or
ten years, according to the situation in which they are placed. Some-
times the number is written or painted, and the writing is in ordinary
MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES USED IN HORTICULTURE.
165
cases done with a black-lead pencil on a smooth surface, on which a little
white lead has been previously rubbed in with the finger, which, when
written on hi a moist state, is found greatly to increase the
durability of the impression. Sometimes Indian ink is used,
on a white painted ground, which, being a body colour, pre-
sents a more conspicuous and durable impression than common
ink, which is only a stain. The most durable letters, next to
impressions stamped in lead, are those in black oil-paint on a
white ground. For plants in pots, a tally, formed of wood, cut
with a common knife from thin laths, rubbed with white lead,
and written on with a black-lead pencil, is one of the most
convenient and economical forms and materials. Fig. 96, which
consists of a shank of wire with the head of wood, is a form
for pots, as the wire does not injure the roots : the plate is 2£
inches long and 1^ inches broad, and about a quarter of an
inch thick ; the piece of iron wire is about three-sixteenths of
an inch thick, and is painted black, while the wooden plate is Fig 95 wooden
painted white. These tallies are very conspicuous and very label, with a shank
durable. For herbaceous plants, or low shrubs, or trees in °Siron wire-
the open air, the tally, fig. 97, is very neat and durable, and much more
economical than would at first sight
appear. It is formed of cast-iron, with
a head of the same metal, in which is
a sunk panel, into which the label
with the name is placed, and after-
wards covered with a piece of glass
neatly fitted in, and puttied like the
pane of a window. The label should
be a slip of wood, lead, pewter, or
earthenware, as not being liable to
rust, shrink, or warp, from drought
or moisture. Previously to putting
in the labels, the tally should be car-
bonised by heating it nearly red-hot
and immersing it in oil, as is practised
with gun-barrels to render them im-
pervious to the action of the atmo-
sphere. This being done, a coat of paint
may be dispensed with, or the iron-
work may be painted black, and the
paint on which the name is written
white; or the label may be simply
rubbed over with a little white lead,
and the name written with a black-
lead pencil. In the Glasgow Botanic
Garden these tallies have been used
extensively for the last fifteen years.
The label is there formed of wood,
and the writing by a black-lead pen-
ip. 97. Cast-iron tally, with the label of wood cil, after previously rubbing in a little
Placed in a sunk panel, and covered with a piece white lead. For plants in greenhoUSCS
oj glass secured by putty. °, . ...
or stoves, very neat porcelain tallies
Vaccinium
myrWliis
•8
166 MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES USED IN HORTICULTURE.
are made at the potteries, and they are perhaps the handsomest of all.
They cost from 2d. to 3d. each, and readily receive black paint, China ink,
or common ink, without any
previous preparation : in the
open air, however, they are
very liable to be broken. For
alpine or other herbaceous
plants in pots in the open air,
no tally is better than strips of
sheet lead, about an eighth of
an inch thick, with the name
at length stamped in with steel
type, — an operation which the
gardener may perform in incle-
ment weather. For large tal-
lies for trees, bricks, moulded
with a sloping face and a sunk
panel to contain a label of lead,
zinc, or wood, may be used ; or
tallies of heart -of-oak, previ-
ously steamed to draw out the
sap, and afterwards boiled in
linseed oil, painted black, with
the name in white ; or a tally
formed of a cast-iron shank,
riveted to a plate of lead, on
which the name is stamped,
the shank and plate being
painted black, and the letters
filled in with white lead. This
Fig. 1)8. Cast-iron shank . ,, , . ,, -,,
and disk of a tally for ^y was USecl ty Mr- Glen-
trees and shrubs 0« dinning in the Bicton Arbore- Fig 9a Tally ofcast.iront U.M n
tum ; the Cast-iron Shank is label of lead, for naming trees
shown in fig. 98, and the tally m^rm er°™<*-
complete, with the label of lead riveted on, is shown in fig. 99. In
the Goldsworth Arboretum, instead of a plate of lead, a plate of por-
celain is used, on which the name is painted in black in oil. An
improvement on this kind of tally consists in having a disk or circular
plate cast on the shank, about a foot below the name-plate, as in figs.
98 and 99, which prevents the tally from sinking into the ground, and
always keeps it upright. Perhaps the most economical and durable tally
for plants in pots is a small strip of zinc, about three quarters of an inch
broad and six inches long, on which the name may be written with a
black-lead pencil, after rubbing' on a little white-lead paint, or with
Indian ink on dried white paint, or on the naked metal with prepared
ink, which is sold on purpose. The neatest, least obtrusive, and most
durable tally for this description of plants is undoubtedly strips of sheet
lead, with the names stamped in, and the letters distinguished by being
filled with white lead. Temporary labels to plants are written on strips
of parchment, or narrow slips of Y°°dj and tied to them with I wine, or
sometimes, when the plants are to be sent to a distance, with copper or
MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES USED IN HORTICULTURE.
167
metallic wire. In all cases of writing or painting names or numbers
on permanent tallies, the words or figures may be rendered more con-
spicuous and durable by painting them over when dry with mastic var-
nish, or with boiled oil. Instead of painting tallies black, Mr. Nesfield
prefers a very dark lead colour, composed of ivory black (not lamp black)
and flake white, mixed with boiled linseed oil. His reason for disapproving
of a pure black ground is founded on the fact, that certain colours, having a
greater affinity for water than for oil (such as blacks, umbers, and ochres),
are liable to be affected by damp, unless they are held together by a power-
fully oleaginous vehicle, with a small portion of white lead. The lettering
Mr. Nesfield recommends to be done with Paris white, mixed with nearly
equal parts of copal varnish and nut oil, avoiding turpentine, because it soon
evaporates, and causes the colour to look dead and chalky. The white
should be used as thick as it will flow from the pencil, oecause the letters in
that case will be so much more opaque ; and the varnish should be mixed with
only a small quantity at a time, on account of its setting very rapidly. Tur-
pentine must be entirely avoided, except for cleansing pencils, as it soon
evaporates, while the varnish remains and hardens as it becomes older.
( "olours of the best quality requisite for painting and lettering labels are to
be had of Messrs. Robertson & Miller, 51, Long Acre, London, whose prices
are, for flake white, per bladder, weighing ^lb., Is.; ivory black, per^lb., 1*.;
oil, per pint, 2s. ; copal varnish, per pint, 6*. Two Is. bottles of copal var-
nish will be sufficient for an immense quantity of lettering. — (Gard. Mag.
vol. xiii. p. 58.)
454. Nails, lists, and ties, are wanted in every garden. Cast-iron nails,
about an inch and a half in length, and the lists from the selvages of woollen
cloth, are in general use for fastening the branches of trees to walls, and no
materials have hitherto been devised which have been found better or
cheaper. The nails, previously to being used, are heated nearly to redness,
and thrown into oil, for the reason before mentioned (453) ; and old lists,
before they are used a second time, are boiled in water, to destroy any eggs
of insects that may be deposited on them. The most common material in
use for ties are strands of bast matting, and these are rendered much more
durable when previously steeped in soft soap and water. For large branches,
ties of the smaller shoots of willows or of clematis are sometimes used ; and
on the Continent, the smaller branches are tied with rushes or the twigs of
broom collected in the winter season, and preserved
in bundles so as to retain a certain degree of mois-
ture to prevent them from becoming brittle, and at
the same time not to rot them. In this country
tarred twine of different degrees of thickness, and
bast matting procured by unravelling a mat, are
almost the only ties in use. Metallic wire and small
copper wire have been recommended, but they are
only fit for tying labels to trees sent out of nurseries
to a distance. A leathern wallet, fig. 100, is found
of great use in pruning and nailing wall-trees, when
Fig. 100. Wallet for pitting on the operator is standing on a ladder. It is suspended
^htea^Ung walt-trees /rom from his shoulder by straps, and contains a large
pocket for the shreds, nails, and hammer, and two
small pockets over it for a knife and sharpening-stone.
168
MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES USED IN HORTICULTURE.
455. The garden-line^ fig. 101, consisting of an iron reel, ay
knob for winding it up, 6, iron pin, c, and a hempen cord of
any convenient length, is an essential article ; as is a measur-
ing-rod, marked with feet and inches, for laying off dimen-
sions ; and aGunter's measuring chain, for use on a large scale.
A pocket foot-rule and a measuring-tape are also useful.
456. Ladders of different kinds and lengths are required
for use in the open garden and in hothouses. Figs. 102
and 103 represent a light folding ladder, the sides of which
Fig. 101. iron reel Mid may be constructed of yellow deal, and the rounds or treads
pin for* garden-line. of oak It is uged in hothouses and also in the open garden,
and may he of any length, fromfifteen to thirty feet. When the ladder is open,
for use, it has the appearance shown in fig. 103, d ; when half shut, of e ; and
a
o •
j
I
1
i
1
j
I
1
•
i
1
b
a •
I
;
Fig. 102. Portable ladder shut.
Fig. 103. Portable ladder open.
when entirely shut, of fig. 102. The section of each of the sides, or styles,
is a semi-oval ; their junction, when the ladder is shut up, forms an entire
oval in the section, as shown in fig. 102. The rounds, or treads, are cylin-
drical ; and, when the ladder is shut up, they fall into grooves, hollowed out,
of the same form ; half of the groove of each round being hi one style, and
half in the other, as indicated by the dotted lines, «, 6, hi fig. 1 02. The
ends of each of the rounds turn on iron pins ; one end rests on a shoulder, as
at a, while the other end is suspended from below the shoulder, and turns on
an iron or brass phi, as indicated by b. The ends of the iron pins which pass
through the styles are slightly riveted. In every description of plant-houses,
vineries, verandas, conservatories, aviaries, &c., a folding-ladder of this kind
MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES USED IN HORTICULTURE.
169
is a most convenient article ; because, when shut up, it may be carried
through a house much easier than a common ladder. For working among
climbing plants under glass, it is found to be particularly useful, as it may
be introduced in places where there is not room for a common ladder. For
pruning standard trees out of doors, it is particularly convenient, because it
can be thrust through the branches like a round pole, so as not to injure
them ; and when once it has got
to the desired place or position, it
can be opened, when the styles
will press the branches on one side
without injuring them. Orchard
ladders for pruning standard fruit-
trees, or gathering their fruit, are
of various kinds, some with two
legs to give them stability, and
others forming a triangle, with
horizontal pegs in each leg for
supporting plants, which cross
from one leg to the other, and on
which the operators stand. Fig.
104 is what is called a rule-joint ladder, for painting and repairing curvi-
linear glass roofs. The ladder fig. 105 is in common use in the south of
France and Switzerland, for gathering cherries.
457. A Levelling Instrument of some kind is occasionally required in
gardens ; for example, when box edgings are to be taken up and replanted,
it is necessary to have the ground of exactly the same level on both sides
of the walk, and this can only be done by levelling across. The use of the
level implies also the use of poles, borning pieces, and
other articles belonging to surveying, which, as every
one who can take levels must necessarily be familiar
with, we do not stop to describe. Fig. 106 is a more
convenient form for a garden level than that used
by bricklayers ; because, by the curvature on the un-
derside, the operator can more readily level across
raised gravel walks.
458. Thermometers are requisite, more especially where there are plant
structures of any description ; and it will be very desirable to have terrestrial
thermometers for ascertaining the temperature of the soil in the open garden,
as well as of the soil, and of tan or dung beds, under glass. It is true that
a knowledge of the temperature of the soil in the open garden will not often
enable us to increase that temperature, but it will assist us in accounting
for particular effects ; and sometimes, as in the case of coldness produced
from the want of drainage, or from a non-conducting covering repelling the
rays of the sun, we have it in our power, by removing the cause, to remedy
the evil. To ascertain the temperature of the soil with reference to plants
growing in it, the bulb of the thermometer should be sunk to such a depth
as may correspond with the great mass of the roots, or between eight inches
and a foot. For plant-houses, a registering thermometer is a very desirable
instrument, as a check upon the attendants in the absence of the master, and
more especially in the night-time. That of Six is considered the best, and
requires no explanation.
Fig. 106. Garden level.
170
MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES USED IN HORTICULTURE.
459- An Hygrometer of some kind is almost as necessary as a thermometer,
more especially now, when, as we have seen (251), the importance of keeping
the atmosphere of plant structures saturated with moisture is beginning to
be understood.
460. Other articles of various kinds are required in gardens, of which it
will be sufficient to enumerate those which are most important. A grind-
stone is essential in every garden ; because, unless tools and instruments are
kept at all times sharp, it is impossible that operations can either be properly
performed, or a sufficiency of work done. Whetstones are also necessary for
scythes and knives. Portable shoe-scrapers of cast-iron, for using when
coming off dug ground in wet weather on the gravel walks. One or more
bridge planks, fig. 107, for wheeling across box
edgings. Common planks for wheeling on
when the soil is soft, or when injury would be
Fig. 107. Bridge plank for wheeling done by the sinking of the wheels ; and trestles
acrot* box or other edgings. for raising them as scaffolding. Some hundreds
of bricks and flat tiles for forming traps for birds or mice, and for a variety
of purposes. A pair of leather bearing-straps for relieving the arms in
wheeling or in carrying hand-barrows, fig. 108. Old fisher-
men's-netting, for protecting rising seeds from birds, and for
covering currant or cherry trees for the same purpose, or
for protecting wall trees, or for shelter. Live moss, com-
monly sphagnum, for packing plants and for other purposes.
Lime unburned, but broken into small pieces, in order to
be burnt in the hothouse fires, to supply quicklime as
wanted for making lime-water : quicklime will answer, if
kept compressed in a cask or box, so as to exclude the air.
Potash, for using as a substitute for quicklime, in preparing
a caustic fluid for destroying worms, snails, &c. Refuse
tobacco, tobacco paper, or tobacco liquor, from the tobacco-
nist's, or tobacco of home growth, for destroying insects.
Sulphur in a state of powder, for destroying the mildew,
and for sublimation to destroy the red spider. Soft soap,
tar, gum, glue, &c., for suffocating the scale, and for coating
over the eggs of insects to prevent their hatching. Gun-
powder, for bruising and mixing with tar to deter insects
by smell. Bird-lime, for entrapping birds. Baskets, ham-
pers, boxes, and cases of various kinds, for packing vege-
tables and fruits, and sending them to a distance. A cabinet
or case for the office, or for the seed-room, for containing seeds ; another
for bulbs, if collections of tulips, &c. are grown. Canvas for bags, which
may be used as a suhstitute for boxes for containing seeds. Paper of different
kinds, twine and cord, cotton, wool, hay, fern-leaves, the male catkins of
the beech, or sweet chesnut, to aid in packing fruit. Straw, reeds, tan,
common sand, pure white or silver sand, oyster-shells as coverings to the
holes in bottoms of pots ; pieces of freestone, for mixing with peat soil used
in growing heaths ; leaves and leaf mould, grafting-wax, grafting-clay, com-
mon paint, and probably various other articles which we cannot recall to
mind, — might be enumerated under this head. But it is scarcely necessary
to observe, that no gardener ought to confine himself to those implements
of his art, which have hitherto been in use, whether as regards the con-
Fig. 108. Leather
bearing-straps.
PORTABLE, TEMPORARY, AND MOVE ABLE STRUCTURES. 171
struction of particular instruments or utensils, or their number and kinds,
for particular operations. Let him at all times think for himself; and
if he can devise any tool, instrument, or utensil, for performing any
operation better than those hitherto in use, let him not fail to do so. Such
are the variety of operations required in extensive gardens, where a great
many different kinds of culture are carried on, that this power of invention
in the gardener becomes essentially requisite, and is, in fact, called forth by
the circumstances in which he is placed.
CHAPTER II.
STRUCTURES AND EDIFICES OF HORTICULTURE.
STRUCTURES and edifices are required in horticulture for the more perfect
cultivation of hardy plants, or for bringing them earlier to perfection ; for
the protection of exotics that will not endure our winters in the open air ;
for preserving and keeping horticultural articles ; for the enclosure and
defence of gardens, and for gardeners' dwellings.
SECT. I. — Portable, Temporary, and Moveable Structures.
Portable structures are such as can be readily moved about by hand, such
as the common hand-glass, or substitutes for it, wicker-work protectors, &c. ;
temporary structures are such as are taken to pieces every time they are
removed from place to place, such as temporary copings, canvas screens,
&c. ; and moveable structures are those which can be removed entire, such
as the common hotbed frame.
461. Wicker-work structures for protecting plants may be of any conve-
nient form. Fig. 109 consists of a rim about two feet high and a semicir-
cular cover for taking off during fine days : it
has been used at Britton Hall to protect half-
hardy Rhododendrons. Fig. 110 shows vari-
ous forms which have been used for protecting
tender plants during winter, at Abbotsbury,
in Dorsetshire : a is a semicircular hurdle, to
protect plants trained against a wall, especially
if newly planted and exposed to a sunny or
Fig. 109. wterwrkProtector for windy quarter. b is a double semicircular
hurdle, or split cylinder, with loops on each
side forming hinges or clasps. This is useful to put round the stems of
young trees whose branches are too spreading to allow of a circular hurdle
being passed over them from above. It is used as a protection against hares
and rabbits in a shrubbery ; c is a large cylindrical basket to cover tall
shrubs, with a vizor, or window, to be turned towards the sun or away from
the wind, but to admit air. These three forms are chiefly adapted for
permanent defences in the winter season; the following are for use in
spring : d is the simple form of basket or circular hurdle, close on every side
and at top, intended to protect low bushes, or growing herbaceous plants
172 PORTABLE, TEMPORARY, AND MOVEABLE STRUCTURES.
coming into flower ; e is a bell-shaped wicker case with a handle, for covering
during the night plants that shoot early
in spring. All these forms are con-
structed of stakes of hazle, oak, or other
wood, strong and pointed so as to be
firmly fixed in the ground, and the
wattled work is of willow wands or
young shoots of hazel, sno wherry, or
whatever can be most conveniently got
from the woods. Those structures used
for the more tender plants may be filled
with straw or hay, provided the plants
are on a lawn where grass-seeds drop-
ping from the hay will not prove in-
jurious ; or they may be covered with
mats or canvas. Besides these forms,
which may be made of any size, accord-
ing to that of the plants to be pro-
tected, small semiglobular, close- wove
chip baskets, not above a foot high, are
used at Abbotsbury as shades for deli-
cate Alpine plants in sunny or windy
weather. Where baskets of this kind
\
Fig. no. Wickerwork protectors of various cannot be conveniently procured, very
**»<**• good substitutes may be found in bass
mate, canvas, or oil-cloth, supported by rods forming skeletons of suitable
sizes and shapes.
462. Portable substitutes for hand-glasses. — Hand-glasses, from their
great liability to breakage and the quantity of glass they contain compared
with the ground they cover, become very expensive articles. A common
square hand-glass, it has been shown by Mr. Forsyth, Gard. Mag. 184],
contains seven square feet of glass to light or shelter two and a quarter square
feet of ground, being a little more than three times as much as is really
necessary for the plants usually cultivated under them : hence he proposes
to substitute boards well painted, pitched or tarred, to increase their dura-
bility, in place of upright glazed sides to the hand-glass ; and instead of a
conical or pyramidal roof, to employ a square cast-iron sash, twenty-four
inches on the side. Fig. Ill shows the sash glazed with small panes, say
Side view of hand-box.
Hand-box, as a substitute for a hand glass.
four inches and a half wide, on account of their cheapness, and greater
Sasli, as a substitute fur
a hand-glass.
PORTABLE, TEMPORARY, AND MOVEABLE STRUCTURES. 173
strength than larger-sized panes. The frame, fig. 112, may be six to nine
inches high in front, and from fifteen to eighteen inches high at back.
These small sashes, when not wanted for hand-glasses, or rather hand-frame
coverings, Mr. Forsyth proposes to use as roofing to peach-houses, vineries,
&c., and for various other purposes ; and he anticipates, and we think with
reason, great economy from their adoption in gardens. Fig. 113 is an end
view of the box, showing the uprights at the angles for supporting the sash,
either close over the box, or raised to different heights to admit more or
less air. By means of the notched uprights, the sash may either be raised
six inches above the box at top and bottom, or it may be raised three or
six inches at the back, and not raised, or raised only three inches in front, so
as to admit more or less air at pleasure, and yet throw off the rain ; the sash
being in any of these cases held firm in its place, so as not to be liable to be
disturbed by wind. The pivots which fit into the notches are square, in
order to admit of their being mounted on rafters of different kinds, so as
to form coverings to frames, pits, or even forcing- houses. Supposing, says
Mr. Forsyth, a bed of violets, running east and west, in the open air, twelve
feet long and three feet six inches wide : drive seven notched pegs two feet
apart down the centre of the bed to stand one foot above ground, and seven
down each side at the same distance apart, but only four inches out of the
ground : then, to make the sides and gable ends, take a piece of turf four
feet by four feet, shaped out with the edging-iron, and taken up with the
turfing or floating spade, an inch and a half thick, of the proper shape, so
that it may be set on edge and kept so by a peg on each side, and having the
green side out ; when the lights are put on with every alternate one higher
than and embracing the iron edges of the two under it, you will have a very
elegant little flower-house, which a labourer might erect in an hour with
sixpennyworth of building materials, and the finished structure would have
thus every other light hinged and ready to admit air or allow of watering
and gathering flowers like a complete forcing-house. We regard this as
promising to be one of the most useful and economical inventions that have
been introduced in horticulture for some time. This box may be used in
the open ground for forcing sea-kale, rhubarb, and for a variety of other
purposes. See Gard. Mag. 1841.
463. Canvass coverings for glazed structures or detached plants require
for the most part to be in framed panels, as well to keep them tight as to
throw off the rain, and to prevent them from being blown and beat about
by the wind. To render the canvass more durable, it maybe oiled, tanned,
or soaked in Kyan's or in Burnett's anti-dryrot composition. When applied
to cover the glass sashes of frames or pits, it should be in panels in wooden
frames of the size of the sashes ; and this is also a convenient and safe mode
of forming temporary structures for protecting standard plants or trees ; but
by suitable arrangements, to be hereafter described, canvass or netting for
protecting walls may be hooked on and fastened without wooden frames.
This is done in a very efficient manner in the garden of the Horticultural
Society of London, to protect a peach- wall. The stone coping of this wall
projects over it about an inch and a half, with a groove or throating under-
neath. Coping-boards nine inches broad, fitted to join at their ends by
means of plates of iron, are supported on iron brackets built into the wall.
Fig. 114 shows one of these brackets, in which a is an iron which is built
into the wall, the thickness of a board below the stone coping ; and I, the
174 PORTABLE, TEMPORARY, AND MOVEABLE STRUCTURES.
hole for the iron pin which secures the wooden coping. To these brackets
the coping-boards are secured by broad-headed
iron pins, passing through corresponding holes,
ft, in the board and bracket, a slip of iron, or
" spare-nail," being then introduced through an
eye in the lower end of the pin. The upper edge
Fig. lu. iron bmcket for support- of the board is slightly bevelled, so as to fit as
ing a temporary wooden coping, closely as possible to the under side of the coping
of the wall, in order effectually to obstruct the radiation of heat,
and the ascent of warm air. From this coping, woollen netting of various
kinds, common netting, such as fishermen use, bunting, and thin can-
vass, have been let down, and tried experimentally, in the course of
the last fifteen years ; and we are informed by Mr. Thompson, that after
repeated trials, the thin canvass was found the preferable article for utility,
appearance, and duration. This description of fabric costs about 4d. per
yard, procured from Dundee. It requires to be joined into convenient
lengths, or into the whole length of the wall to be covered, and bound with
tape at top and bottom, and to have loops or rings sewed to it at top, by
which it is secured to small hoops screwed to the upper side of the coping-
boards. These hooks serve also for attaching the ends of pieces of twine,
which are stretched down to pegs driven in a line four feet from the bottom
of the wall. These twine-rafters are stretched at intervals of twelve feet,
and support the canvass at a uniform slope, the appearance being that of an
elegant light roof, reaching to within three feet of the ground. The coping-
boards are put up before the blossom-buds of the peach-trees have swelled so
much as to exhibit the tips of the petals ; and before the most forward buds
open, the thin canvass (or netting, if that should be preferred) should be at-
tached to the hooks. The covering is generally put up about the beginning
of March, and it remains on without being opened or altered, till all danger
from frost is over, which is generally, in the climate of London, about the
middle of May. The coping is entirely removed at the same time as the
canvass, because the trees are found to thrive much better when exposed to
perpendicular rains and dews. The canvass is found to be of great utility in
bright sunny weather, when the trees are in full blossom ; for the peach and
other stone fruit, which in their native country blossom at an early period
of the season, whilst the air is yet cool, do not succeed so well in setting
when the blossoms are exposed to as much as 100°, which they frequently
are, against a south wall. The thin canvass admits also plenty of air ; while
woollen netting, which it might be thought would admit still more air, was
found to render the leaves too tender, in which case they suffer from the in-
tensity of the light when the netting is removed. Common thread netting
is not liable to produce this effect, being much more airy ; and this netting
has the ad vantage, when not placed farther than a foot from the wall, of ad-
mitting of the trees being syringed through it. Very little syringing, how-
ever, is required till the trees are out of blossom, and none while they are
in blossom ; and when the space between the canvass and the wall is nine
inches wide at top, and four feet wide at the bottom, as in the Horticultural
Society's garden, the syringing can be very well performed in the space
within. Perhaps it would be an improvement in the case of the Horticul-
tural Society's wall to have the coping as much as eighteen inches wide, as
no frost, unless very severe indeed, would injure the blossoms of fruit-trees
PORTABLE, TEMPORARY, AND MOVEABLE STRUCTURES. 175
trained against a wall with such a projection ; but the iron fastenings for
such a coping would require to be much stronger than for nine-inch copings,
on account of the greater power which the wind would have over them.
464. Canvass Shades to Hothouses. — A very complete mode of rolling up
and letting down canvass over the roofs of hothouses was put in practice in
the kitchen-garden at Syon by Mr. Forrest ; and as it is equally well adapted
for covering awnings for tulip-beds or other florist's flowers, and for a va-
riety of other garden purposes, we shall here give such details as will enable
any intelligent blacksmith or carpenter to construct the apparatus. The
canvass is fixed to a roller of wood, fifty or sixty feet in length, the length
depending on the diameter of the pole or rod, fig. 115, a, and the toughness
Fig. 115. Apparatus for rolling up and letting down canvass shades.
of the timber employed, as well as the dimensions and strength of all the
other parts. On one end of this rod, and not on both, as is usual, a ratchet-
wheel, &, is fixed, with a plate against it, c, so as to form a pulley- groove, d,
between, to which a cord is fastened ; and about three inches further on the
rod is fixed a third iron wheel, about six inches in diameter and half an
inch thick, e. This last wheel runs in an iron groove, /, which extends
along the end rafter or end wall of the roof to be covered. The canvass or
netting being sewed together of a sufficient size to cover the roof, one side of
it is nailed to a slip of wood placed against the back wall — that is, along the
upper ends of the sashes ; the other side is nailed to the rod, a. When the
canvass is rolled up, it is held in its place under a coping, g, by a ratchet,
h ; and when it is to be let down, the cord, «, of the roll is loosened with
one hand, and the ratchet cord, k, pulled with the other, when the canvass
unrolls with its own weight. The process of pulling it up again need not be
described. The most valuable part of the plan is, that the roll of canvass,
throughout its whole length, winds up and lets down without a single wrinkle,
notwithstanding the pulley-wheel is only on one end. This is owing to the
weight of the rod, and its equal diameter throughout.
176 WALLS, ESPALIER-RAILS, AND TRELLIS -WORK.
465. The common hotbed frame is a bottomless box, commonly six feet
wide, and three, six, or eighteen feet in length, formed of boards from one
to two inches in thickness. The height at the back may be two feet, and
in front one foot. The bottom should be level, so that the sides and the
sashes laid on the frame may slope from back to front. A three-light or
three-sashed frame is divided by two cross bars or rafters, so as to leave a
space between them from two feet nine inches to three feet for the width
of the sash. It is placed either on the open ground, or on a mass of
heating material, according to the purpose for which it is wanted, and, ex-
cepting for particular purposes, facing the sun. As the great object of frames
is to increase temperature without excluding light, the soil on which they
are placed, or the dungbed or other means of heating which they cover,
ought to be as dry as possible, either naturally or by artificial drainage ; and
the glass ought to be clear, and so glazed as to permit as little air as possible
to escape between the laps. When common crown glass is used, small panes
are found to be less liable to breakage than large ones of this kind of glass ;
but when the sheet window-glass is used, from its greater thickness, the
panes may be two or three feet in length, without much danger of breakage.
The boards used for the frame should be of the best red deal ; and if, after
being prepared for fitting together, they are thoroughly dried on a kiln, and
afterwards soaked with train-oil in the manner which we have described (452 )
for preparing wooden props, the duration of the frame will be greatly in-
creased. All frames and sashes, when not in use, should be kept in an open
B\vy shed, and there raised from the ground a few inches by supports of bricks
or other suitable materials. In gardens where cucumbers and melons are
grown extensively, there are commonly one or more small frames with single
lights for raising seedlings, and others of two or three lights for winter or early
spring crops; the smallness of the frame allowing a greater command of the
heating material beneath it, by the application of outside casings of warm
dung. The back, front, and ends of frames are generally permanently
fixed together by tenons and mortices, and by being nailed to posts in the
four inner angles ; but in some cases the back and sides are fastened together
by keyed iron bolts, which readily admit of separating the frame into pieces,
and laying these away under cover, and in little space, when not required
for use. From the short duration of frames, and from the great quantity
of dung required to heat them, as well as from the waste of heat incurred
in preparing that dung, frames are now, in most British gardens, being re-
placed by pits, which may be called fixed frames, with brickwork substi-
tuted for wood.
SECT. III. — Fixed Structures used in Horticulture.
The fixed structures required in gardens are chiefly walls, espalier rails,
trellis and lattice-work, and structures for containing growing plants.
Subsect. 1. Walls, Espalier-rails, and Trellis-work.
466. Walls are used for the protection of gardens, and also as furnishing
surfaces on which fruit-trees and ornamental plants may be trained, with a
view to producing increase of temperature and protection from high winds :
they may be considered in regard to direction, material, height, foundation,
coping, and general construction.
WAI/LS, ESPALIER-RAILS, AND TRELLIS-WORK. ] 77
467. Direction and material. — Boundary walls take the direction indi-
cated by the form of the ground to be enclosed ; but \valls built purposely
for training trees, in the interior of a garden, are varied in direction according
to the aspects which are considered most desirable. A wall in the direction
of east and west, gives one side of the wall fully exposed to the sun for the
finer fruits, or for fixing against it glass structures : while the north side of
the wall may be employed for inferior fruits, for retarding crops, as well of
fruit against the wall, as, in some cases, of vegetables oh the border. A wall
in the direction of north and south furnishes two good aspects for the second-
ary fruits, such as apricots, plums, and the finer pears. Walls have been
built in a curvilinear direction, but no advantage has been found from them
excepting a saving of material, in proportion to the length of the wall, the
curves having the same effect in resisting lateral pressure as buttresses ; but
walls in situations exposed to high winds, built with projections at right
angles, of the height of the wall and the width of the border, but somewhat
sloped down from back to front, have been found beneficial in checking the
course of the wind when in a direction parallel to the wall. Screen walls of
this kind are frequently built at the exterior angles of the walls of kitchen-
gardens; and sometimes they occur at distances of from 100 to 200 feet along
walls having a south aspect ; and in the case of east and west winds they
are found very beneficial. Walls with piers at regular distances, allowing
room for one trained tree between every two piers, have also been found
beneficial from the shelter afforded by the piers, which at the same time
greatly strengthen the wall, and admit of its being built thinner. In general,
however, a straight wall, without projections of any kind, is most conve-
nient, most suitable for training, and for protecting by temporary copings,
and most agreeable to the eye.
468. The materials of walls are brick, stone, mud, and wood ; but the first
is by far the best. Brick retains warmth, in consequence of its much
greater porosity than stone ; forms a very strong wall with comparatively
little substance, from the rectangular shapes of the bricks, and the firmness
with which mortar adheres to them ; and it is the best of all walls for training
on, from the small size of the bricks and the numerous joints between them.
Add also, that from the porosity of the bricks, nails may even be driven
sufficiently far into them to hold branches, as securely as nails driven into the
joints. Stone walls are good in proportion as they approach to brick walls.
For this reason, if the stone is not naturally porous and a bad conductor of
heat, the walls should be built of extra thickness, and the stones should not
be large, nor so rough as to make coarse joints. The warmest walls of this
kind are such as are of sufficient thickness to allow of the interior of the
wall being built without mortar, in consequence of which much air is re-
tained, and heat is not readily conducted from the warm side of the wall
to the cold side. A stone wall, with a facing of bricks on the warm side,
forms the next best wall to one entirely of brick ; and next to this, a stone
wall stuccoed, plastered over with a mixture of stone lime and sharp sand,
or coated over with Roman cement of good quality. Walls formed of earth
or mud are still better non-conductors than brick walls; but though they are
warm, yet as surfaces for training trees on they are attended with several
disadvantages. They cannot conveniently be built high, and whatever may
be their height, they require the coping to project farther than is beneficial
to the plants trained on them at any other season than in early spring ; and
178 WALLS, ESPALIER-RAILS, AND TRELLIS- WORK.
they require a trellis on which to fasten the plants. Nevertheless the vine
and the peach have been successfully grown against such walls at various
places in the neighbourhood of Paris, though they are now rapidly giving
way to stone walls. These walls are commonly built without mortar, ex-
cepting to close the outside joints, or to plaster over the surface of the wall
as a substitute for a trellis, which is always used when this is not done.
The grapes at Thomery, near Fontainebleau, are chiefly grown on trellised
walls of this kind ; and the peaches at Montreuil, near Paris, are chiefly on
stone walls stuccoed. Walls formed of boards are frequent in the north of
Europe, where timber is abundant ; but, except when the boards are five or
six inches in thickness, they are very cold. In Holland, and more particu-
larly in Sweden, when such walls form the backs to hothouses, they are
thatched from top to bottom. In Britain, were it not for the expense of
the material, boarded walls might in many cases be adopted instead of brick ;
more especially in the case of walls built in the direction of north and south,
because in them the air is of nearly the same temperature on both sides :
whereas in an east and west wall, the heat produced by the sun on the south
side is being continually given out to the much colder north side. Boarded
walls two or three centuries ago afforded the only means, in the neighbour-
hood of London, of forcing the cherry, the only fruit which at that time was
attempted to be produced out of season. The boarded wall or fence was
placed in the direction of east and west, the cherries planted against it on
the south side, and casings of hot dung on the north, close to the boards. To
derive the full advantage from the south side of an east and west wall, it
ought to be of greater thickness than a south and north wall under the same
circumstances ; because, from the much greater cold of the north side, the
south side is continually liable to have the heat abstracted from it in that
direction. A south and north wall, on the other hand, can never become
so hot on either side as an east and west wall does on the south side ; and as
it receives its heat equally on both sides, so it loses it equally. Where a
south and north wall is thin, and consequently cold, it might become worth
while, when it was desirable to retain as much heat on the south side as
possible, to thatch it on the north side during the winter and spring months.
The great advantage of coverirfg with some protecting material the north
sides of walls in spring, when trees are in blossom, may be inferred from the
case of trees trained against dwelling-houses, which invariably set their
blossoms better than trees against unprotected garden-walls.
469. The height of garden-walls may vary according to the object in view,
but it is rarely necessary to be more than twelve or fifteen feet, or less than
six feet. In kitchen-gardens the highest wall is generally placed on the
north side, as well to protect the garden from north winds as to admit of a
greater surface for training on exposed to the full sun, and to form, if ne-
cessary, a back sufficiently high for forcing-houses. The east and west
boundary walls are commonly made two or three feet lower than the north
wall, and the south wall somewhat lower still. The usual proportions in a
garden of three acres are 17, 14, and 12 ; for gardens of one acre, 14, 12, and
10 ; that part of the north wall against which the forcing-houses are placed
being in small gardens raised somewhat higher than the rest. Twelve
feet is found to be a sufficient height for peach and apricot trees ; but for
pears and vines it may be one half more ; and indeed for vines there is
scarcelv anv limit.
WALLS, ESPALTER-RAILS, AND TRELLIS-WORK.
179
470. The foundations of garden- walls should be at least as deep as the
ground is originally dug or trenched. The wall is sometimes supported on
arches ; but this is not in general desirable, more especially in walls built
in the direction of east and west, because the roots of the trees planted on
the one side of the wall are liable to extend themselves to the border on the
opposite side, which not being exposed to the same temperature as that on
the other side, the excitement which they receive from atmospheric tempera-
ture must necessarily be different, and consequently unfavourable to growth
and the ripening of fruit and wood.
471. The copings ofwalls, for ordinary purposes, should not project more
than two or three inches, because a greater projection would deprive the
leaves of the trees of perpendicular rains in the summer season ; and in
spring the trees can be protected from the frost by temporary wooden
copings, as already mentioned (463). In order to admit of fixing these
wooden copings securely, iron brackets should be built mto the wall imme-
diately under the coping : or, where temporary rafters are to be fixed to the
wall for supporting sashes, stones, such as fig. 116, may be built in, to which
the rafters may be fitted and fixed by a
tenon and pin, as indicated in fig. 117.
Along the front border, or row of stone
or iron posts, not rising higher than the
surface, may be permanently fixed, on
which a temporary front wall or plate,
for the lower ends of the rafters, may
be placed. The garden-walls for ar-
rangements of this kind should be flued.
>.for fixing temporary rafters, stones for fixing rafters can only be
wanted on the south sides of east and west walls, because glass is seldom
placed before walls with any but
a south aspect. Iron brackets, — — ~"1
to support temporary copings, r^r — "
may be placed on all aspects ex-
cept that of the north. The per-
manent coping is generally form-
ed of flagstone, slate, artificial
stone, tiles or bricks, and raised
in the middle so as to throw the
rain-water equally to each side ;
and in the case of stone, a groove
or throating is formed under-
neath, an inch within the edge,
to prevent the water from run-
ning down and rotting the mor-
tar. Where the coping is very
broad, and formed of flagstone,
Fig 117- Mode of fixing temporary rafters.
it is sometimes hollowed out along the middle, so as to collect the rain-water,
from which it is conveyed to a drain along the foundation of the wall by
pipes ; but this mode is only necessary in the case of conservatory walls.
Where no trees are planted on the north side of an east and west wall, the
coping is sometimes bevelled, so as to throw the rain-water to the north side
as in fig. 117; but this can never be advisable where trees are trained there.
180
WALLS, ESPALIER-RAILS, AND TRELLIS-WORK.
Fig. 118. Plan of a hollow brick wall 14 inches wide
and 12 feet high.
472. In the construction of walls they are generally built solid ; but
when the wall is formed entirely of brick, a saving of material is obtained,
as well as a warmer wall produced, by building them hollow. There are
various modes of effecting this, but one of the simplest is that shown by the
plan fig. 118, in which a wall fourteen inches wide, with a vacuity of five
~ inches and a half, may be built
ten or twelve feet high with
little more than the materials
requisite for a solid wall nine
inches wide. Such walls may
be carried to the height of ten
or twelve feet without any piers,
and one advantage attending them is that they can be built with a smooth face
on both sides, whereas a solid nine-inch wall can only be worked fair on one
side. A still more economical wall may be formed by placing the bricks on
edge, which will give a width of twelve inches that may be carried to the
height of ten feet without piers. Walls of both kinds have been employed
in the construction of cottage buildings, as well as in gardens. (See Encyc.
of Cottage Architecture, p. 168 .to 172, where several kinds of hollow walls
are described.) A very strong wall, only seven and a half inches in thick-
ness, ma}' be formed of bricks of the common size, and of bricks of the
same length and thickness, but of only half the width of the common
bricks, by which means the wall can be worked fair on both sides. The
bricks are laid side by side, as in fig. 119, in which a represents the first
course, and b the second course.
The bond, or tying together of
both sides of the wall, is not
obtained by laying bricks
across (technically, headers), Fi«- 119- Plan °f a brick wal1 ™ inches thick-
but by the full breadth bricks covering half the breadth of the broad bricks,
when laid over the narrow ones, as shown in the dissected horizontal section,
fig. 119, at &, and in the vertical section, fig. 120. Besides the advantage of
j p-j being built fair on both sides, there being no headers, or through
[ t I and through bricks, in these walls, when they are used as out-
side walls the rain is never conducted through the wall, and
the inside of the wall is consequently drier than the inside of a
wall nine inches in thickness. These walls are adapted for a
variety of purposes in house-building and gardening, in the
latter art more especially. The only drawback that we know
against them is, that the narrower half- breadth bricks must be
made on purpose. For the division walls of a large garden, or
for the boundary wall of a small one, such walls with piers
projecting eighteen inches or two feet, to enable the walls to
be carried to the height of ten or twelve feet, might be econo-
X
1
!
a
0
1
1
1
I
^view of a 7J- mically adopted : the space between the piers ought not to be
in. thick brick greater than can be covered by a single tree. It must be
acknowledged, however, that piers are not desirable iii fruit-
walls, because when the wall is newly built it cannot so soon be covered
with trees, the piers standing in the places where temporary trees
would be planted. Piers, however, on conservatory walls may be turned
to good account, both as assisting in supporting the temporary copings or
WALLS, ESPALIER-RAILS, AND TRELLIS-WORK. 181
glass, and as heightening architectural effect. Walls are almost always
built perpendicularly to the horizon, but they have been tried at different
degrees of inclination to it, in order to receive the sun's rays at right angles
when he is highest in the firmament during summer ; but though some
advantage may probably have been obtained from such walls at that season,
yet the great loss of heat by radiation during spring and autumn would
probably be found greatly to overbalance the gain during summer. Nicol
informs us that he constructed many hundred feet of boarded walls which
reclined considerably towards the north, in order to present a better angle to
the sun, but he does not inform us of the result ; a German gardener, how-
ever, has found advantage from them. (See Nicol's Kal p. 149, and Hort.
Trans, vol. iv. p. 140.)
473. Trellised walls. — Where the surface of a garden wall is too rough,
or is formed of too large stones to admit of conveniently attaching the
branches of trees to it, by nails and shreds, it becomes necessary to fix to the
wall trellis-work of wood or of wire. The laths or wires are generally placed
perpendicularly six or eight inches apart, because the branches are generally
trained horizontally, or at some angle between horizontal and perpendicular.
Wires stretched horizontally, however, and screwed tight, form the most
economical description of trellis; and if occasionally painted, they will last
a number of years. Trellis-work of wood is more architectural, and the
branches are more readily fixed to them by ties, which are apt to slide along
the small wire unless the double operation is performed of first attaching the
tie to the wire, and then tying it to the shoot of the tree. The colour both
of the wire and the woodwork should not differ much from that of the stone
of the wall, otherwise it will become too conspicuous.
474. Colouring the surface of walls black, with a view to the absorption
of heat, has been tried by a number of persons, and by some it has been con-
sidered beneficial ; but as the radiation during night and in cloudy weather
is necessarily in proportion to the absorption during sunshine, the one ope-
ration neutralizes the other. If, indeed, we could insure a powerful absorp-
tion from a bright sun during the day, and retain the radiation by a canvass
or other screen during the night, a considerable increase of temperature
might probably be the result ; but the number of cloudy days in our climate
in proportion to those of bright sunshine is not favourable to such an ex-
periment.
475. Fined walls are either built entirely of brick, or with one side of
brick and the other of stone ; the latter being the north side of east and
west walls. In the case of north and south walls which are to be flued, the
thickness is equal on both sides, and the wall is built entirely of brick. The
flues, which are generally from six to eight inches wide, commence about one
foot above the surface of the border ; the first course is from two to three
feet high, and each successive course is a few inches lower, till the last flue,
within a foot of the coping, is about eighteen inches high. The thickness
of that side of the flue next the south should, for the first course, be four
inches, or the width of a brick laid flatways ; and for the other courses it is
desirable to have the bricks somewhat narrower, on account of the heat being
less powerful as the smoke ascends. All the bricks, however, whatever may
be their width, must be of the same thickness, in order to preserve uniformity
in the external appearance of the wall. As where garden walls are to be
built a large supply of bricks is requisite, no difficulty need occur in getting
182
WALLS, ESPALIER-BAILS, AND TRELLIS-WORK.
•<
•uch a quantity as might be requisite for the flued walls made of any con-
venient width. To prevent the risk of overheating the trees by the flues,
trellises are sometimes applied .against them for training on ; but where the
wall is properly constructed, and only moderate fires kept, they are unneces-
sary. A great improvement in flued walls has been made by Mr. Shiells,
gardener at Erskine House, Renfresvshire, who, though the garden is in one
of the worst climates of Scotland, has been singularly successful in ripening
grapes, figs, peaches, &c., on these walls without the aid of glass. Mr.
Shiells places the furnace, as usual, at the back of the wall, about eighteen
inches from it, and two feet below the surface of the ground. To prevent
the roots of the trees on the south side of the wall from being injured by the
heat, a wall of four-inch brickwork is carried up opposite the furnace with
a two-inch cavity between them. From the furnace the smoke and heated
air enter the wall at c, in fig. 121, over which, at a, there is a damper, by
Fig. 121. Longitudinal section of a fined wall.
means of which the heat throughout the whole wall is regulated. When
this damper is dra^Yn about four inches, a sufficient portion of the smoke
and heated air pass through the two under flues to produce the necessary
degree of heat in them ; while another portion of the smoke and heat rises
directly to the third flue, by which it, and the fourth or upper flue, are
heated a little more than the two lower ones. This Mr. Shiells considers
a great advantage, because the upper part of the wall is more exposed to the
cold air, and less benefited by the reflection of heat from the ground than the
lower part; besides, the shoots there are generally more luxuriant and
spongy, and would be later in ripening than those on the lower part of the
wall, if they did not acquire an extra degree of artificial heat. Sometimes,
therefore, it is desirable to warm only the upper part of the wall, and this is
readily done by withdrawing the damper, when the whole of the smoke and
heated air will rise direct to the third flue ; and thus, more especially if only
a small fire is made, the desired result will be obtained without warming the
lower part of the wall at all. By reducing the communication between the
first and the second flue at a, to about thirty square inches, the damper may
be dispensed with ; because in that case a sufficient portion of the heat would
rise direct through this opening to the third flue, and so heat as effectually
the upper part of the wall as the lower part ; but by retaining the damper,
the heat can be regulated more effectually. The depth of the first or lowest
flue is two feet six inches ; of the second, two feet ; of the third, two feet
three inches ; and of the fourth, one foot six inches : the width of all of
them is seven inches and a half. The bottom of the lowest flue is about one
foot above the surface of the ground, and the top of the upper flue within
seven inches of the coping : the total thickness of the wall is about one
foot nine inches ; viz., the width of a brick in front, the length of a brick
behind, and the remainder for the width of the flue. About two yards of
the front of the wall at the warm end of the flues is built rather thicker on
WALLS, ESPALIER-RAILS, AND TRELLIS-WORK. 183
the front side, to prevent any risk of the heat injuring the trees, which
thickness is taken partly off the width of the flue and partly off the back
part of the wall. The flues are not plastered, and in each there are four
places for cleaning it out, 9 in. wide and 1 ft. deep ; each of these is filled in
with four bricks lengthways, not laid in mortar, but only pointed on the
outside, so as to be readily taken out to free the flues from soot. There are
twelve divisions of flued wall at Erskine House ; four planted with peach
and nectarine trees, three with the finer pears, two with apricots, one with
cherries, one with figs, and one with vines. Fires are applied both in spring
and autumn, and the trees are covered by double or single netting at both
seasons, according to circumstances. — See Mr. Shiells, in Card. Mag. 1841.
47G. Conservatory Walls. — Flued walls for growing half-hardy or green-
house shrubs require a somewhat different arrangement from those intended
for fruit-trees ; chiefly because in the former case it is necessary, in order to
preserve the plants through the autumn and winter, to keep the border from
perpendicular rains, at least to the width of three or four feet. For this
purpose a temporary roofing is made to project over the border, immediately
from under the fixed coping. This temporary roofing may be formed of
hurdles thatched with straw, or reeds fixed by hooks close below the coping
of the wall, and resting on a front rail, supported by posts at regular dis-
tances. The posts may either be poles with the bark on let into the ground,
or prepared from sawn timber and let into fixed stone bases. The straw on
the hurdles should be disposed lengthways in the direction of the slope, in
order to throw off the rain ; and the eaves ought to drop on a broad gutter of
boards or tiles, or on a firm path from which the water may be carried off
in drains, so as not to moisten that part of the border which is under the
hurdles. The border should be thoroughly drained, and an under-ground
four-inch wall may be built at the same distance from the wall as the bases
to the posts, on which wall these bases may be placed. In order to enjoy the
full advantage of flues to a conservatory wall, instead of thatched hurdles,
glass frames should be used during the autumn, so as to admit the light at
the same time that rain was excluded, and afterwards the glass might be
covered so as to retain heat ; or it might be substituted by thatched hurdles.
The glazed box-covers of Mr. Forsyth (462) may be used for this purpose
in a variety of ways which it is unnecessary to describe.
477. A substitute for a wall of brick or stone, much used in Holland, may
be formed by reeds inclesed in a double trellis. One erected at Hylands, in
Essex, the plan of which is shown in fig. 122, and the section in fig. 123, may
Fig 122. Plan of a reed wall.
be described as ten feet high, and consisting of a double trellis, a, b, com-
posed of horizontal laths about eight inches apart ; a coping-board, c, nine
inches broad ; the reeds placed endwise within the trellis, d, and supported
about a foot from the ground to keep them from rotting ; this interval of a
foot being filled up with slates, placed on edge, e. The trellis rods are
nailed to posts, fig. 123, /, and by taking off a few of these rods on one side,
the reed mats can be taken out and removed. Russian mats would no doubt
answer very well, and last a long time, and they might be taken out with
184
WALLS, ESPALIER-RAILS, AND TRELLIS-WORK.
still less trouble. Straw mats (445) would also do, where reeds could not
be got ; and heath, as being of a dark colour and
very durable, would make the best of all struc-
tures of this kind. Peaches, grapes, and other
fruits, ripen just as well on these structures as
on brick wall*, both in Holland and England.
Where a wall of this kind is in the direction of
east and west, it might consist of only a single
trellis on the south side, and be thatched from
top to bottom on the north side. Possibly, also,
the asphalte roofing might be used as a protection
to the thatch, on the north side.
478. Espalier-rails are substitutes for walls,
commonly placed in borders parallel to walks.
The commonest form is nothing more than a row
of perpendicular stakes driven into the soil, about
eight inches apart, centre from centre, about five
feet high, and connected by a rail at top. When
the stakes are of larch with the bark on, or when
they are of oak with their lower ends charred,
they last five or six years ; but in general they
are of shorter duration, and continually requiring
repair. Framework of prepared timber well
painted, supported from the ground by sockets
of stone, ar*. much more durable, and still more
so espalier rails formed entirely of cast-iron. In
every case, however, when either wooden or cast-
iron framework is used, the stones which support
it ought to be raised two or three inches above
the surface of the ground, not only because this is
more architectural, but because it contributes to
the preservation of the iron or the wood. When
the stone bases are to support timber, the posts
should not be let into the stone, because in that
case water is apt to lodge and rot them ; but the
stone should be bevelled from the centre, and a
dowel of iron or wood inserted in it, so as to pass
into the lower end of the post. If the post is let
Section of a reedwaii. in to the stone, it should be set in lead, pitch, or
asphalte. In the Suburban Landscape Gardener, pp. 231 and 232, we have
shown two very economical espalier rails formed of hoop iron and iron wire,
which we have had in use upwards of fifteen years, without requiring any other
repairs than that of being once coated over with gas liquor. A very light and
elegant espalier rail, and perhaps the most economical of any, consists of iron
standards let into blocks of stone, strong wires being stretched through
standards ; and at the extremities of each straight length the standards are
braced by stay bars, and a connecting bar, holding the two together; the
upper end of the stay bar being screwed to the main post. The triangle thus
formed at each end of a straight line of trellis admits of straining the wires
perfectly tight. A structure of this kind was first used as an espalier for
trees at Carclew, in Cornwall ; but it has been frequently put up in various
WALLS, ESPALIER-RAILS, AND TRELLIS-WORK. 185
parts of the country in pleasure-grounds, to separate the lawn from the
park, hy Mr. Porter, of Thames-street, London, and others, at a charge
of from 2*. to 6s. a yard, according to circumstances. The chief difficulty
in erecting this fence is to strain the wires perfectly tight ; but this is effected
by screws and a peculiar apparatus which it is unnecessary here to describe.
Those who wish to study the details will find them in the Gard. Mag.
vol. xvi. p. 16. Fences or espalier rails of this description are most easily
erected when in a straight line; but by means of under-ground braces, either
of iron, wood, or stone, they may be erected on any curve whatever. Where
effect is any consideration, the braces should in every case be concealed
under ground. When trellis- work is placed against walls, or against any
object which it is desired to conceal, it may be wholly covered by the
plants trained on it ; but where it is placed in any position by which it will
be seen on both sides (such as when it forms the supports to a verandah, or
a summer-house, or a trellised arcade over a walk), the surface must not be
entirely covered by the plants ; because it is desirable that leaves and blos-
soms should be seen on both sides, and this can only be done effectively by
the partial admission of direct light through the interstices or meshes of the
trellis-work. A trellised walk closely covered with the most ornamental
roses will show no more beauty to a person walking within, than if it were
covered with the most ordinary plants ; but let partial openings be made
in the covering of roses, and their leaves and blossoms will be seen hanging
down over the head of the spectator, forming a perspective of flowers and
foliage, instead of one presenting only the branches and the footstalks, and
backs of the leaves.
479. Trellises and lattice-work are constructed either of wood or iron, or of
both materials combined ; and though lattice- work, by which we mean
trellis-work with the meshes or spaces between the intersections smaller
than is usual for the purposes of training, is chiefly required in ornamental
structures, yet it is occasionally used for supporting fruit-trees, and for culi-
nary plants, such as Cucumbers. In order to render trellis-work durable
and architectural, it ought never to rise directly out of the soil, but always
be supported either by the wall or frame against which it is placed, or when
it is independent, by bases of stone. This is almost always neglected both in
kitchen and ornamental gardens, in consequence of which the construction is
unsatisfactory to the artistical eye, and the posts, or other parts which rise
out of the soil, decay long before the superstructure. Where espalier-rails
of this, or of any other kind, are put up in flower-gardens for supporting
shrubs which come early into flower, such as the Pyrus japonica, Wistarm
sinensis, China roses, &c., they may be easily protected by a moveable
coping of boards, like an inverted gutter, which can be dropped on or taken
off in a very few minutes. Trellis- work in kitchen-gardens is commonly
employed against walls, to which it is attached by iron bolts through the
wall, or by holdfasts driven into it; and the laths are about an inch
square, and placed vertically, and let into horizontal bars of larger
dimensions, placed three or four feet apart, and fixed to the wall in the
manner just mentioned. The distance of the laths from the wall need
not be above half an inch, as that is sufficient to allow the ties to be passed
behind them and the wall. In order to economise space in small gardens,
Mr. Alexander Forsyth proposes to cover the walks with trellis-work for
the support of fruit-trees. " Every species of hardy fruit-bearing tree and
186 WALLS, ESPALIER-BAILS, AND TRELLIS- WORK.
shrub," he says, " may be trained on curvilinear trellises, as'in'figs. 124 and
125, over the walks and thoroughfares of the garden; which walks, when
Fig. 124. Trellised arcade for Fruit-trees.
Fig. 125. Tiellisfer Climbers.
once properly drained, paved, and trellised with cast-iron arches and wire
rods, will remain cost-free, painting excepted, for twenty years; at the end
of which term, independently of the increase of fruit, and of the grateful
shade and pleasing promenade that they will afford, they will be found
cheaper than the walks made of gravel, in the same way that a' slated roof is
far cheaper in the long-run than one thatched. Besides the difference in daily
comfort and annual expenditure in walks paved with slate, slabs, or flag-
stone, at all seasons clean, and ready to be traversed by the foot or the wheel-
barrow alike in frost and in thaw, there will be no more danger of dessert
strawberries or garnishing parsley, when grown as edgings, being mingled
with the coal-ashes in the walks ; no more cleaning and rolling of gravel ;
and no planting and clipping of box." Fig. 126 shows the plan of the paving
and pillars at the intersections of the
walks, with the small foot-paths outside,
for conducting the culture of the com-
partments. In open, airy situations
where hedges for shelter are desirable,
trellises of this sort might frequently be
adopted as substitutes both in kitchen
and flower gardens. Single lines of
trellis-work, or even of frames to be
filled in with wire network, might also
be adopted as sources of shelter in spring;
and in summer they might be covered
with kidney-beans, peas, gourds, toma-
tas, nasturtiums, &c. The wire netting
Fig. 12C. Plan showing the intersection of
trcUised walkt.
FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS. 187
to fit into such framework can be made by common country workmen and
their families, as is the case in various parts of Norfolk, both with hempen
and wire netting, for hare and rabbit fences, and for folding sheep. — (See
Gard* Mag. vol. xv. page 222.)
Subsect. 2. Fixed Structures for growing plants with glass roofs.
480. Plant-houses are required in gardens for forcing the productions of the
open air into maturity earlier than would otherwise be the case ; for retard-
ing these productions, as in ripening grapes late and preserving them through
the winter hanging on the tree ; and for the growth of plants of warm
climates. Hence it follows that all the requisites for growing plants in the
open air in their natural climate must be imitated in plant-houses. As the
grand difference between one climate and another lies in difference of
temperature (135), hence one principal desideratum in hothouses is to
supply Keat, without which nothing can be done either in forcing hardy
plants, or in preserving those of warm climates. Next to heat, moisture is
the most important agent in growth (140, 144), and that element is readily
supplied both to the soil and the atmosphere ; but though heat and water
are sufficient to induce growth, it cannot be continued or perfected without
the influence of light, and unfortunately this is only in a very limited degree
at the command of art. All that can be done in plant-houses with reference
to light is, so to construct them as to admit the degree of light which is pro-
duced in the atmosphere of the particular climate and locality ; and this, as
every one knows, is effected by roofing plant-houses with glass. For grow-
ing certain fungi, and for forcing some roots, very little light is necessary ;
and where ripened crops of fruit are to be retained on the trees and
retarded, light, at least direct solar light, may be in a great measure dis-
pensed with. The retention or production of heat therefore, and the admis-
sion of light, are the great objects to be kept in view, in deciding on the
situation, form, and construction of hothouses.
481. Situation. — In choosing a situation with reference to the surrounding
country, the north side of a sheltered basin, on the south side of a hill and
open to the south, with a dry warm soil, is to be preferred. The object of
this choice is to have as little heat as possible carried off, either by the
evaporation of surface water, or by N., N. E., or N. W. winds. If the
surface of the soil is hard and smooth so as to carry off the winter rains and
thawing snows, without all owing them to sink into and cool the soil, so much
the better. It is seldom, however, that these conditions can be fulfilled to
their utmost extent ; because not only such situations are not frequent in
nature, but that even where they do exist, the situation for the hothouses is
determined by the artificial circumstances connected with the house, offices,
and grounds. For ornamental structures the situation chosen is generally
some part of the pleasure-ground, or flower-garden, not far from the dwelling-
house ; and forcing-houses are generally placed in the kitchen- garden, or in
some place intermediate between it and the stable offices (Sub. Areh. and Land-
scape Gardener, p. 412). Wherever the situation may be, the soil and sub -soil
ought to be rendered perfectly dry by drains so placed as to intercept all sub-
terraneous water, from whatever direction it may come ; and by surface-
gutters, or the surfaces of walks, &c., so arranged as to carry off the water
of cold rains and thawing snows, without allowing it to sink into and cool
the soil. The next point is to produce artificial shelter, by walls, or other
buildings, so placed as to check the winds which blow from cold quarters
J88 FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING
without obstructing the south and south-east winds, and the morning and
evening sun. The amount of heat carried off by winds which are at a lower
temperature than the surface they pass over, is great in proportion to the
velocity of the wind, and the moisture of the surface, and hence the much
greater ease with which the temperature of a greenhouse may be kept up
when it is placed in a sheltered, rather than in an exposed situation ; for
example, in the concave side of a curvilinear wall, rather than against a
straight wall.
482. The Form. — The most perfect form for the admission of solar light
and heat is that of a semi-globe of glass, because to some part of this form the
sun's rays will be perpendicular every moment while he shines, and at every
time of the year ; and by it a maximum of light will be admitted at those
periods when he does not shine (281) ; but this form excepting under parti-
cular circumstances, that, for example, in which there was a double glass
dome, or in which only a temperature of a few degrees above that of the open
air was'required to be kept up, would occasion too great a loss of heat, either
for economy or the health of the plants ; for when heat is rapidly conducted
away and rapidly supplied by art, it is found extremely difficult to obtain a
sufficient degree of atmospheric moisture for healthy vegetation (267 to 271 ) .
For these reasons a semi-dome is preferable to a semi-globe, because the
glazed side being placed next the sun the other side may be opaque, so as to
reflect back both heat and light, and it may be made so complete a non-con-
ductor as not to allow the escape of any heat. There is an objection, however,
to the general adoption of the semi-dome, because it is found (281) that the
rays of light after passing through glass-roofs, lose their influence on the
plants within in proportion to their distance from the glass. Hence for
general purposes a long narrow house is the best ; and hence also herbaceous
plants are grown best hi pots in frames ; and were it not for the quantity of
glass that would be required, all shrubby and climbing plants would be
grown to the highest degree of perfection if trained on trellises parallel to the
glass roofing, and at no great distance within it. In pits and frames, herba-
ceous or low plants are nearer the glass than they can ever be in large houses,
in which, unless they are placed on shelves close under the roof, they are
either at a distance from the glass, as in the body of the house, or they pre-
sent only one side to it, as when they are placed near the front glass.
There is another reason in favour of narrow houses where perfection of
growth and economy is an object, which is, that a considerable portion of the
heat by which the temperature of hothouses is maintained, is supplied by
the sun. The power of the sun therefore will be great on the atmosphere
within, inversely as its cubic contents, compared with the superficial con-
tents of the glass enclosing it. Thus, suppose one house to be twenty feet
high and twenty feet wide, and another to be twenty feet high and only ten
feet wide, the contents of the former will be exactly double that of the
latter ; at the same time, instead of containing double the surface of glass on
its roof, it will contain scarcely one third more ; being nearly in the propor-
tion of twenty-eight for the house of double volume, to not fourteen, or
one half, but twenty-two, for the one of half the internal capacity. In
the wide house every square foot of glass has to heat upwards of seven
cubic feet of air ; in the narrow house only about four and a half
feet (Gardeners Magazine, volume xiii. page 15). There are, however,
plant-houses erected not merely for growing plants, but for walking into
hi order to enjoy them ; and in these, other considerations interfere with
PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS. 109
rigid economy both in heating and lighting. The form of plant-houses,
therefore, must be determined by the object in view, and the means at com-
mand. For early and for late forcing, narrow houses with upright glass, or
glass at a very steep slope, are preferable, as giving but a small volume of air to
be heated, and as admitting the sun's rays at a right angle, atthose seasonswhen
he is low in the horizon, and above it only for a short time. For summer
forcing the angle of the roof may be larger, and of course its slope less steep ;
for greenhouses and plant stoves, in which plants are to be grown all the year,
there should be a portion of the roof with the glass very steep, or upright
front glass, for admitting the sun's rays in winter. The roofs of such houses
may be at a large angle, say from 35° to 45° with the horizon, which is more
favourable for throwing off rain, and also for resisting
hail, than a flatter surface. For growing herbaceous
plants and }roung plants, and for the general pur-
poses of propagation, whether by seeds, cuttings, or
laj'ers, a low flat house, in which the glass shall be
near to all the plants, as in pits and frames, is the
most convenient form ; though, when fruits are to be
ripened in such houses in the winter season, the
flatness of the glass, and consequent obliquity of the
sun's rays to it, is a great disadvantage. Hence,
when such plants can be conveniently grown in pots,
as in the case of strawberries, or bulbous or other
flowers, it is desirable to have very steep glass, and
to place the plants on shelves immediately within it,
as practised by Mr. Wilmot, and other market-gar- Fig.' 127. ste~~fed houte
deners, in such structures as fig. 127 ; or, when the for winter forcing of plants
plants are climbers, as the cucumber and melon, in pott.
training them up trellises parallel to the glass, and at a short distance
within it, as in Ayres* cucumber-house.
483. Curvilineal roofs. — The ordinary form of the roofs of plant-houses is
that of a right-lined plane, like the roof of any other building, but they have been
also formed with curvilineal roofs, which, as compared with roofs having up-
right glass with standards and wall-plates, more especially when the sash bar
is of iron, admit much more light. The ends of plant-houses are generally
vertical planes, but in curvilineal houses they are sometimes of the same
curvature as the front, which adds greatly to their beauty, as well as being
favourable to the admission of the sun's rays, morning and evening, and to
the transmission of diffused light when the sun does not shine (282). The
only disadvantages attending curvilineal ends to plant-houses, is, that the
doors cannot be placed in these ends without some intricacy of construction ;
but when such houses are placed against walls, as in fig. 128, they may be
e
Fig. 128. Curvilineal glass roofs.
entered through a door made in the wall, to a recess taken from the back
shed, as shown by fig. 129, in which a, a, represent the plans of portions of
o
J90 FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING
two curvilincal houses, 6, 6, back sheds to these houses ; and <:, lobby
common to both. These houses may be ventilated by openings in the upper
Fig. 129. Ground plan of a curvilineal plant-house, with the entrance through a lobby in tie back
walls.
part of the back wall, the orifice within being covered with pierced zinc,
and wooden shutters moving in grooves sympathetically. Where a lobby
cannot conveniently be made in the back shed, one door may be made in the
centre of the front of each house, as at Messrs. Loddiges' ; and where the end
is semicircular, a door might be made in it in a similar manner, or with a
projection brought forward so as to form a porch : the mode represented in fig.
129 is, however, greatly preferable, as occasioning no obstruction to light.
484. Ridge and furrow roofs. — Roofs formed in the ridge and furrow
manner, and even glass sashes so formed for pits, were tried by us many
years ago — (Encyc. of Gard. 1st edit.) — and the idea has been improved on,
and applied in the happiest manner, by Mr. Paxton, at Chatsworth ; and
adopted by Mr. Marnock in the Sheffield Botanic Garden ; Jedediah Strutt,
Esq., at Belper ; William Harrison, Esq., Cheshunt ; John Allcard, Esq.,
Stratford-green ; and at various other places. The advantages of this descrip-
tion of roof are : — 1. That the roof does not require to be raised so high
behind, in proportion to its width, as in flat roofs; because the descent of the
water does not depend on the general slope of the roof, but on the slope of
the ridges towards the furrows ; and the water in these furrows, being con-
fined to a naiTow deep channel, and in a larger body than ever it can be on
the glass, passes along with proportionate rapidity. — 2. That the morning
and afternoon sun, by passing through the glass at right angles, produces
more light and heat at these times of the day, when they are, of course,
more wanted than at mid-day. — 3. The rays of the sun striking on the house
at an oblique angle at mid-day, the heat produced in the house at that
time is less intense than in houses of the ordinary kind, in which it is often
injurious, by rendering it necessary to admit large quantities of the external
air to lower the temperature. — 4. More light is admitted at all seasons, on
the principle that a bow window always admits more light to a room than
a straight window of the same width (283). — 5. The panes of glass, if crown
glass be employed, may be smaller than in houses the roofs of which are in
one plane, and yet from there being a greater number of them, admit an
equal quantity of light ; from their smallness, also, they will cost less,
and be less liable to be broken by the freezing of water between the laps.
— 6. By the employment of sheet window-glass, which is much thicker than
crown-glass, panes of three or four feet in length may be used, so that only
one pane need be required for each division, and consequently no lap being-
required, no breakage by frost can take place, and no heated air can escape.
— And 7. That wind will have much less influence in cooling the roof,
because the sides of the ridges will be sheltered by their summits. Mr.
PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS.
191
Paxton, to whom the merit of this mode of roofing is entirely due,
has also adopted an improvement in the construction of the sash-bar,
viz., having grooves for the panes instead of rebates (see figs. 130 and 131) ;
the advantages of which grooves are,
that less putty is required, and that what
is used does not so readily separate from
the wood, and thus admit the wet between
the wood and the putty. The roofs of
such houses are entirely fixed, and venti-
lation is effected either by having the
perpendicular ends of the ridges moveable
Fig. 130. section of an On hinges, or by the front glass and ven-
! tilatora in the back wal1- ™e exPense
of this mode of roofing is doubtless greater
than by the common flat mode, but not so much so as might
be expected, because the sash-bar can be formed lighter, and ™*'™e'n t
where crown-glass is used the panes may be much smaller, with grooves for the
For plant-houses the advantage of admitting the sun's #toj-
rays perpendicularly, early in the morning and late in the afternoon, will
much more than compensate for any additional expense. In an archi-
tectural point of view, the merits of this mode of roofing are perhaps as
great as they are with reference to culture : the roofs being lower, are less
conspicuous, and the common shed-like appearance is taken away by the
pediments which form the ends of the ridges, and appear in a range as a
crowning parapet to the front glass. Indeed, if it were desirable, the tops
of the ridges might be made perfectly horizontal, and all the slope that was
necessary for carrying the water from back to front, or to both the sides,
given in the gutters between the ridges, as is done in roofing common
buildings of great width. Fig. 132 is a perspective view of a house
Fig. 132. Perspective vieiv of the original ridge and furroic house at Chatsicorth.
erected by Mr. Paxton at Chatsworth, and fig. 133 a vertical profile of part
of two ridges of the roof. It will be observed that the sash-bar is not in a
o2
192
FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING
direction parallel to the pediments, but oblique to it. This is done to pre-
vent the water from running down on one side of the glass, which it would
do in consequence of the general slope of the ridge from the back to the
Fig. 133. Vertical profile of part of a ridge and furrow roof.
front if the bars were placed at right angles to the ridge. The angle at
which the bars are fixed will vary with that formed by the slope of the ridge,
and the mode of determining it, is to place the bars so that the lap of the glass,
which is in square panes, may form, when the panes are fitted in their places,
lines truly horizontal. There are many persons, however, who attach no
great importance to causing the water to run down the middle of the glass
instead of one side ; and they will, of course, place the bars for holding the
glass, parallel to the pediments, in order to avoid the short bars at the ends
of the ridges, as seen in fig. 133. For more minute details respecting this
mode of construction, we refer to Paoetoris Magazine of Botany, vol. ii.
p. 80; and Gard. Mag. vol. xx. p. 452, and also for 1841.
485. The materials used in the construction of plant-houses differ in
nothing from those used in other buildings, excepting that where as much
light as possible is required to be admitted, the framework for containing the
glass is formed of iron or other metal, as supplying the requisite strength
with less bulk than wood. The proportion of opaque surface of an iron
roof may be estimated at not more than 7 or 8 per cent., while in a wooden
roof it is upwards of 20 per cent. ; both roofs being in one plane and of the
ordinary construction (279 and 281.) Where sheet-glass is employed, and
the panes made of more than ordinary length and width, as in the large
conservatory recently erected in the Horticultural Society's garden, the pro-
portion of light admitted in the case of iron roofs will be found still greater.
Ridge and furrow roofs, if we take the area of the bases of the ridges as the
total area of the roof, and then deduct from it the space occupied by the
bars forming the sides of the ridges, and the ridge-pieces and gutters, will
not appear to admit the same proportion of light as a roof in one plane ;
but the practical result will be different, in consequence of the sun's rays
being twice in the day perpendicular to one half of the roof, the advantage
of which to the plants will far more than compensate for the obscuration
produced by the greater proportion of sash-bars, which operating chiefly at
mid-day and in very hot weather, is rather an advantage than otherwise.
To prove this, it is necessary first to know the law of the reflection of light
from glass.
48G. The law of the reflection of light from glass was calculated by
Bouguer, a French philosopher, in 1729, and is exhibited by the following
figures ; the" first line representing the angles of incidence, and the second
the number of rays reflected, exclusive of decimal parts.
PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS. 193
Angle of incidence 85°, 80°, 70°, 60°, 50°, 40°, 30°, 20°, 10°, 1°.
Per centage of rays reflected. 50, 41,22, 11, 5, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2.
Now if we suppose a roof in one plane with the sun shining on it at six
o'clock in the morning, and at six o'clock in the afternoon, at an angle of 85°,
which would be the case in March and September, fully one half the rays
which fell on the roof would be reflected ; while, in the case of a ridge and
furrow roof, if he shone on half the roof, that is on one half of each of the
ridges, at any angle with a perpendicular not exceeding 30°, at the same
periods, only 2 per cent, of the rays would be reflected. Suppose, then, the
area of the entire roof taken as one plane to be 100 square yards, and, to
facilitate calculation, that only 100 rays fell on each yard, then the total
number which would enter through the roof in one plane would be 50,000,
while those which would enter through the ridge and furrow roof would be
99,000, or very nearly double the number. If we compare a roof in one
plane with the framework in wood, with a similar one with the framework
of iron, and take the space rendered opaque by the wood at 21 per cent.,
and by the iron at 7 per cent., then the greater number of rays admitted at
all times by the iron roof over the wooden one will be as three to one.
487. Iron roofs have been objected to from their somewhat greater
original expense, from their supposed liability to break glass by contraction
and expansion, and from the iron being liable to conduct away heat in winter,
and to become hot to such a degree as to be injurious to the plants in sum-
mer. With respect to expense, that is, we believe, now considered the chief
objection ; but though it may be greater at first, yet it is amply compensated
for by the greater durability of iron houses, when properly constructed, and
when the iron is never allowed to become rusty for want of paint. As a proof
of the durability of iron houses, we may refer to the iron Camellia house at
Messrs. Loddiges', erected in 1818, and the iron houses in the Horticultural
Society's garden, which were erected, we believe, in 1823. The breakage of
glass supposed to result from the contraction or expansion of the metal was
at one time considered a very weighty objection ; but the severe winter of
1837-8 did not occasion so much broken glass in iron as it did in wooden
houses. A bar of malleable iron 819 inches in length, at a temperature of
32°, only increases in length one inch, when heated to 21 2s ; but this differ-
ence of 180° of temperature is more than plant-houses are liable to ; indeed
50° or 60° are as much as is necessary to be taken into account. If we sup-
pose the iron-\vork is fitted at a period of the season when the temperature
is 55°, then 50° lower would be within 5° of zero, and 50° higher would be
105° ; extremes which the iron roof of a hothouse will seldom exceed. Now,
according to the above data, a bar ten feet in length would extend or contract,
by the addition or reduction of 50° of heat, l-25th of an inch as nearly as
possible. An iron sash-bar, half-an inch thick between the two edges of
the glass, would not expand in thickness, from 50° of heat, much more than
one six-thousandth part of an inch. It may easily be conceived, there-
fore, that the lateral expansion of sash bars, which are in general not quite
half an inch in thickness, by any heat which they can receive on the roof of
a hothouse, will never have any effect on the glass between them. To guard
against all risk of breakage from this cause, however, it is only necessary
not to fit in the panes too tightly. Indeed, the objection may now be con-
sidered as given up by all experienced hothouse -builders. The liability of
194 FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING
iron to conduct away heat in winter, and to attract too much in summer, is
also found to be an objection more imaginary than real. It is true that iron,
from its being a powerful conductor, is liable to undergo sudden changes of
temperature, which must doubtless render it less congenial to plants that come
in contact with it than wood or brick ; though plants do not appear to suffer
when the iron is in small quantities, such as the rods to which vines are
attached under rafters, wire trellis-work, &c. ; but when the rafters are of
iron, and when plants are trained round the iron pillars used in supporting
hothouse roofs, it may readily be conceived that they will be injured by
them. This will also be the case, more or less, when tender plants are grown
close under the glass in hotbeds or pits covered with iron sashes. Indeed,
when we consider the much greater weight of iron sashes than wooden ones,
and the constant occasion that there is for moving the sashes of pits and
hotbeds, we would recommend them in most cases to be made of wood.
The injury done to plants in the open air by iron coming in contact with
them, can only take place when the iron is of considerable thickness ; because
we do not find it in the case of cast-iron espalier-rails, or of dahlias, roses,
and other open-air plants tied to iron stakes. In plant-houses it probably
takes place after the iron has been highly heated by the sun, and then
watered, when the chill produced by evaporation will contract the vessels
and chill the juices. The greatest objections that we know to iron roofs are
the expense and the difficulty of forming them with sliding sashes, which
shall not rust in the grooves in which they slide : but this last objection can
be obviated, either by forming the styles and rails, or outer frame of the
sash, of wood, and the rafters of iron, or the reverse. In the greater pro-
portion of plant-houses, however, sliding sashes in the roof may be dispensed
with, air being admitted during winter through apertures in the upper angle
of the house in the back wall, or by raising a hinged sash in the upper part
of the roof; and in the hottest weather in summer, by these and the sliding
sashes, or other openings in front. The materials used in the interior of
plant- houses, such as shelves for supporting pots of plants, pathways for
walking on, walls for enclosing tan or other fermenting matter in pits, are
bricks, flagstones, slates, wood, and cast-iron. The paths are sometimes
covered with open gratings of cast-iron, which admit of the soil under them
being occupied with the roots of vines, climbers, or other plants. Mr.
Paxton prefers a flooring formed of loose pieces of board laid across the
path ; each piece as long as the path is wide, and about four inches broad,
with a one-inch space between. One advantage of this plan is, that the
dust and other matters lying on the paths when they are swept, descend
immediately without raising a dust in the house to disfigure the leaves of
the plants, and encourage the red spider, which dust deposited in the leaves
is always found to do.
488. Heat. — The natural heat of the locality is retained in plant-structures
by the roof and sides forming a covering which repels radiation from the
ground ; and it is increased in them at pleasure, by fermenting substances
applied within or externally, by the consumption of fuel, and the convey-
ance of the heat so produced in smoke and hot-air flues, by steam, or by hot
water in pipes or cisterns. In every mode of supplying heat artificially, the^
following desiderata ought to be kept constantly in view : — 1. To maintain a
reservoir of heat which shall keep up a sufficient temperature for at least
PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS. 195
twenty-four hours, under ordinary circumstances, in the event of the supply
of heat from the consumption of fuel, or the action of the sun, heing discon-
tinued from neglect or accident, or hy cloudy weather. — 2. To provide means
of speedily increasing the supply of heat, when the sudden lowering of the
external temperature, or the action of high cold winds, or a cold humid
atmosphere among the plants, requires it. — 3. To provide the means, by an
adequate surface of flue, or steam, or hot-water pipes, of supplying a suffi-
ciency of heat in every house, according to the temperature required, not
merely under the ordinary external temperature, but when that temperature
shall fall as low as 10°, or in situations exposed to very high cold winds to
zero. — 4. To make arrangements for supplying atmospheric moisture in pro-
portion to the supply of heat, and for withdrawing this moisture at pleasure. —
5. Where no means can be provided for supplying extra heat on extraordi-
nary occasions, to provide the means of conveniently applying extra external
coverings for the same purpose. It is proper to remark, that in every plant-
structure there is a reservoir of heat and of moisture, to a certain extent, in
the soil in which the plants are grown, whether that soil is in pots or in a
bed ; and that all the paths, shelves, and other objects within the structure,
being heated to the proper degree, part with their heat, whenever the air of
the house falls below the temperature of these objects. This source of heat
might be considerably increased in houses where there is abundance of room :
for example, below a greenhouse stage, by placing objects there of moderate
dimensions and separated from each other ; such as parallel walls of four-
inch brick- work, flag-stones set on edge two or three inches apart, or slabs
of slate set on edge one inch apart. These, by presenting a great extent of
surface, would absorb a powerful reserve of heat, and give it out whenever
the other sources of heat were defective.
489. Fermenting substances, such as stable-dung, tanner's bark, leaves,
&c., are either applied in masses or beds under the soil containing the plants,
as in the common hotbed ; or in casings or linings exterior to the soil or
structure to be heated, as in M'Phail's and other pits. A steady reservoir
of heat is thus provided, and instead of an extra supply for unexpected cold
nights, extra coverings of bast mats or mats of straw are provided, for re-
taining heat that would escape through the ordinary covering. An additional
supply of heat for extra cold weather may also be obtained by different
means. Where exterior casings of dung are employed, if the heat of the dung
is admitted through a pigeon-holed wall to an inside flue with thin covers ;
or if the dung is brought into close contact with thin plates of stone or slate,
instead of the pigeon-holed wall, which, like the flues, is made to enclose
the soil containing the plants ; then by keeping a part of these warm surfaces
generally covered with soil, or with boards, or by any other means which
shall operate as a non-conductor, when extra heat is wanted unexpectedly,
all that is necessary is to take off the non-conducting covers. Even in the
case of a common hotbed, heated only by the bed of dung beneath the plants,
extra heat may be provided for by bedding a plate of stone, slate, zinc, or
cast-iron, on the dung, in one or more places of the interior of the frame,
according to its size, and covering these with boards, supported at the height
of two inches or three inches above them, so as to enclose a stratum of air, to
act as a non-conductor ; the sides being closed by a rim previously formed of
cement, or brick-on-edge,on the stone or slate, or by a rim two or three inches
deep, cast on the edges of the iron. By taking off the wooden covers, an extra
196
FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING
supply of dry heat will immediately be obtained, which may be rendered
moist at pleasure by pouring on water. Another mode of obtaining an imme-
diate extra supply of heat from a dung-bed, is, by sinking in it, when first
made, an iron pipe of three or four inches in diameter, with the two extremi-
ties turned up, and covered by flower-pot saucers. The length of the tube
may be nearly equal to that of the bed, and the one end must be sunk a few
inches deeper than the other, as in fig. 134. It is evident that by taking off
the corners of this pipe
there will be a draught
created in it, in conse-
quence of its sides being
heated by the dung ; and
an extra degree of heat
will by this means be
brought into the atmo-
Fig. 134. Section of a dung-bed, with a tube . air. ^^ Qf ^ ^ y^
plan might also be adopted for putting the air of a plant-bed in motion,
without the admission of the external air.
490. Fermenting materials and fire-heat combined. — In pits and low-forcing
houses heated chiefly by dung, provision is frequently made for the supply of
extra heat, by the addition of smoke-flues or hot- water pipes. Fig. 135 is a
Fig. 135. Pinery' heated by dung linings.
perspective elevation and section of a house, in which a bed of leaves within
is heated by a dung lining placed on the outside of a pigeon-holed wall, and
extra heat is provided for by
three turns of a flue, one above
the other, in the back path :
o, is the pit in which the dung-
lining is placed and covered
with a hinged shutter ; 6, the
surface of the bed of leaves,
in which pine-apples, or cu-
cumbers, or melons may be
grown, or strawberry plants or
flowers forced; c, door; d,
flues; e, front pigeon-hole
wall ; and J\ end pigeon-hole
wall. Fig. ] 36 shows a mode
of applying dung under a bed
of soil without coining in im-
mediate contact with it, and
by which no heat whatever
Fig. 136. Section of a vinery heate* by dung. P«duced by the dung is lost ;
«, is the bed of soil in which
PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS. 197
the vines are planted, and which is supported by cast -iron joists and Welsh
slates ; and b shows the openings furnished with shutters by which the dung
is introduced. Beds on the same plan, but wider, have been used for growing
pine-apples and melons, and for various similar purposes. An extra supply
of heat from the dung may be obtained by having panels of slate in the inside
wall, c, to be kept covered by wooden shutters, except when extra heat is
wanted ; or by tubes, as in fig. 134 ; or it may be rendered unnecessary by
extra coverings. The first forcing which we read of in the history of British
gardening was effected, as Switzer informs us, by placing casings of hot
dung against the north side of walls of boards, against the south side of which
cherries were trained.
491. Heating from vaults, or from stacks of flues. — The oldest and simplest
mode of applying fire-heat to hothouses, was by means of a pit in the floor,
or a vault under it. The vault was of the same length and breadth as the
floor, with the chimney at one end ; or it occupied a smaller space in the centre
of the floor, with a stack of flues rising over it, and forming a mass of heated
material in the body of the house. The fire was of wood and made on the
floor ; or of charcoal or coal, and made in an open portable iron cage, like that
used by plumbers, when soldering joints in the open air, with a plate of iron
over it to act as a reverberator, and prevent the heat from rising directly to
the roof. The flue by which the smoke escaped had its lower orifice on a
level with the floor of the vault, so that the air and smoke did not enter it
until they had parted with most of their heat. These modes are capable of
great improvement, and in various cases would perhaps be found more eligible
and economical than any other, by a gardener who is aware of the importance
of connecting with them an efficient means of supplying atmospheric mois-
ture : by placing cisterns of water over the hottest part of the floor, or by
having dripping fountains formed on the syphon principle, by inserting the
ends of strips of woollen cloth in open vessels of water, and placing these in
different parts of the house. See on this mode of heating, Mr. Forsyth, in
Gard. Mag. for 1841.
492. Flues. — As the mode of heating by vaults could only be adopted when
the plants were to be grown in pots or boxes, as soon as the practice of forcing
fruit-trees trained against walls, and having their roots in the border or floor
of the house, was introduced, flues in the wall against which the trees were
trained, and afterwards detached flues along the front of the house, became
necessary ; and when these last are properly constructed, and the dry heat
which they produce is rendered moist by placing water over them, they form a
convenient and economical mode of heating. The flue is always most efficient
when carried along the front and ends of the house, because the air imme-
diately within these is more liable to be cooled by the external air than that
next the back of the house, the back being generally a wall of brick or stone.
Where the house is glass on every side, as well as on the roof, the flues will
be most efficient if carried round it, for obvious reasons ; while the air imme-
diately under the roof, in every case, will be kept sufficiently warm by the
natural ascent of the heated air from the flue, in whatever part it may be
placed ; though when the flues are placed in the lower part of the house,
there will be a greater circulation than when they are elevated ; and this
arises from the greater number of particles which must be put in motion by
the ascent of warm, and the descent of cold air. The quantity of flue
requisite for heating a house to any required temperature has not been
198
FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING
determined. One fire with a flue in front, and a return in the back,
is generally found sufficient for a greenhouse of thirty feet or forty feet
in length, and from twelve feet to fifteen feet in width, and two fires,
one entering at each end, for a stove or forcing-house of similar dimen-
sions ; the flues in both cases being twenty inches high, and twelve inches
wide, outside measure. Perhaps one square foot of flue for every two
feet in length of iron hot- water pipes, found according to the rule given in
Art. 500, would be a near approximation to the quantity wanted, reckoning
the top and sides of the flue, but not the bottom. The furnace or fireplace
from which the flue proceeds should be one or two feet lower than the level
of the bottom of the flue, in order to assist in creating a draught, as that
depends on the length and height of the space allowed for the heated air to
ascend before it is allowed to escape into the atmosphere ; and the flue gene-
rally terminates on the top of the back wall, for the same reason. The fire-
place is generally formed behind the back wall for the sake of concealment :
but when this is not an object, the best situation is at one end of the house,
in a sunken area, which can be covered with shutters ; because the smoke
and heat not receiving the check given by a turn in the flue made so near
the furnace as it must necessarily be when it enters from behind the house,
the heat is more equally diffused along the front. A very desirable arrange-
ment for flues, where it is practicable, is to have two from the same furnace,
with the power of throwing the whole or any part of the smoke and heated
air into either flue at pleasure, wrhich is easily effected by a damper at the
throat of the flue, close to
the furnace, as shown in fig.
137, in which o, is the upper
or extra heat flue; &, the
under or reserve flue; c,
the damper ; d, the fur-
nace ; e, the cover to the
feeding hopper; and/, the
ash-pit. One of the flues
should be conducted
through a solid mass of
brickwork or masonry, or
through a box or bed of
sand, in order to produce
a reservoir of heat ; and
the other flue should have
as thin covers and sides, and
Fig. 137. Section of a furnace and double flue. j,e quite detached, in order
to furnish an extra supply of heat, when the external air suddenly became
much colder than usual, or at particular times to dispel damp, &c. Both
flues ought to be near the front of the house, and, in most cases, the one
might be over the other. Wherever flues are sunk below the level of the
floor, they will be found to give out their heat very slowly ; or, if given out,
to lose it in the adjoining ground, from the want of a current of air to carry
it off. But this may generally be supplied by underground cross drains, as
in fig. 138, in which g is the floor of the house ; A, the reservoir flue, three
feet broad, which is sunk so that its top is on a level with the floor ; ?', an air-
drain from the back of the house ; fr, an upper flue for additional heat ; /,
PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS.
199
Fig. 138. Section of a greenhouse, with reserve flue and
common flue.
front path ; w, front shelf; n, stage ; and o, path on the upper part of the
stage for watering the plants.
493. The best materials
for building flues are bricks
and paving tiles, the latter
for the bottom and top, and
the former for the sides.
The advantages of bricks
over stone are their greater
adhesion to the mortar —
their narrowness, by which
little space is occupied, and
their being greater non-con-
ductors than stone, by which
means the heat is more
equalised throughout the
length of the flue than it
would be by the use of that
material. A slight disad-
vantage attending the use of bricks and tiles arises from the earth of which
they are made ; clay absorbing and entering into chemical combination with
the moisture of the atmosphere, especially when the latter is at a high tem-
perature. This evil, however, can always be counteracted by placing water
over the flues, or in some other hot part of the house. For this purpose, the
covers of flues, whether of tiles or stone, ought to be made with sunk panels
to contain water ; or, what is much better, a shallow cistern of iron, lead,
or zinc, as in fig. 139, may be placed over them for the same purpose. In
Germany the flues are sometimes entirely covered with plates of cast-iron ;
and if these were formed with turned-up edges, they would serve at
once as covers and cisterns. Flues are always detached from the ground,
by being built on piers, either connected by low flat arches, or so close
together as to be joined by the square tiles which form the floor of the flue.
Neither the inside of the flue nor its outside ought to be plastered, when
it is desired that they should give out a maximum of heat at a mini-
mum of distance from the furnace ; but when the flue is to be of great
length, plastering either in the inside or outside, or both, by rendering the
walls of the flue greater non-conductors, tends to equalise the heat given
out. Plastering is also useful to prevent the escape of smoke from the
joints, which is liable to take place where the materials and workmanship
are not of the best quality, and to prevent the absorption of moisture by the
bricks. Narrow flues are preferable to broad ones, as occupying less hori-
zontal space in the house, and also because as flues part with their heat
chiefly from their upper surface, it is better equalised by a narrow flue than
a broad one. Hence also narrow, deep flues are found to " draw" better
than broad, shallow ones. The ordinary dimensions of narrow flues are eight
inches in width, and fifteen inches in depth, which is formed by tiles one foot
square for the bottom, and ten inches square for the covers, and three paving-
bricks, which are only two inches thick, on edge, for each of the sides, as in
fig. 139. The joints of the sides and covers are formed by lime putt}", and
the bottom tiles are set on bricks on edge. In fig. 139, a is the brick on
edge, which supports the one-foot tile ft, which forms the bottom of the flue ;
200 FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING
c is the smoke chamber, and d the zinc cistern, over the ten-inch tile cover.
The inside plastering should be of the best mortar, mixed
with lime, but without sand, as being less liable to crack.
494. The furnace, when built in the usual manner,
/ [^ j\ should have double iron doors to prevent the escape of
heat; and the fuel- chamber should be about double
the area of that portion of it which is occupied by the
bars or grate, in order that the fuel not immediately
over the grate may burn slowly. A damper in some
accessible part of the flue, and as close to the furnace as
is practicable, affords a convenient means of regulating
the draught ; and there ought always to be a register
valve in the ash-pit door for the same purpose. Where
cinders, coke, or anthracite coal only are burnt, no hori-
zontal opening to the grate containing the fuel is neces-
sary. It may be put in by an opening at the top, as in
fig. 137, which will contain a supply for any length of
time, according to the height and width of the opening'
and the bars of the grate can be freed from ashes by a
Fig. 139. Section of a com- hooked poker applied from the ash-pit. By this kind of
line cistern*, llrit^ ° construction less lieat is l°st than V anv other. Indeed,
this kind of fireplace, with a reserve flue, will be found
by far the most economical mode of heating hothouses ; but it will not answer
where the practice is to depend on the sudden action of the flue, which is pro-
duced by stirring up the fuel : in lieu of this, the damper must be drawn so
as to admit the heated current into the extra heat flue. Whatever may be
the construction of the furnace, no air ought ever to be admitted to the fire,
excepting through the grating below it ; because air admitted over the fuel
can serve no purpose excepting that of cooling the flue ; unless in very rare
instances, where it might assist in consuming the smoke. Where this
object is a desideratum, Witty's smoke-consuming furnace, described in
Gard. Mag. vol. vii. p. 483, which roasts or cokes the coal, before it is put on
the fire, may be had recourse to. This and various other details, however,
must be left to the bricklayer or mason employed. All flues ought to have
flag-stones of the width and height of the interior of the flue, or iron doors
built into them at the extremities of each straight -lined portion, which may
readily be taken out or opened in order to free the flue from soot ; an opera-
tion which will require to be performed at least once a year in all houses,
and in stoves twice a year, or oftener, according to the kind of fuel used.
495. As substitutes for smoke-flues, earthenware pipes, or can- flues, as they
are called, have long been in use in Holland and France ; and as the fuel
used in these countries is almost always wood, which produces little soot in
comparison with coal, they are found to answer as perfectly as brick flues.
When they are only occasionally employed, the entire surface of the pipes
is exposed ; but when they are used constantly, as in houses for tropical
plants, they are embedded in a casing of dry sand, which forms a reservoir
of heat capable of being increased to any extent, even to that of the entire
floor of the house, over which a flooring for plants may be placed. Pipes
of this kind might also be conducted through a bed of small stones, so as
to form a very effective mass of heated material as a reservoir, while a portion
of naked pipe might serve for raising the temperature on occasions of extra-
PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS. 201
ordinary cold. In country situations, where wood for burning is not very
dear, or where coke from coal could be readily obtained, can-flues might be
economically employed for drying up the cold damp of greenhouses, and for
a variety of purposes. — We have said more on the subject of smoke-flues
than may be thought necessary at the present time, when they are being
so generally substituted by hot -water pipee ; but our object is to prevent our
readers from being so completely prejudiced against flues as not to have re-
course to them in particular situations and circumstances. The principal
reason why so much has been said against smoke-flues is, that gardeners
till lately were not fully aware of the importance of supplying moisture to
the atmosphere of plant-houses in proportion to the supply of heat, and of
having reserve flues, in consequence of which excessive heat would not be-
come so frequently requisite, and noxious gases would have less chance of
being driven through the top and sides of the flue into the atmosphere of
the house.
496. Steam was the first substitute for flues employed in this country ;
and, under some circumstances, it may deserve a preference to either flues
or hot water. For example, where the heating apparatus must necessarily
be at a great distance from the structure to be heated, steam can be con-
ducted to it in a tube not more than an inch or two in diameter, which may
be so encased in non-conducting matter as to occasion far less loss of heat
than if either smoke or hot water were employed. The disadvantages
attending the use of steam in ordinary cases are, the necessity of heating the
water to the boiling-point, by which more heat is driven up the chimney
and lost than if the water were raised to only half that temperature, and
the want of a reservoir of heat when the steam is not in action. The last
disadvantage has been supplied by passing the steam-pipes through brick
flues filled with stones, through pits or other large masses of stones, or
through tubes, cisterns, or tanks of water. By arrangements of this kind,
steam can be made both to supply heat permanently and expeditiously.
The various details of these modes of heating by steam will be found in
the Gard. Mag. vols. viii. and ix. ; and in the Encyc. of Gard. edit. 1832,
p. 593.
497. Hot water is the medium of heating plant-structures now generally
adopted, and it is without dispute far preferable to any of the preceding
modes. Water is such an excellent carrier of heat, that a house warmed by
hot- water pipes is not hotter at one end than at the other, which is almost
always the case when smoke-flues are employed : none of the heat which the
water derives from the fuel is lost, as in the case of flues, which when coated
internally with soot convey a great part of the heat out at the chimney-top ;
no sulphureous or other disagreeable effluvium is ever given out by hot-water
pipes when they become leaky, as is the case with flues when they are not
air-tight ; and the hot water in the pipes serves as a reservoir of heat when the
fire goes out ; but smoke-flues, when the fire goes out, are rapidly cooled from
within by the current of cold air which necessarily rushes through them
till it has reduced the temperature of their tops and sides to that of the
open air. Whether heating by hot water is more economical than heating
by smoke flues, will depend chiefly on the kind of apparatus employed ; but
in general we should say that it was not attended with any advantages of
this kind. Mr. Rogers is of opinion that with a well- constructed and well-
managed apparatus, the saving of fuel may amount to 25 per cent, over well-
FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING
constructed and well-managed flues ; but he allows that in a large pro-
portion of the hot-water apparatus now in use the consumption of fuel
greatly exceeds that of common furnaces. The cause of the circulation of
water in pipes is the same as that which produces the ascent of the air in
flues, viz. : difference of specific gravity produced by heat. In water, the
particles at the bottom of the boiler being heated, become lighter and rise
to the surface, while their place is taken by cold particles from the water
in the boiler itself, or in the pipes that communicate with it, which are
heated in their turn and ascend to the surface of the water in the boiler
and the surface of that in the upper pipe. In like manner, the air heated
by the consumption of the fuel in the furnace becomes lighter, and ascends
along the flue, while its place among the fuel is supplied by cool air, which
enters through the grating beneath it to supply combustion. Neither air
nor water will move along readily in very small flues or pipes : for smoke-
flues seven inches by ten inches are the smallest dimensions, and hot water
does not circulate so rapidly in pipes under two inches in diameter as to
give out heat equally throughout their whole length.
498. The modes of heating by hot water are very numerous, and it would
occupy too much room in this work to enter into a detailed description of
them, which however is the less necessary as the best modes are sufficiently
known for all ordinary purposes by most ironmongers ; and those who wish
to make themselves masters of the subject will have recourse to Hood's
Practical Treatise on Warming Buildings by Hot Water, published in 1837.
The simplest form of applying this mode of heating is by having one
boiler to each house in a recess in the back wall, or in some other situation
where it will be out of the way, and an upper or flow-pipe proceeding from
it on a level with an under or return-pipe, also on a level. Fig. 140 will
give an idea of this mode
jjjjj^^ Of circulation, a repre-
JPP^pFJ^f^m-^^^ senting the boiler, b a
Fig. 140. A hot-water apparatus for circulation on a level. cistern at the extreme
end of the house to serve as a reservoir, and e the flue and return-pipes.
When the water is to be circulated in pipes on different levels, or above
the level of the boiler, or in different levels, but never below the level
14-2
Fig. 141. Boiler and furnace for heating by hot water in rising and falling pipes.
Fig. 142. Apparatus for circulating water below and above the level of the boiler.
PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS. 203
of the bottom of the boiler, then a closed boiler is requisite ; or one open,
but carried to a height equal to that of the highest point in the line
of the pipes, as in fig. 141 ; and when water is to be circulated below the
level of the boiler, a closed boiler with particular arrangements (see
Hood's Treatise, figs. 10 and 11, pp. 44, 45) may be employed, or the form
of open boiler shown in fig. 142 may be resorted to. In this figure, a repre-
sents the boiler, b an open cistern at its top, in which the orifice of the
heating-pipe terminates. Now it is obvious that when the water passes
from the orifice of the boiler into the orifice of the pipe, the circulation
must go on from the difference in the specific gravity between the water in
the pipe at c, and that at d, provided that a small open pipe be placed at e,
to admit of the escape of the air which will accumulate in that part of the
pipe. Hot water has also been circulated on the syphon principle with
great success by Mr. Kewley ; the advantage of which mode is, the rapid
communication of heat along the whole length of the pipe, in consequence
of which it is never necessary to raise the water in the boiler to so high a
temperature as by any of the other modes ; and hence this mode of heating
is the most economical of all in the consumption of fuel. Fig. 143 will give
a correct idea of the
system: ac e repre-
sent the two legs of
the syphon ; the up-
per leg Commencing Fi£- 143- $yPh™ ™°de "f circulating hot water.
at c, being that through which the heated water ascends, and the lower leg
being that by which it returns. The disadvantage of this system is, that
after the pipes have been some time in use, they become leaky, and the
slightest leak, by admitting the air, instantly empties the syphon ; nor is the
leak easily discovered afterwards. The syphon mode of heating, were it not
for this disadvantage, would deserve the preference over every other. Hot
water has also been circulated in hermetically-sealed pipes by Perkins ; but
this mode is attended with great danger, and the heat produced is much too
high for the plants. All these, and other modes of heating, will be found
impartially examined in Hood's Treatise.
499. A reservoir of heat is very readily formed in heating by hot water,
whatever may be the kind of apparatus adopted, by placing a cistern or
series of cisterns at different parts of the house, either close to or at any
convenient distance from the water-pipes, and connected with them by
smaller pipes, having stop-cocks to interrupt the connexion at pleasure.
When it is desired to heat the house with as little loss of time as possible,
all connexion between the pipes and the reservoirs should be cut off by
turning the stop -cocks ; and as the house becomes sufficiently heated, the
connexion ought to be restored by opening the upper and under stop- cock
of one cistern at a time. In some cases, the cistern might be a long trough
about the bulk of a common flue, placed parallel with and close to the
pipe, as in fig.
144, in which
a is the pipe,
b the cistern,
^ ; • * and c the con-
Fig. 144. Hot-water pipe, and reserve cistern of hot u-ntar. nectin0" pipCS
with stop-cocks. Fig. 145 is a cross section of the pipes and reserve cistern,
204 FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING
which requires no explanation. Where the circulating pipes are below the
level of the floor of the house, and where there is to be
a raised pit for containing plants, a tank or cistern might
be formed under it of the length and width of the pit, and
of a depth equal to the distance between the upper and
lower heating-pipes ; and with this tank the pipes might
rig 145. Sedion of communicate by means of stop-cocks; so that whenever
reserve cistern and there was more heat in the pipes than was wanted for heat-
hot-water pipes. jng ^he ajr Of the house, it could be transferred to the
reservoir tank. To save the expense of stop-cocks where the cisterns could
be wholly or partially uncovered, the orifices of the connecting pipes might
be stopped by plugs ; and when the reservoir tank is above the level of the
heating-pipes, the connexion between them might be made by means of
syphons with stop-cocks.
600. The pipes employed are generally of cast-iron, and round, as being
more conveniently cast ; but any other metal and form will answer ; and
when there is no great pressure on the pipes earthenware may be used, the
joints being made good with cement ; and at the angles, where elbow-joints
would be necessary, small cisterns could be employed, or elbows of earthen-
ware might be made on purpose. For obtaining a large heating surface, flat
cast-iron pipes have been used in some cases, placed vertically, and in
others horizontally ; but round pipes of four inches in diameter are in
most general use. When the object is to obtain a supply of heat in the
shortest time, then the boiler and pipes should be of small capacity;
and this is generally desirable in the case of greenhouses, where heat is
occasionally wanted for a few hours in damp weather, not for the sake of
raising the temperature, but for drying up cold damp : nevertheless, even in
greenhouses it is desirable to have a reservoir of heat for supplies in very
severe weather. In stoves in which fire-heat is employed the greater part
of the year, both boiler and pipes may be of large capacity ; and this should
also be the case in early forcing -houses. Whatever mode of heating or kind of
pipes may be adopted, the pipes should always have a gradual ascent from the
place where they enter the house, or are intended firstto give out heat, towards
the farther extremity; otherwise, the circulation will be less rapid, and conse-
quently the heat less equally distributed. The quantity of pipe required to
heat any house depends on various circumstances ; such as the form and con-
struction of the house, the temperature that is to be kept up in it, and the
temperature of the external air. Various calculations have been made on the
subject by different engineers, and more especially by Mr. Hood, who says,
" It may be taken as an invariable rule, that in no case should pipes of a
greater diameter than four inches be used, because, when they are of a larger
size than this, the quantity of water they contain is so considerable, that it
makes a great difference in the cost of fuel, in consequence of the increased
length of time it will require to heat them, which is four and a half hours
for four-inch pipes, three and a quarter hours for three-inch pipes, and two
and a quarter hours for two-inch pipes, supposing the water to be at 40° be-
fore lighting the fire, and the temperature to which the water was raised, 200°.
Pipes of two or three inches diameter therefore are to be preferred from green-
houses, conservatories which only require fire-heat to be applied occasionally."
After calculating the loss of heat from exposed surfaces of glass under dif-
ferent circumstances and situations, Mr. Hood gives the following rules for
PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS. 205
determining the quantity of pipe as a sufficient approximation for ordinary
purposes : — " In churches and very large public rooms, which have only
about an average number of doors and windows, and moderate ventilation,
by taking the cubic measurement of the room, and dividing the number thus
obtained by 200, the quotient will be the number of feet in length of pipe,"
four inches in diameter, which will be required to obtain a temperature of
about 55° to 58°. For smaller rooms, dwelling-houses, &c., the cubic mea-
surement should be divided by 150, which will give the number of feet of
four-inch pipe. For greenhouses, conservatories, and such-like buildings,
where the temperature is required to be kept at about 60°, dividing the cubic
measurement of the building by 30, will give the required quantity of
pipe ; and for forcing-houses, where it is desired to keep the temperature
at 70 to 75°, we must divide the cubic measurement of the house by 20 ; but
if the temperature be required as high as 75° to 80°, then we must divide by
18 to obtain the number of feet of four- inch pipe. If the pipes are to be
three inches diameter, then we must add one-third to the quantity thus ob-
tained ; and if two-inch pipes are to be used, we must take double the length
of four-inch pipe.
" The quantity of pipe estimated in this way will only suit for such places
as are built quite on the usual plan." (Treatise, <^c., p. 125.) The above
calculations for heating are made on the supposition that the lowest external
temperature will be 10° ; but in situations " exposed to high winds, it will
be prudent," Mr. Hood observes, " to calculate the external temperature
from zero, or even below that, according to circumstances ; and in very warm
and sheltered situations, a less range in the temperature will be sufficient."
Local circumstances, therefore, may require from 5 to 10 per cent, to be
added to, or deducted from, the length of pipe found according to the fore-
going rules. As a proof of the soundness of Mr. Hood's calculation, we may
state that the great stove at Chatsworth is heated at the rate of one super-
ficial foot of heated pipe to thirty cubic feet of air; and the temperature kept
up during the severest weather of the winter of 1840-41, was 60", though
there were frequently from 20° to 35° of frost during the night. This house
is sixty feet high, with glass on all sides, exposing a surface of 60,000 feet,
and enclosing 1,050,000 cubic feet of air. The quantity of coal consumed
was about two tons per night. (Gard. Chron. April 17, 1841, p. 243.)
501. The situation in which the pipes are placed is, in general, what we have
stated to be that most suitable for smoke flues, (492), viz., along the front
and ends of houses placed against a back wall, and entirely round, detached,
or span-roofed houses. In the case of pits or frames with flat roofs, the pipes
may be either placed in front or in the middle, always bearing in mind
that heated air ascends, and that the quantity heated in a given time, will,
all other circumstances being alike, depend on a regular supply to the
heating body, by a current distinct from that by which the heated air
escapes. Such a current is formed by the cross drains adopted by Mr. Penn,
and exhibited in various other sections of plant-structures given in this work.
For the same reason it is desirable, when practicable, and under certain circum-
stances, to confine the pipes on each side, so that the air which passes up among
them may not escape without being heated. To illustrate the effect of this
arrangement, WTC may take Perkins's double boiler, and compare it with the
common boiler. It would not occur to any person who had not reflected on
the subject, that water could be boiled any sooner in one boiler than another,
206 FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING
both boilers being of the same dimensions, made of the same material, set in
the same manner, and with a fire beneath them of the same power. Yet
such is the case ; and this exactly on the same principle that we recommend
confining the sides of hot- water pipes, and supplying the air to be heated from
a distinct channel. Suppose we have a common boiler, such as is used in
common wash-houses, then place another boiler within it, of such a size as to
leave only a few inches between the inner boiler and the outer boiler all
round, and support it in this position by stays, as shown in fig. 146 ; let this
inner boiler have a hole in its bottom about one-
third of its diameter, and let its rim be two inches
below the level of the water to be heated. These
arrangements being made, and the heat applied
below, a circulation instantly takes place and con-
tinues, the water coming into contact with the
heated bottom and sides of the outer boiler, rising
Fig. 146. Perkins s double boiler.
rapidly to the surface, and descending through the
inner boiler, which thus necessarily contains the coldest portion of the
liquid. — (Gardener's Magazine, vol. xvi. page 325.) The heat commu-
nicated by the fire to the bottom and sides of the outer boiler, is rapidly
carried off by the current that is created, exactly on the same principle
that wind, which is a current of air, cools any body exposed to it more
rapidly than air at the same temperature but quite still. The under-ground
drains should either have vacuities at the sides and over the top to prevent
them from absorbing much heat, or they may be carried through the
bottom of the tan- pit, where there is one. In general, we would not cover
the heating-pipes, nor would we adopt the upright tubes which Mr. Penn
originally used, but has since dispensed with. There may be situations and
circumstances where it would be more desirable to have the heat of the pipes
or flues carried off by radiation with the usual degree of slowness rather than
by conduction ; such, for example, as when the attendant on the hothouse was
likely to be a long time absent, or when some danger from overheating was
anticipated ; and this can always be attained by covering the orifices by which
the air enters to the cross drains. It is proper to state, that at the present
time the opinions of a number of persons are against the use of air as a car-
rier of heat in hothouses, on account, they say, of the difficulty of maintaining
it in exactly the proper state of moisture. This, however, can be effected with-
out difficulty, by keeping the bottoms of the cross-drains covered with water,
or by having cisterns of water over the pipes, or both. A few years' experi-
ence is probably required to set the matter at rest ; in the mean time, the
reader who wishes to examine both sides of the question, may consult the
Gard.Mag. for 1840-41, and the Gard. C/tron., more especially an article by
Mr. Ainger, April 3d, page 212. Our opinion is, that the power of producing
motion in the air, even though it should be only wanted occasionally, and
obtainable at an extra expense of heat, is of so much value for setting blos-
soms, equalizing heat and moisture in some cases, drying up damp in others,
or producing a feeling of coolness, that no plant-structure of large dimensions,
and where fire heat is employed, ought to be without it. To explain the
manner in which the motion of heated air in hothouses produces a sensation
of coolness, without being altered in its temperature, we make the following
quotation from Lardner's Cyclopedia : " The air which surrounds us is
generally at a lower temperature than that of the body. If the air be calm
PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS. 207
and still, the particles which are in immediate contact with the skin acquire
the temperature of the skin itself, and having a sort of molecular attraction,
they adhere to the skin in the same manner as particles of air are found to
adhere to the surface of glass in philosophical experiments. Thus sticking^
to the skin, they form a sort of warm covering for it, and speedily acquire
its temperature." Agitation of the air, however, '• continually expels the
particles thus in contact with the skin, and brings new particles into that
situation. Each particle of air, as it strikes the skin, takes heat from it by
contact, and being driven off, carries that heat with it, thus producing a
constant sensation of refreshing coolness."
502. The boiler for heating by hot water need never be large, because no
advantage is gained by having a large quantity of water in it, further than
that of acting as a reservoir, which will be more conveniently and economi-
cally placed within the house. A boiler of small capacity, and with a large
superficies for the fire to act on, will be the most economical in first cost, and
also in fuel. " The extent of surface which a boiler ought to expose to the
fire should be proportional to the quantity of pipe that is required to be
heated by it ; " and Mr. Hood has calculated a table, which, like various
others in his excellent work, will be referred to by the intelligent inquirer,
or by the gardener who intends to direct the construction and putting up of
his own heating apparatus. By this table it appears :
That 3^ square feet of surface of boiler exposed to the fire will heat 200
feet of 4-inch pipe ; or 266 feet of 3-inch pipe ; or 400 feet of 2-inch pipe.
That 7 square feet of surface of boiler will heat 400 feet of 4-inch pipe ;
533 feet of 3-inch pipe ; and 800 feet of 2-inch pipe ; and so on in the same
ratio.
" A small apparatus," Mr. Hood observes, " ought perhaps to have rather
more surface of boiler, in proportion to the length of pipe, than a larger one ;
as the fire is less intense, and bums to less advantage, in a small than in a
large furnace." (p. 71 .)
503. The furnace, for a hot- water apparatus has also been subjected to
calculation by Mr. Hood. For generating steam, an extremely brisk fire
and rapid draught are required ; but a very moderate draught will suffice
for heating a boiler where the temperature of the water is rarely required
to be above 180° or at most 200°. The following observations on the con-
struction and management of furnaces are valuable both with respect to a
hot water apparatus and the furnaces to common smoke flues. " The heat
should be confined within the furnace as much as possible, by contracting
the farther end of it, at the part called the throat, so as to allow only a
small space for the smoke and inflamed gases to pass out. The only entrance
for the air should be through the bars of the grate, and the heated gaseous
matter will then pass directly upward to the bottom of the boiler, which will
act as a reverberator, and cause a more perfect combustion of the fuel than
would otherwise take place. The lightness of the heated gaseous matter
causes it to ascend the flue, forcing its passage through the throat of the
furnace with a velocity proportional to the smallness of the passage, the
vertical height of the chimney, and the levity of the gases, arising from
their expansion by the heat of the furnace." (p. 7,7.) After giving a table
of the area of bars required for pipes of different dimensions and lengths,
Mr. Hood observes : " In order to make the fire burn for a longtime without
attention, the furnace should extend beyond the bars both in length and
208 FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING
breadth ; and the coals which are placed on this blank part of the furnace,
in consequence of receiving no air from below will burn very slowly, and
will only enter into complete combustion when the coal which lies directly
on the bars has burnt away." (p. 80.)
504. Rogers s Conical Boiler and Hot-water Apparatus is believed to be
the most perfect and generally applicable in the case of houses of moderate
dimensions that has yet been invented, and as such we shall describe it
somewhat in detail. It is the result of a series of experiments made by
John Rogers, jun. Esq., F.R.S., &c., with the assistance of Mr. Shewin, iron-
monger, Sevenoaks, Kent, who manufactures the apparatus for sale. The
boiler was originally formed of tinned iron, afterwards of copper, and lastly
it was cast in iron in one piece.
Fig. 147 is a front view of the boiler as at present constructed in cast-iron.
The interior, a sugarloaf-shaped cone (indi-
cated by the dotted lines), being the furnace,
which is filled with fuel through its upper
orifice, a. A circular fire-grate is fixed just
within the bottom of the boiler ; and the
aperture &, seen in front, is intended solely
to remove clinkers which may form, or fuel
when the fire is extinguished ; at other times
it is closed with a fire-brick plug, and should
never be opened except when absolutely ne-
cessary. For a side view of the boiler see
fig. 150, where it is represented as attached
to a range of pipe ; / and r are the flow and
return pipes, and d a flange for examining
and cleaning the boiler when necessary.
Into this flange is fixed a small pipe, which,
being connected upwards with the supply
cistern e, and downwards with the cock or
tap A, serves to fill and empty the apparatus.
The supply cistern e acts also as an expansion cistern, to receive the volume
of water increased by heat.
Fig. 148 shows the most convenient mode of setting the above, exhibited by
•r-
Fig. 147. Rogers'* conical boile
Fig. 148. Mode of setting Rogers'* conical toiler.
a front view. A solid base being built with an aperture in its centre open to
PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS.
209
the front, as high as the desired depth of the ash-pit, the boiler is fixed upon
it, and the brick-work carried up to its lower flange or rim. The side -walls
should then be raised, in four-inch work, level with the top of the boiler, as
represented in fig. 148 : a is the ash-pit, b the boiler, c the aperture in front
of the boiler, closed with fire-brick, e e and d d two bars, one supporting the
fire-brick plug, and the other fitting to the rim of the boiler to support a slate
which closes the front as in fig. 149 ; ff, fig. 148, is the chamber around the
boiler, filled with sawdust as a non-conductor of heat ; and a layer of saw-
dust extends over the top of the boiler, under the slate slab g g, which is fitted
over the brickwork, an aperture being cut in it to allow the throat of the fur-
nace to pass through.
Fig. 149 gives the same view farther completed : the front of the chamber
is closed with a slab of slate, and on the slab
which covers the boiler is erected a chimney,
having a feeding- door, through which fuel
is supplied, placed in its sloping face directly
over the mouth of the furnace. This chim-
ney must not exceed four or five feet in
height, and its area must in no case exceed
the area of the mouth of the furnace. That
here represented, viz., a brick base, with a
piece of four- inch iron pipe about three feet
in length, will probably be found most con-
venient, unless a moveable chimney be pre-
ferred. This chimney should be fitted with
a damper just below the iron part, to give
greater command of the draught. The
aperture of the boiler, which is closed with
fire-brick, and the front of the ash-pit,
should also be closed by a* door or blower,
having a regulator to admit or exclude
draught. A blower is preferable to a door,
as hinges are always liable to rust, and
then break or strain ; and it is important to
be able to close the ash-pit pretty accu-
rately.
Fig. 149. Rogers'* toiler set, with the chim- Fig. 150 shows the relative position of
ncy added' the boiler and pipes, and the mode of at-
taching and arranging them. In the first place, the whole of the pipes
should, if possible, be above the boiler. One foot is sufficient, but when con-
venient, the higher the better. When two or three-inch pipe is employed,
the pipes may rise uniformly about one inch in twenty feet, from a and 6 to
c; on which, being thus the highest point of the pipes, an air-cock is placed.
But if four-inch pipes be employed, it is better that a should be the highest
point, and the air-cock placed there ; and that the pipes should fall uniformly
one inch in twenty feet from a to c, and from o to b : indeed this is generally
the best arrangement, where not inconvenient. From b the return-pipe, r,
should descend either perpendicularly, or with as steep an inclination as pos-
sible, to the bottom of the boiler. The supply cistern, e, must be so placed
that its bottom is not lower than the highest point of the pipes. The top of
the steam-valve, v, should be level with the top of the supply cistern. Just
210
FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING
below the valve, on the steam- pipe, may be fixed a small cock, fr, connected
with a pipe laid into the house, by which, whenever the water boils, the house
s. ,. f .
/"
1 =
lUL
*"?
150 151
Fig. 150. Rogers'* boiler, with the healing-pipe joined to it.
Fig. 151. Rogert's iubslitute for a stop-cock.
may be steamed. In small apartments this will happen pretty frequently, but
in large houses, in order to insure this advantage, a stopcock or sluice should
be placed on the flow-pipe, /, by which, the circulation being intercepted, the
water in the boiler may at any time be raised to the boiling point in a few
minutes.
Fig. 151 represents a contrivance which is not liable to any of the defects
of stopcocks, which impedes the circulation less than any except large sluices,
and which is comparatively unexpensive. The hollow plug g, fig. 151, is
fitted with a valve, perfectly watertight. This valve is opened and shut by
the handle sliding through a stuffing-box in the end of the plug. By closing
it the gardener may at any time cause the water in the boiler to boil, when,
by opening the cock A1, he admits as much steam to the house as may be de-
sired. A small pewter pipe, three-eighths of an inch in diameter, is suffi-
ciently large to conduct steam into the house ; and its flexibility renders it
very convenient. Where this arrangement is adopted, the supply- cistern
mnst be larger than is otherwise necessary, and should contain ten or twelve
gallons. The steam-pipe, also, should be placed on the top of the boiler, and
be of sufficient diameter to allow the water and steam to separate, that the
former may not be blown out through the pipe along with the steam ; and
the valve should be loaded with a few ounces of lead.
Fig. 152 exhibits the apparatus, with the addition of a reservoir; this in
small pits is very desirable. The letters indicate the same objects as in fig.
150, except w, the reservoir, which may be formed of thin copper in the form
of a cylinder, and should be packed in a wooden or brick case, in sand or saw-
dust, which supports its shape, protects it from accident, and prevents the
heat from escaping. All the communication pipes in this case may be of
lead, and fitted with union joints, which renders the fitting exceedingly easy.
In Mr. Rogers's apparatus a lead pipe of an inch and a quarter in diameter
supplies forty feet of radiating surface, and his reservoir contains about four
PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS.
211
times as much as the pipes. Reservoirs may be made of iron, but, though
rather less expensive, they are so heavy and unwieldy that they could hardly
/_— -^
Fig. 152. Rogers's hot-water reservoir.
be used ; and the expense of attaching the pipes would greatly exceed the
cost of copper. Mr. Rogers has a seventy-two gallon reservoir, a cylinder
four feet long by two feet in diameter, which cost complete, with two one-
fourth-inch union joints, £5. 5s.
The foregoing directions will enable any intelligent gardener to plan and
put up an apparatus.for himself.
It remains to say something respecting fuel : any sort except wood and
caking coal may be employed. The best of all is anthracite or Welsh coal,
but a little coke is necessary to light it ; the next best is coke ; and next to
this, cinders. Mr. Rogers arranges them thus, in the order of their strength ;
but for ordinary purposes no thing is better than cinders — nay, even coke breeze,
or small refuse coke, the value of which is next to nothing, may be burnt in
these furnaces, but in that case they require eight or ten feet of chimney.
Where it is required to produce strong heat rapidly, coke must be employed ;
but it is not a good fuel to maintain heat, as it allows too much draught, and
burns away. Welsh coal has not this fault, and is a very durable fuel,
peculiarly well suited to these boilers. When the fire is first lighted it should
be allowed to burn brisk and clear, till the fuel in the bottom is well ignited;
it may then be filled up to the throat of the furnace, when it will last through
the night. In filling, care, of course, must be taken that the fuel is not so
small and dusty as to stop the draught. Where cinders are used they should
be well sifted. The proper management of these boilers may be best secured
by explaining the principle upon which they are constructed. As fuel can-
not be consumed without air, if a furnace be constructed of considerable
depth, and filled with fuel, and air be admitted only at the bottom, that fuel
alone is consumed which lies immediately on the bars, and first receives the
draught of air. The fuel above, provided it transmits the air, becomes red-
hot, or nearly so, but does not consume until that below it is destroyed. In
this manner, one of these conical furnaces being lighted and filled with fuel,
that portion in the upper part of the furnace which cannot burn absorbs the
heat of the burning fuel below, and radiates or transmits it to the water on
every side. So perfect is this absorption of heat, that for several hours after
the furnace has been filled up with cinders, though there may be a fierce fire
212 FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING
below, little or no heat escapes by the chimney, the whole being taken up by
the surrounding water. The economy, therefore, of fuel in such an apparatus
is very great : and it is also evident that excess of draught must be carefully
guarded against, so much only being allowed as will consume the fuel
steadily, which is easily learned by experience. The necessity, also, of keeping
the aperture in front close, so that air enters the furnace only through the ash-
pit, is hence evident. The water, it will be observed, is in close and immediate
contact with the red-hot fuel on all sides, no black smoking coals intervening,
as in most kinds of boilers ; hence the great power in proportion to their size.
Economy of fuel is not, however, the sole or principal advantage of these
boilers ; their great recommendation is the long duration of steady heat which
they insure without attendance. When properly managed, they may be
depended upon for maintaining heat twelve hours untouched. This to many
amateurs, who do not command the services of a resident gardener, is invalu-
able. In the next place, they are applicable to houses and pits on the
smallest possible scale ; a three-light pit may be kept at a temperature as
uniform as that of the largest hothouse, without any trouble by night. It
was for a purpose of this kind that Mr. Rogers was originally led to devise
them, and he has for three years past cultivated Orchideae in a small house
not twelve feet square in this manner. Mr. Rogers's gardener does not live
on the premises ; and the temperature, as ascertained by a double self-regis-
tering thermometer, rarely varies 6° during the night.
It is to be observed, that, as the quantity of heat produced depends upon
the quantity of fuel consumed, each boiler must contain, at one charge, fuel
sufficient to supply the pipes to which it is attached with heat for twelve
hours ; it is therefore necessary that the size of the boilers be proportioned to
the work they have to do. They are cast in the following sizes, which have
been found most generally useful : —
10 -inch furnace, working 40 ft. to 60 ft. 4-inch pipe, price £4 10s.
13-inch do. do. 60ft. to 120 ft. do. price 6 Os.
15-inch do. do. 120 ft. to 200 ft. do. price 7 10s.*
Where the quantity of pipe exceeds the above amount, two boilers have
hitherto been employed ; but there is no reason why an eighteen-inch should
not be cast, if a sufficient demand arose for them ; boilers of this size have
been found very effective in copper ; and a twenty- one inch, cast in iron for Mr.
Wilmot of Isleworth, worked exceedingly well. The numbers affixed to the
boilers above are such as they will work properly and efficiently at all times.
Some boilers of the above dimensions have been found to do a good deal more
work than is here allotted to them ; but this has only been by increasing the
draught, and producing more intense combustion, a great deal of heat at the
same time escaping by the chimney. When thus employed, the peculiar
advantages of these boilers are lost; fuel is burnt to waste, and consumed so
rapidly that they do not maintain their heat as long as is desirable. Duration
of heat and economy of fuel are considered by Mr. Rogers as paramount objects.
The only case in which stronger draught may be allowed is where the fire
works into a flue in the house : but the objection of the rapid consumption of
fuel is not thus removed ; nor can this arrangement be generally recom-
* The fittings, comprising doors, dampers, &c., all things, in short, peculiar to the appa-
ratus as above described, vary from U. 5s. to U. 15s., according to the size, and the
articles required. The appendages for steaming the house are not included in this estimate.
PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS. 213
mended, though sometimes convenient. When the ten-inch boiler is em-
ployed to small quantities of pipe, it must he fitted with a reservoir, as in fig.
152. In this manner it may be made to work as low as fifteen or twenty feet
of four-inch pipe. Four-inch pipe is taken as a standard, because each foot
of it contains about one square foot of radiating surface. Of three-inch, one
third more ; and of two-inch, double the quantity, may be considered as the
equivalents of the above amounts.
These boilers are so constructed that they can be cleaned out ; and, if ne-
cessary, they can be taken to pieces, to remove any calcareous deposit which
may in time take place in them. It is, however, particularly desirable, in
these, as in all hot-water apparatus, that nothing but pure rain or pond water
should be employed. Where the boilers are employed for steaming, this
precaution is particularly important, otherwise calcareous incrustation must
take place. To prevent leaves, dirt, &c., getting down the pipe of the supply
cistern, it should be guarded by a double cap of pierced zinc ; one moveable,
that the gardener may cleanse it if clogged, and the other fixed.
The advantages of these conical boilers are no longer matter of speculation
or experiment. Very many have been erected in the course of 1839 and 1840,
and are highly approved ; although few of them possess all the advantages
which experience has since combined in the form now described. They are
peculiarly adapted for those purposes where perpetual heat is required ; for
plant-stoves, pineries, and forcing-frames ; also for small propagating-houses,
or preserving-pits. To pits in general, from their small size, and from the
small expense incurred in setting them, a recommendation not heretofore
noticed, they are peculiarly applicable, and have been extensively applied. —
Card. Mag., 1840, p. 139.*
505. Rain-water should, as we have just seen, always be used in hot-
water apparatus ; for hard- water deposits a sediment or incrustation, which
if not removed, will form a coating of several inches in thickness, which
acting as a powerful non-conductor, will allow the bottom of the boiler to
become red-hot without sufficiently heating the water it contains ; and ulti-
mately, from the cracking of the deposit in consequence of the greater
expansion of the red-hot iron, the water comes in contact with the red hot
metal, and an explosion takes place. (See Gard. Mag. vol. ix. p. 206.)
Hence the necessity of having all boilers where hard- water is to be used
constructed so as to admit of being readily cleaned out. As the deposit con-
sists of calcareous matter, it may be removed by a weak solution of muriatic
acid aided with a slight mechanical agitation : but it is much better to
prevent its taking place by using only soft water.
506. To prevent the water in the apparatus from freezing, salt may be
added to it ; but this may be rendered unnecessary in the case of horizontal
pipes by drawing off a portion of the water, so that they shall not be quite
full, because in that case the water has room for that expansion which takes
place when it passes into ice. The quantity of salt put into water to keep
it from freezing, Mr. Hood observes, may vary from 3^ per cent., the quan-
tity contained in sea- water, which will not freeze when it is above 28°, to
35 per cent., the greatest amount of common salt which water will hold in
solution. With 4.3 of salt, water freezes at 27^° ; with 6.6 per cent, of salt,
at 25 J° ; and at 11.1 per cent., 21^°. The effect which would be produced
in cast-iron pipes and boilers by any of these quantities of salt, Mr. Hood
states, would not be of much importance. As salt does not evaporate when
214 FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING
a sufficient quantity was once added for the purpose required, the waste
which takes place can be supplied by fresh water. (Hood's Treatise, p. 167.)
507. Open gutters have been employed, either partially or wholly, instead
of closed pipes, for circulating hot water in hothouses, and by a number of
gardeners this is considered a very superior mode where great atmospheric
moisture is required. The earliest apparatus of this kind is one which was
put up in Knight's Exotic Nursery, Chelsea, in 1830, and described in the
Gardener s Magazine for that year, pp. 374 to 376. It has since been
erected by Mr. VTeekes at several places, and a patent was taken out for
some modifications of it by Mr. Corbett in 1838. Instead of the upper or
flow-pipe, an open gutter of iron, wood, slate, or stone, is employed ; it is
placed on a level, from the boiler to the furthest point where it is carried,
and it commonly returns to the boiler in a closed pipe. It can be carried
over doors or similar interruptions by syphons, and under them by inverted
syphons ; and the open gutter has covers which can be taken off and on
at pleasure to diminish or increase the quantity of vapour admitted to the
atmosphere of the house. (Gard. Mag. 1838.) There is an apparatus of
this kind in Pontey's Nursery, Plymouth ; the boiler is one of Shewin's (Ro-
gers's, 604) largest-sized conical ones, which appears to answer admirably.
From the boiler the water flows in an open gutter, formed of slabs of slate,
(jointed very neatly together), to the further end of the house, from which
point it returns in a four-inch iron pipe back to the boiler. From having
the gutter open they have a very humid heat, but by the use of slate covers
they can regulate it so as to have little or much vapour, as circumstances
may require. (Gard. Chron. Jan. 2, p. 6.) At Cowley, near Exeter, Mr.
Corbett's open system has been put up, and the gardener there finds it the
most simple and efficacious means of heating that he has tried. For orchida-
ceous houses he particularly recommends it, and he has found it far superior
to close pipes in the pine stove. Mr. Glendinning also considers it the best of
all systems. It combines, he says, the simplicity of the good old level system
with the grand advantage of diffusing through the house, without trouble, any
quantity of moisture required, or entirely withholding it. The circulation
of the water in the gutters is quite as rapid as by any other system, if not
more so, even when left entirely open. The invention is divested of all
intricacy, as the water may be exposed to full view from its leaving the
boiler until its return, and the apparatus is not liable to go out of repair.
Its effectual application to every description of forcing-house is at present
without a parallel ; as, by the partial or entire removal of any number of
covers, an unvarying degree of moisture, always governed by the tempera-
ture maintained, can, with the greatest ease and accuracy, be communicated.
This alone, to practical men, will secure to it a decided preference. Red
spiders, thrips, and all other insects, will be readily subdued ; and an atmo-
sphere, at once invigorating and refreshing, at all times maintained. (Gard.
Mag. 1841, p. 57.) The opinion of Mr. Rogers is thus expressed : — " For
Orchideae, melons, and cucumbers, I .should think it excellent ; for stove-
plants, at certain seasons, equally so ; but, for other garden purposes, its
utility must depend upon the power of completely covering the troughs, and
regulating the escape of moisture. For greenhouses, as well as for forcing
grapes and pines, it would require two or three years' experience to satisfy
me of its advantages ; especially for the two latter purposes. Heat is often
employed in gardens more to dry than to warm buildings ; as, in greenhouses
PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS. 215
and late vineries, during damp weather in autumn. It is also necessary to
obtain dry heat to ripen the wood of all forced plants ; and, though I have
no experience of pines, I do not imagine they will ripen to be good for any
thing, except at a high temperature and pretty dry atmosphere. In all these
cases, then, it is absolutely necessary to prevent the escape of moisture from
the troughs. If this can be done, the only remaining objection, is the diffi-
culty and inconvenience of obtaining a perfect level for the troughs." (Gard.
Mag. 1841, p. 152.) Where the level system of heating can be adopted,
open gutters would appear to be preferable to closed pipes, as rendering more
certain the supply of moisture to the atmosphere of the house, and super-
seding entirely the use of cisterns, except in botanic stoves, for growing
acquatic plants.
508. Retaining Heat by Coverings. — Whatever mode of heating plant-
structures may be adopted, it should be constantly borne in mind that it is
incomparably better for the health of the plants to prevent heat from escap-
ing by non-conducting coverings during nights, than to allow it to be con-
tinually given off into the atmosphere, and as continually supplied by fire-
flues or hot- water pipes. Where coverings cannot be applied, and a high
temperature must be kept up, reserve sources of heat, and abundant supplies
of water to maintain atmospheric moisture, are the only means by which
the plants can be kept healthy. " A weakly growth," Mr. Paxton observes,
" is the sure consequence of a high temperature maintained by fire -heat,
whatever plan of artificial heating be adopted." He therefore recommends,
in all cases where practicable, the use of external coverings, by which, at
Chats worth, a difference of from 10° to 15° is gained, and two-thirds of the
fuel that would otherwise be necessary is saved. (Gard. Chron. Jan. 16,
p. 40.)
509. Atmospheric Moisture. — The necessity of proportioning moisture to
temperature, and the causes which render the climates of our plant-structures
unnaturally dry, have already been pointed out (251 to 257). To give an
idea of the quantity of moisture requisite for an atmosphere at a high tem-
perature, Mr. Rogers has shown that a vinery twenty-five feet long by thir-
teen feet six inches wide in the roof, maintained at 65° when outer air is 35°,
will condense on the glass in twenty- four hours 35^- gallons of water. (Gard.
Mag. 1840, p. 232.) In devising the best method of procuring a constant
supply of moisture for the air of a hothouse proportionable to the expendi-
ture, Mr. Rogers finds the end may be most effectually attained by placing
cisterns on the heating- pipes. As the temperature of the water in these
cisterns would vary with that of the pipes, the evaporation from them would
be greatest when the pipes were hottest ; when the greatest degree of arti-
ficial temperature was being obtained, and consequently the greatest drain upon
it by condensation. The cisterns may be made of zinc, with their bottoms
fitted to the curvature of the pipes, at least six inches deep to the top of the
pipes, and of the same lengths as the space between the rings by which the
pipes are joined. Where two pipes are placed side by side on the same
level, the form shown in fig. 153 may be adopted, and a single pipe may
have cisterns fitted to it in the same manner, or it may be made to embrace
the sides of the pipe and cover it entirely with water, as in fig. 154. In
some cases shallow cisterns are cast on the pipes, but their power is insuffi-
cient, and in general zinc cisterns may be considered the best. Cisterns so
placed on pipes heated to 200° will contain water at 140° to 145°; but this
216 FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING
will not be the case unless they are properly fitted, and luted on the pipes
with wet sand ; for the smallest interstice is found to make a great difference
in the heat transmitted. Mr. Rogers
finds that cisterns fixed in this manner
with water, at a temperature of from
120° to 146°, evaporate about three
quarters of a gallon per square foot of
Fig. 153. Zinc cistern for double pipes. Fig. 154. Zinc cittern for a single pipe.
surface in twenty-four hours. The proportion which he employs in an
orchidaceous stove is about one square foot of evaporating surface to ten
square feet of glass, and in stoves and forcing-houses, he is of opinion
(Proceedings of the Horticultural Society, 1840, p. 149) that there ought
to be one square foot of water for every fifteen square feet of glass. If
houses heated by flues had this proportion of cistern placed over them,
we should no longer hear so much of the dry disagreeable atmosphere pro-
duced by this mode of heating. It is almost unnecessary to observe that
the cisterns will be most effective where the flues are most effective ; or that,
as the covers of flues have not interruptions like the joints of pipes, the cis-
terns may be made of any length. Slate cisterns placed above the pipes
may be advantageously used for increasing l;he moisture, serving at the same
time as a reservoir of heat, and of water for watering the plants, and also
for growing aquatics ; but as the water in such cisterns will seldom exceed
the temperature of 80° to 85°, a much larger surface is required than in the
case of zinc cisterns accurately fitted to the curvature of the pipes. On
smoke-flues the water in such cisterns will rise to a much higher temperature
than on pipes, because the slate bottoms will come in close contact with the
entire surface of the covers of the flue.
510. Steaming, that is, the discharging into the atmosphere of a house,
in large quantities, the steam of water heated to the boiling-point, has been
adopted as a means of producing atmospheric moisture ; but it is objection-
able on account of the high temperature of the steam, excepting in large
houses where the volume of air affords room for the steam to part with heat,
so as to be converted into vapour before it reaches the plants. Steaming
may also be useful in combination with fumigation, or the diffusion in the
atmosphere of matters noxious to insects. Mr. Rogers proposes the fol-
lowing method of using steam in such a manner as not to prove injurious
to plants. " A shallow cistern, about six inches deep, and carrying at
least four square feet of area, with a false bottom of wire or pierced zinc
about one inch from the real bottom, being provided, the steam-pipe from,
the boiler should be introduced so as to discharge itself between the real and
false bottom ; the cistern should now be filled with water nearly to its
brim, and the steam laid on. The water will soon be raised to a pretty
considerable temperature, and yield an abundant supply of innocuous
vapour." The use of the false bottom is to prevent the water from boiling
up and flowing over before it is converted into steam.
PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS. 217
611. Ventilation. — Plants do not require large supplies of fresh air for the
purpose of respiration like animals, because while the latter speedily render
air impure, by depriving it of oxygen, and giving off carbonic acid, by the
former oxygen is given off, and the carbonic acid of the atmosphere inhaled.
A very small supply of air, therefore, is sufficient for any plant-structure, as
far as the growth of plants is concerned, provided the air of the house be
tolerably pure ; but where the air is heated by smoke-flues or by fermenting
stable dung, it may be charged with sulphureous or other noxious gases ;
and, in such cases, a frequent mixture of fresh air may be necessary.
In greenhouses, and pits, and frames, where there is a large proportion of
earthy and moist surface to a small volume of air, the latter may become too
moist, and fresh air may be required to dry it ; while in every description of
plant-structure it may be required to lower the temperature. Hence, for
houses heated by smoke -flues, and for pits and frames heated by fermenting
dung, a greater power of ventilation becomes requisite than for houses heated
by hot water, in which, under ordinary circumstances, noxious vapours can-
not be produced, or the temperature raised much above 80° or 90°. In many
cases the small quantity of fresh air required for such houses will find its
way into the house through crevices in the roof or sides, and by the occasional
opening of doors by the going hi and out of the gardener. Where larger sup-
plies of fresh air are requisite, a portion of the roof or sides, or of both, must
be made to open, and the extent to which this is effected will depend on the
dimensions of the house, its uses, and other circumstances. The common
purpose for which ventilation is employed, is to lower the temperature of the
house, and this is generally done by opening sashes in front, and in the upper
part of the roof, thereby creating a draught of cool air through the house,
most injurious to vegetation, by the sudden chill which it produces, as well
as its dryness (252, 260, 267). Only a small quantity of outer air is at most
seasons requisite for lowering the temperature of a hothouse, and this can be
admitted by opening sashes or ventilators in the upper part of the roof. In
roofs with sliding sashes, the upper sashes along the whole line of roof may
be let down uniformly, if the house be at an equal temperature throughout,
and rather more at the hottest part, if it is of unequal temperature. The
width opened need seldom exceed half an inch or an inch in the winter time ;
but in summer it may be much larger, according to the temperature to be
kept up in the house, and other circumstances. If the roof should be a fixed
one, then a narrow opening might be made in the upper angle of the roof
along the whole length of the house ; and the cover to this opening might
be raised simultaneously and uniformly by lines and pulleys or other means,
which need not be detailed. A portion of the heated air of the house will
escape by this opening, while a portion of the outer air will enter to take its
place, mixing as it descends with the heated air, and becoming, by this means,
heated to a certain extent before it reaches the plants. The great object in
ventilating houses which are kept at a high temperature is to avoid thorough-
draughts, which are always produced when ventilators in the front and back
are opened at the same time. Even in houses kept at a low temperature,
such tis greenhouses and conservatories, it is always desirable in the winter
season to admit the air from the roof only, and not from the sides. In sum-
mer, when the temperature of the outer air is as high as that of the house
ought to be, openings may be made in every direction at pleasure. In
stoves the precaution of covering the openings of the upper part of the roof,
218 FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING
by which air is given, with wire netting, might be taken, which, while it
excludes wasps and flies in summer, would in winter act like Jeffrey's Respi-
rator, in abstracting the heat from the heated air which escaped, and im-
parting it to the cold air which entered ; or the double tube recommended by
Dr. Amott in his Treatise on Warming and Ventilating, might be adopted, and
probably with much more success than it can be in dwelling-houses. In hot-
beds it is customary to leave openings for the escape of moist vapour during
the whole of the night ; this is generally done by raising the sashes behind,
but, as by this mode the steam from the dung is sometimes driven in, some
gardeners have a narrow opening in the upper part of the sash, with a lid to fit
to it, hinged along the upper edge. The only difficulty that can occur in
ventilation, is in the case of houses heated to a high temperature by brick
flues not air-tight, and in which the atmosphere is unavoidably more or less
charged with noxious gases; but in this case, unless provision has been
made for heating the air before it enters the house, we know of no better
mode than opening the top sashes or ventilators more or less during the finest
part of every day ; and if the parts to be opened are covered with very fine
wire netting, it is presumed no chill will be given to the plants, and no greater
dryness created than can be readily moistened by the water evaporated from
the cisterns over the flues. The external air may be heated in the winter
season before it is allowed to enter the house, by enclosing a part of the pipes
or smoke flues, in a trunk or box with a communication at the lower part of
one end with the open air, and at the upper part of the other with the air of
the house. So long as the pipes are kept at a temperature considerably above
that of the house, fresh air will flow in, and a corresponding quantity will be
displaced by the accidental crevices of the roof.
512, The agitation of the air in the house, with or without the introduc-
tion of fresh air, may be effected by cross drains in Mr. Penn's manner,
but omitting the covering of the pipes, and the upright tubes, and placing
the pipes in the front of the house, or round it when it is glass on all sides.
The cross drains, also, we would form of double sides and covers ; or of
earthenware tubes nine or ten inches in diameter, placed within other
earthenware tubes four inches wider, in order to retain a vacuity between
them ; or, for a similar reason, the tubes may be placed in brick drains. The
use of the vacuity is to prevent the loss of heat, wrhich would ensue from
its absorption by the sides of the drains, when they were at a lower tempe-
rature than the air of the house which passed through them. The inner
tube may be covered with water, as in the case of the common brick drain
used by Mr. Penn.
513. Light is one of the elements of culture as essential as heat (278).
When the object is merely to grow plants without fruiting them, the propor-
tion of glass may be small, provided it be pretty equally distributed over the
roof; but when the object is to produce flowers and fruit, the proportion of
glass to the wood or metal of the roof ought to be greater. In nurserymen's
houses for growing plants, the most economical size of panes, or width be-
tween the sash bars, is five inches or six inches by three inches ; and the ordi-
nary breadth for houses in which plants are to be flowered is from seven to
nine inches. The panes in the latter case are generally made square, and in
glazing one is made to lap over the other from one-eighth to one-fourth of an
inch. In general one-eighth of an inch is quite sufficient ; the broader the
laps, the greater is the quantity of water which they retain, and the more
PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS. 219
liable is the glass to breakage when the water so retained becomes frozen.
This lap is sometimes entirely, and sometimes partially, rendered air
and water tight by putty. In the former case it prevents the water which
condenses on the inside of the glass from escaping to the outside ; and in the
latter, while it allows the condensed water to escape, it also retains, by the
attraction of cohesion, as much as fills the space between the lap ; and this
water in severe weather is apt to freeze, and by its expansion when under-
going that operation, the glass is broken. By having the laps uuputtied, not
only is there great danger from breakage by frost, but much heated air
escapes during cold weather, and rain is apt to be blown into the house during
high winds in certain directions. It is better, therefore, in the opinion of
most scientific gardeners, to putty the laps and render them water- proof ; to
accomplish which in an efficient and economical manner, Mr. Forsyth
proposes a lap three-eighths of an inch broad, (in our opinion a greater
breadth than is necessary), with the space between filled in with soft putty
in the usual manner, and then carefully to paint the joinings of the glass,
both the under lap and the over lap, and also the putty between, in the fol-
lowing manner : — Let the upper edge of the paint on both sides of the lap
run in the direction of d, e, in fig. 155, thus directing all the water which
Fig. 155. Lap of glass panes puttied and painted.
condenses on the inside or falls on the outside down the centre of the squares.
The only disadvantage attending close-puttying the lap is, that the con-
densed water, when the roof is very flat, sometimes drops on the plants : but
if the house is kept at a proper temperature, the water that drops in this
manner wrill do little injury, and will be speedily taken up by the dry air
which has just parted from it. In particular cases, where the drip falls on a
plant, it may be directed to a point where it will do no injury, by a simple
process pointed out by Mr. Rogers, viz., to fix at places where the drip will
do no injury, small pieces of cobblers' wax or putty, which, by interrupting
the descendant current, will cause it to drop down. The drip, however, is
much more common from the bars between the glass than from the glass
itself, and to these Mr. Rogers's plan is peculiarly applicable. One great
argument for puttying the laps is, that the moisture of the atmosphere,
though it may be condensed on the glass, is not, if proper means are taken
to retain it at the bottom of the sloping glass, allowed to escape from the
house, but must be reabsorbed by the air which deposited it, somewhat in
the same manner that takes place in growing plants in closed glass cases.
These cases being air-tight, when the temperature within is greater than that
without, moisture is deposited on the glass, and after some time runs down
and settles along the inside of the rim ; whence, when the temperature within
is raised to the same height as before, it is again taken up and held in sus-
pension in the form of elastic vapours. In the case of air-tight stoves, nearly
the same process must be constantly going on ; but few have hitherto been
built sufficiently air-tight for this purpose. One of the greatest improve-
220 FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING
ments that have taken place in the glazing of plant-structures of every
description, is the introduction of sheet window-glass, which, while it is
nearly as thick and strong as plate-glass, is not much dearer than crown-
glass. The thickness of this glass varies from one-eighth of an inch to
something more than one-sixteenth, and either thickness may be used in
lengths of from two feet to five feet. In the grand conservatory at Chats-
worth, the panes are three feet nine inches in length, that being the length
of the side of the ridge, and they are six inches in width, so that no occasion
is required for a lap. Ridge and furrow houses, when this kind of glass is
used, may be made nearly air-tight. In the grand conservatory in the
Horticultural Society's garden, the same kind of glass is used, and the panes
are sixteen inches by twelve inches. This house is remarkably well glazed,
and the laps are all puttied. Indeed, if this were not the case, it would be
almost impossible to heat such a lofty structure with glass on all sides ;
but this glass being very even, as well as thick and strong, the laps are not
more than three-sixteenths of an inch, and "do not retain any water, which,
indeed, from the temperature within being seldom greater than that without,
is not often deposited on it.
513. Water is commonly supplied to plants in hothouses by hand ; but
pipes, pierced with small holes, have been arranged under the roof, which in
turning on water from a cistern above the level will throw down a shower
at pleasure. For lofty houses, such as the palm stoves of Messrs. Lod-
diges, the inventors of this system, this mode of watering is very eligible, and
it might also frequently be adopted in conservatories attached to dwelling-
houses, the cistern being in the upper part of the house. As a luxury, the
noise of the artificial shower, and the drops of rain, in a warm summer's
evening when all is arid without, will more than compensate for the expense.
As water should never be applied to plants at a lower temperature than the
mean of the atmosphere which they grow in, there should be a cistern in
every house, of sufficient capacity to supply all the water which can be
wanted at any one time, placed over the flues or hot-water pipes in such a
manner as soon to be heated by them. In plant-houses these cisterns may
be used to a certain extent for growing aquatics ; but in this case only a small
portion of water should be taken from the cisterns at a time, so that the
addition of cold water may not chill the plants. To prevent the rose of
the watering-pot from being choked from the leaves or other matters in such
water, watering-pots with the grating described by Mr. Beaton (425) should
be used.
514. The different kinds of fixed structures for plants, are — the pit, the
greenhouse, the orangery, the conservatory, the botanic stove, the pine stove,
and the forcing-house ; and we shall conclude this section by shortly noticing
the characteristic features of each of these, and their varieties.
515. Pits are low buildings with glass roofs, but without glass in the sides
or ends. The angle of the roof is between 15° and 25° with the horizon,
and the surrounding walls are generally built of brick, and hollow, or in
some kinds of pits, they are pigeon-holed, or with thin panels to admit the
heat of exterior casings. The provision for heating varies from the mere
power of retaining natural heat, by coverings of glass or other materials, to
7f>° or 80°, or upwards of artificial heat, which may be supplied either by
fermenting materials alone, by these and fire-heat combined, or by fire -heat
alone. The cold pit is without any artificial source of heating, and in some
PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS. 221
its walls are of turf or earth ; and instead of glass sashes, frames of reeds, or
boards, or thatched hurdles, or other coverings, are substituted. The cold pit is
used for protecting plants in pots not in a growing state, or for preserving culi-
nary vegetables from the frost. In warm situations and dry soil, it has a thick
mound of earth, or thick wall of turf, which in either case should be coped
so as to be kept as dry as possible. Even in the case of brick pits, an outer
casing of dry turf prevents to a very great extent the effects of frost, and
sudden changes of temperature. The casing may also be made of boards,
where great neatness is an object, leaving a cavity to be filled with coal-
ashes, charcoal, dry sand, or other non-conducting materials. In pits of this
kind, with glass sashes instead of opaque covers, many hard-wooded green-
house plants, such as camellias, myrtacese, heaths, &c. may baserved through
the winter without any artificial heat, care being taken to adapt the nightly
coverings to the weather. The usual width of such pits is from six to eight
feet ; height of the back wall, three to five feet ; and of the front wall, two
to three feet. A pit to be heated by a bed of tan within, and exterior cases
of dung, may be of the same or larger dimensions, with the back and front
wall pigeon-holed or panelled, (490), and with boarded covers to protect the
linings from rain and wind, hinged to the wall -plate. Instead of exterior
linings for supplying extra heat, flues or hot- water pipes may be introduced
along the front and ends, or entirely round the pit ; sometimes with a plat-
form of boards over them for plants in pots, or even for a bed of soil, but more
frequently separated from the bed of tan by a narrow wall, or by a partition of
plates or flag-stones. The width of the bark-bed in such pits is seldom less
than five or six feet, and eighteen inches of additional width is necessary for
the front flue, or six-inch pipes ; and double these widths if the flues or pipes
are carried round the house. For the more convenient management of pits,
they are sometimes constructed sufficiently high behind to admit of walking
upright there ; and a passage for that purpose is left at the back, of three or
four feet in width, and a door made in one end. The roof over the
passage is generally opaque and sloping to the north, as in fig. 157. To the
possessor of a small garden, and
an amateur, this is a very de-
sirable description of pit, as in
it he may grow almost every-
thing, provided he does not
attempt too many kinds of
culture at once. The form is
very economical, from there
Fig. K6. Span-roofed pit, with the roof over the path opaque- being as IllUch SUl'faCC of pit as
there is covering of glass ; and the interior is very comfortable to work in, as
the operator need not stoop. If the ends were made of glass, it would be an
improvement, by admitting the morning and evening sun : it would then,
however, be entitled to be called a small house, instead of a pit. The sashes
of all pits are made to slide between rafters which are fixed to the plates of
wood, which form, partially or wholly, the copings to the walls. There
should be a bolt to each sash for fixing it when shut, and also when let down
for giving air, in order that there may be no risk of its being blown off by
high winds ; and all the sashes ought to admit of being readily taken off, for
the purpose of taking out, and putting in dung, tan, or other materials.
When the pit is ten or twelve feet in width the sashes may be in two lengths,
Q
222
FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING
the one sliding over the other; the upper sash sliding on ledges formed in the
rafters, so as to render it independent of the lower sash. In general, short
sashes for pits last much longer, and occasion much less hreakage of the glass
than long ones, from their leverage being so much less. The roofs of all
pits ought to have coverings, and the best material, hi our opinion, is boards,
as, where glass is so flat as it generally is in pits and frames, it is apt to get
dirtied by straw mats, unless these are put over a covering of bass mats. Fig.
J57 is an excellent plan of a pit or small house, with a span-roof all of glass,
a, Back path.
6, Bark pit, 50 ft. long in the
clear.
c, Exterior pit for dung
casing, to revive the heat.
d d, Gratings to drains.
e, Stink-trap to drain.
Fig. 157. Ground plan of a pit to be heated in Mr. Corbett's manner.
designed by Mr. Glendinning, for general purposes, and heated by Corbett's
hot- water apparatus. Mr. Corbett's system appeal's to be better adapted
for pits than for larger and longer houses, where its heating power would
probably not be sufficient, or be unequal from the slowness of the circulation
in consequence of the water-troughs being necessarily on a dead level. Mr.
Glendinning's pit, however, may be heated by any mode, not even excepting
a smoke flue. Fig. 158 is a section of this pit, showing :
/,/, Glass roof. g, Bark pit.
A, Back path.
i, Pit for dung casing. *, Drain.
Hinged cover of ledged boards,
to protect the dung from the
rain and wind.
m, Ground lino.
n, Suspended shelf for strawberry
pots.
o, Slate shelf for pots.
p, Stink-trap communicating with
the cross-drain (q) ,which leads to
the main or barrel-built drain (k).
r, Corbett's hot-water apparatus.
s, Hollow wall of bricks on edge.
Fig. 158. Cross section of a pit to be heated on CorbetCs system, or by smolsc-Jliies.
Pits or low houses have been formed with glass on all sides, and span roofs
(see Gard. Mag. vol. vii. p. 290) ; but from the great quantity of glass in
proportion to the surface of floor enclosed, they become too expensive for
general purposes, and, unless furnished with a warm covering, the extensive
surface of glass occasions an injurious degree of radiation.
516. The greenhouse is a light, airy structure, with a glass roof at an angle
of 35° or 40° with the horizon, and upright glass in front and at the ends ; and
with the means of heating sufficient to keep out frost, and in humid weather
to dry up damp. The plants are grown in pots placed on a stage, or range
of shelves rising one above another from a path in front, to within six or
seven feet of the upper angle of the back wall. Between the front path and
the upright glass, there is a broad shelf on a level with the lowest shelf of
the stage, for small plants that require to be near the light. All the front
and roof sashes are made to move, because it is frequently necessary to
admit a free circulation of the external atmosphere ; and coverings are
seldom applied, because a very little fire-heat is found to exclude the frost.
PLANTS WITH GLASS ROOFS. 223
This is the common or normal form of the greenhouse, when it ia placed
against a wall, or the side or end of a dwelling-house, and facing the south
or some point between south-east and south-west ; but much more elegant
forms, of the curvilineal or ridge and furrow kind (483 and 484), may be
adopted, and where the expense of fire-heat is not an object, it may face
the east or west, or be constructed of glass on all sides. For placing against
a wall in a flower-garden we should prefer a curvilineal structure, with ends
of the same kind, and an architectural entrance, either in the back wall, as
in fig. 129, p. 190, or in front ; but against a dwelling-house, and on a
small scale, we should recommend the ridge and furrow construction, as
from the ease with which the roof may be partially or wholly concealed, it is
the most easily rendered architectural.
517. The orangery is an architectural building, more like a living-room
than a plant- structure, with large windows and narrow piers in front and at
the ends, and with an opaque roof. It is used for preserving orange-trees
and other large plants which are in a dormant state during winter ; and the
power of heating is about the same as that for the greenhouse ; but, from the
roof being opaque, less extent of flue or hot- water pipe is required. Plant-
structures of this description are chiefly wanted in large establishments ; but
as architectural appendages to a house they may sometimes be advantageously
introduced in small villas, the area of the orangery being used in the summer
time, when the orange-trees and other plants usually kept in it are set in
the open garden, as a place for prolonging the beauty of plants in bloom,
and for other purposes.
518. The conservatory differs from the orangery and the greenhouse in
being more lofty and architectural, and in having the plants growing in a
bed of soil which forms the floor of the house. As the plants in a conserva-
tory are generally kept growing through the winter, a power of heating is
required greater than that of the orangery ; and when it is joined to a
dwelling-house, and is to be frequently walked in by the inmates, greater
than that of a greenhouse. The temperature during the night should not
be under 45°, nor need it be raised higher during bright sunshine than 55°
or 60°. The forms, and other particulars relative to the construction and
adaptation of conservatories, have already been given in the Suburban Archi-
tect and Landscape Gardener.
519. Botanic stoves are of various kinds; but with respect to temperature
and moisture they may be reduced to the dry stove, the damp stove, and the
intermediate or bark stove. The first requires abundance of light and a
power of heating from zero to 60° in the winter season, and is chiefly used
for growing succulents ; the second requires less intensity of light, but a
power of heating equal to 80° in the winter season above the external air ;
for although such will seldom be required, yet it is better to have too much
than too little heating power. In the damp stove there must also be a power of
saturating the atmosphere with moisture at all seasons ; as it is chiefly used
for growing Orchidaceous plants and ferns. The intermediate or common
botanic stove requires the same power of heating as the last, but more light
and much more space, as it is used for growing the trees and shrubs of
tropical climates. These are commonly kept in pots, and very frequently
plunged in a bark -bed, whence this kind of house, before the use of damp-
stoves, was called the bark-stove, to distinguish it from the dry-stove.
520. The pine stove is a low structure, always with a bark or other bed
224 EDIFICES USED IN HORTICULTURE.
in which the pots are to be plunged, and differing in little from a large pit
(515), excepting that it is generally arranged so as to admit of growing crops
of grapes as well as pines. The glass roof is generally placed at some angle
between 25° and 35°, and the power of heating should be equal to 70°
during winter. A power of communicating atmospheric moisture should
be at command as in the common botanic stove.
521. Forcing-houses are chiefly employed for bringing forward early
crops of grapes, peaches, cherries, or other fruits, and for producing early
culinary vegetables of different kinds, or flowers. The power of heating
varies with the season of forcing and the kind of fruit to be forced ; but it
should not be less than 60°, with a command of atmospheric moisture.
Sometimes the trees are trained on trellises one or two feet within the glass ;
and sometimes they are partly trained under the glass, and partly on the
back wall. In either case, the narrower the house, the more readily is it
heated either by fire or the sun. As these details vary with the kind of
trees and plants to be forced, they belong more properly to the next division
of this work. See Practice of Horticulture^ Forcing-Garden.
522. A Plant-structure for all or any of the above purposes. — The pit,
fig. 157 in p. 221, or that shown in figs. 158 and 159, p. 222, will answer for
any one of the purposes for which orangeries, greenhouses, and stoves are
erected. Orange-trees and similar plants, in a dormant state, may be pre-
served through the winter in such pits with ample coverings, and scarcely
any artificial heat ; greenhouse plants, with very little heat ; dry-stove plants,
with a little more heat ; damp-stove plants, with increased temperature and
moisture ; other stove plants, till they attain a certain size ; pine-apples, to
the highest degree of perfection ; and fruit-trees trained to trellises under the
glass may be forced, as may be also every description of culinary vegetable,
not excepting mushrooms, which may be grown in a portion of the bark-bed,
or in shelves against the back wall, or in arched recesses or vaults under
the tan of the pit. In short, there is nothing in the way of culture that
may not be carried on to the highest degree of perfection in these pits,
provided that all the large-growing plants are trained on trellises close under
the glass ; but the airy elegance of the greenhouse, the grandeur and pictu-
resque luxuriance of the conservatory, and the tropical aspect of the lofty
botanic stove, are not to be expected from the^n.
Subsect. 3. — Edifices used in Horticulture.
The edifices required in horticulture are chiefly the head gardener's
house, the journeyman gardener's lodge, the fruit-room, the seed and herb-
room, the root-cellar, the tool-house, and the potting and working sheds.
523. The gardener s house, wherever there are many plant- structures,
should be as near the garden as possible ; but it should by no means form an
object in the scenery of the garden. Like what the house of every man
ought to be, the occupant should possess it as his castle for the time being.
It may be wholly or partially veiled by trees; but within whatever
boundary it is placed perfect liberty should prevail; and this cannot be
the case where the inmates are either constrained to remain in-doors, or
when they go out be forced into contact with their superiors, to the
annoyance of both parties. Besides a kitchen and sleeping-rooms, the gar-
dener's house should contain at least one good parlour. All the fixtures and
EDIFICES USED IN HORTICULTURE. 225
principal articles of furniture should be the property of the proprietor of
the garden, and valued to the gardener on his entering on the situation, and
again valued on his leaving it ; he paying any difference in value which
may have been occasioned by use. This is not the general practice, though
it is fast spreading, and deservedly so, because it must occasion less pain to~
a considerate master to part with a married servant under such circumstances,
and less inconvenience to the gardener when he leaves his place, without
perhaps knowing where he shall find another.
624. The journeyman gardeners lodge, and all the other edifices men-
tioned, are generally included in the sheds behind the different plant-
structures; because they tend to keep the latter warm, and because the
high back wall of the hothouses existing at any rate, they can be erected
there more economically than anywhere else. It has been observed, how-
ever, by a number of gardeners, both hi England and Scotland, that living-
rooms at the back of hothouses are not healthy ; and that those that are
situated at the back of stoves are still more unhealthy than those at the
back of greenhouses, or other plant-structures where less heat is required.
Damp and want of ventilation are the probable causes ; for which reason we
should recommend the journeyman-gardener's rooms to be separated from
the back wall of the plant-house against which they are built by a vacuity,
communicating above and below with the open air. The floor should be
raised at least a foot above the general surface, and should have an ample
vacuity below it, which on the one side may communicate with the vacuity
between the walls, and on the other with the open air. This will ensure a
current of air through both these vacuities, which will be sufficient to carry
off damp, and to prevent the ill effects of the excessive heat from the plant-
structure. Another point which ought to be attended to in the construction
of living-rooms behind hothouses is, to have larger windows and more of
them than is usual ; and always to have them carried up within a few
inches of the ceiling, in order that air may be admitted from the top as well
as from the bottom of the window. See note in the Appendix.
525. The fruit-room should have a double roof, or roof with a ceiling, a
hollow front wall, and double doors and windows, so as to maintain an
equable temperature. It should be divided into at least two apartments,
so completely separated from each other as to prevent the air of that in which
the early ripening fruits are placed from contaminating that in which the
late ripening sorts are deposited. Both apartments should be fitted up with
broad shelves of open work of white deal, or of some wood without resin or
other qualities that would give a flavour to the fruit ; and there ought to be
bins or portable boxes for preserving fruit packed in sand, fern, hay, bran,
kiln-dried straw, leaves or blossoms of the beach or chestnut, or other ma-
terials. The fronts of the shelves should have a narrow ledge, on which
temporary labels can be pasted, indicating the names of the fruits, and when
they ought to be fit for use, &c. Where fruit is to be frequently packed
for sending to a distance, there should be a third apartment for containing the
packing materials, and for packing in. Where there is danger from damp
or heat, the back wall and floor can have vacuities as in the journeyman's
room, with stoppers to the outlets, to be used in severe weather.
520. The seed-room should adjoin the fruit-room at one end, and the
tool-house at the other. It should contain a cabinet fitted up with drawers
for seeds ; an open airy case, with drawers for bulbs ; shelves for catalogues,
226 EDIFICES USED IN HORTICULTURE.
a book-case, partitioned off, because moths are apt to be introduced along
with some kinds of seeds, for a garden-library, unless this is kept in the
head gardener's house as a part of his furniture ; a press for compressing
dried herbs into cakes, to be afterwards wrapped up so as to be air-tight in
paper, and kept in drawers to be taken out as wanted for the kitchen ;
and a variety of minor articles, some of which have been mentioned (389),
and others will occur in practice.
527. Root-cellar and other conveniences. — Underneath the fruit or seed-
room, if the soil is dry, there may be a cellar for preserving dahlia-roots,
bulbs, potatoes, &c. ; though, on a small scale, the seed-room and some part
of the sheds may serve as substitutes. A mushroom- house, and a house for
forcing rhubarb and succory, and for producing early potatoes by a particular
process which may be carried on in the dark, may also form part of the back
sheds ; and a supply of water by a pump or well, or by a large cistern, sup-
plied by an hydraulic ram, or other means; and conveniences for liquid
manure, lime-water, &c., &c., must not be forgotten. In short, whatever is
wanting for the cultivation and management of a garden, exclusive of plant-
structures and the gardener's house, should be provided for in the back sheds ;
and, as a general principle, it may be laid down that every plant-structure
that has a back shed should have a direct communication with it by means of
a door in the back wall. By means of this communication much time is
saved in conveying articles from the shed to the house, and the contrary ;
fires can be more promptly attended to, and, above all, plants in pots can be
taken into the shed and examined or shifted, without exposing them to the
open air.
628. The tool-house should adjoin the seed-room, and should be fitted up
as before indicated (389). The potting-sheds should contain, facing the
windows, benches for potting on, and ample space for pots, crocks, potting
trowels, stakes, ties, tallies, bell-glasses, and a variety of other articles. Soils
are in general fresher, and in a better state, when kept in the open air ;
but still there ought to be bins for sand, peat, leaf-mould, and some other
kinds in constant use.
629. Open Sheds. — A portion of the sheds open in front ought to be set
apart for tanner's bark, and other portions for hotbed-frames and such like
portable structures, or articles that would be injured by exposure to the
weather when not in use ; one for sticks for peas, props for plants, mats,
coal or wood for fuel, and for other purposes. In short, there can hardly be
too much shed-room ; for besides all the ordinary purposes mentioned, a
portion of it may be sometimes required for preserving deciduous greenhouse
plants through the winter for which there is not room in the plant-structures,
such as large Fuchsias, Brugmansias, pomegranates, and many other plants
which are turned out into the open garden during summer. If there is no
regular mushroom-house, that vegetable may be grown in the open shed, on
dung ridges covered with hay and mats. Tart rhubarb and sea kale, may
be forced there, protected by mats supported on hoops ; peas and beans for
early crops may be germinated before being transplanted into the open
garden ; and indeed there is no end to the objects that may be effected
within open sheds, while on their roofs onions may be dried in wet seasons;
a practice very general in Scotland and in the north of England.
HORTICULTURAL LABOURS ON T11E SOIL. 227
CHAPTER III.
OPERATIONS OF HORTICULTURE.
THE operations of Horticulture are very numerous, but they may be all
included under operations in which strength and mechanical skill are chiefly
required in the operator ; those which imply a considerable degree of know-
ledge of vegetable physiology ; those in which to a knowledge of plants and
their culture requires to be added some acquaintance with the principles of
design and taste ; and those in which is required a knowledge of the general
principles of business. The first may be called Horticultural Labours ; the
second, Operations of Culture ; the third, Operations of Horticultural Design
and Taste ; and the fourth, Operations of General Management.
SECT. I. — Horticultural Labours.
530. Labours differ from operations in being of a coarser and commoner
kind, and hence requiring but a small portion of that skill which may be
strictly considered as professional : they are, in short, such as every person
living in the country ought to be able to perform, either as a matter of
business, as in the case of the working man ; or as a matter of recreation, as
in the case of a man of wealth or leisure. All mechanical labours may be
resolved into the elementary movements of lifting, carrying, drawing, and
pushing ; and in whichever way these are combined, or to whichever imple-
ments they are applied, the result will depend on the quantity of matter in
the implement, and the rapidity or motion with which it is lifted, carried,
drawn, or pushed.
SUBSECT. I.— Horticultural Labours on the Soil.
531. Object of labours on the soil. — Before any labour on the soil is com-
menced, the labourer, or his director, ought to bear in mind the relations of
the soil to heat, air, and moisture, as laid down in Part I., chap. ii. The
objects for which the soil is laboured are, pulverization, to render it more
readily penetrated by the roots of plants, and by heat, air, moisture, and
sometimes by frost ; to allow superfluous moisture to escape into the subsoil ;
to mix the upper and lower parts of the upper stratum of soil together ; to
mix the coarser and finer parts together; to add or mix in earths or
manure ; to free the soil from root or perennial weeds, stones, or other ob-
jects unfavourable for culture ; and to destroy surface or annual weeds. The
grand sources of heat to soil are the sun and the atmosphere, including rain
at a higher temperature than the soil ; and the sources of cold, or of the
abstraction of heat are, rain at a lower temperature than the soil, frost, snow,
ice, and where draining has been neglected, subterraneous water. The
greatest degree of cold produced by these causes, excepting the last, will
always be found on the surface of the soil, and the best mode of supplying
the heat that has been abstracted will be by leaving the surface to the action
of the sun and of the air. By digging or trenching down a cold surface heat
is abstracted from the soil, the natural temperature of which will in that
case be lowered ; and thus a plant grown in a soil so treated, will be, in so far
as bottom heat is concerned, worse than if it were in a state of nature, in
which heat abstracted by the air is always restored by it The average tem-
perature of the surface soil in most countries is believed to be nearly the
228 HORTICULTURAL LABOURS ON THE SOIL.
same as that of the atmosphere ; but by considering all the causes that con-
tribute to the warmth of a soil, there can be little doubt but in many cases
its average temperature might be increased. The colour and texture of some
soils is better adapted for absorbing heat than others, and the inclination of the
surface of soil is of as much importance in deriving heat from the direct
action of the sun's rays, as we have just seen (482) the surface of glass roofs
to be. Hence the advantage of laying up soil in narrow ridges, which, when
in the direction of east and west, very soon become much drier and warmer
on one side than on the other. Rain, though in the cold season it abstracts
heat from the soil, yet in spring and summer, being of the temperature of the
atmosphere, it communicates heat more effectually than air, because, under
ordinary circumstances, it penetrates deeper, in consequence of its greater
specific gravity ; and as it requires 289 times as much coal to heat one cubic
foot of water as would be required to heat the same bulk of air to the same
degree, so is the quantity of heat which water of a given bulk will give out
to soil greater than what will be communicated by the same bulk of air.
Water, in a frozen state, though injurious as abstracting heat, is in many
cases favourable by contributing to the pulverization of stiff soils, which are
laid up in a rough state, in order to expose as large a surface as possible to be
cooled and frozen during winter, and to be thawed and heated during spring.
The retention of moisture by pulverization is an important object of labouring
the soil. All properly cultivated soils hold water like a sponge, while in un-
laboured soils the rains either never penetrate the surface, or they sink into
the subsoil and are lost, or are retained by it and prove injurious. Wind,
like rain, will communicate heat or abstract it from soil, according to its
temperature and the rapidity of its motion ; but as in either case it carries off
moisture in proportion to its dryness and velocity, it is in general in cold
climates much more favourable than hurtful for soils, considered apart from
the plants which grow in them. If possible no operation should be performed
on the soil excepting when it is in a dry state, and when the weather is also
dry. Moist soil cannot be dug without first treading on it, and thus making
it into a kind of paste or mortar, which renders it unfit for being pierced by
the fibres of plants, and prevents it from being penetrated either by moisture
or air ; and water in the form of ice or snow, if dug in, abstracts that heat
from the soil which, as we have already seen, it ought to derive direct from
the atmosphere. u A pound of snow (newly fallen) requires an equal weight
of water heated to 172° to melt it, and then the dissolved mixture is only of
the temperature of 32°. Ice requires the water to be a few degrees warmer
to produce the same result. When ice or snow is allowed to remain on the
surface, the quantity of heat necessary to reduce it to a fluid state is obtained
chiefly from the atmosphere ; but when buried so that the atmospheric heat
cannot act directly upon it, the thawing must be very slowly effected by the
abstraction of heat from the soil by which the frozen mass is surrounded. In-
stances have occurred of frozen soil not being completely thawed at midsum-
mer when so buried. But this is not the whole of the evil : — the moisture of
the air which fills the interstices of the soil wrill be continually undergoing
condensation as it comes in contact with the cold portions, and these will be
found in a very saturated condition, even after they have become thawed." —
(Robert Thompson in Gard. Chron. Feb. 6, 1841, p. 89.) All these and similar
facts ought to be kept constantly in mind while performing the operations of
digging, trenching, forking, hoeing, raking, and rolling.
HORTICULTURAL LABOURS ON THE SOIL.
229
532. Marking with the garden line is an operation preparatory to various
others, and it consists in stretching and fixing the line or cord along the sur-
face of the ground, or sometimes, as in clipping edgings and hedges, at some
distance above it. When the direction is straight, two fixed points at the
extremities are sufficient ; but when it is curved, a number of intermediate
stakes or pins are requisite to bend and fix the line to the proper curvature.
Also, when the line is raised from the ground, as when stretched for cutting
straight the top of a hedge, it must be supported at a sufficient number of inter-
mediate points, otherwise a deflection will take place more or less in proportion
to the distance between the extremities of the line, its degree of tension, and
weight of materials. The ground or plants are next marked, cut, or clipped,
in the direction of the line.
533. Digging. — The use of the lever and the pick, the former in moving
large obstacles, such as stones, and the latter for perforating and raising up hard
soils or subsoils, may be considered as preparatory operations for the more per-
fect pulverization and mixture of the soil by digging. Previous to performing
this operation, if tKe surface is uneven, it should be levelled ; but as we are
treating of garden digging, we shall suppose that the surface is already in a
fit state to be dug. The first step is to fix on those parts of the plot where
the operation is to commence and finish ; which being done, a trench is to be
opened at the former place, and the earth wheeled or carried to the latter.
In most gardens where there is to be a regular course
of cropping, the compartments are rectangular, and
these are easily divided into smaller figures of the
same kind for temporary purposes, the number of
which divisions, with a view to digging or trenching,
for reasons which will presently appear, must always
be even. For example, a piece of ground of a square
form, fig. 159, a, 6,c, d, may be thrown into two pa-
rallelograms, a, /, and e, d, and the soil taken from
the trench opened from a to e can be laid down from
e to fe, where the operation will be finished,
the plot been divided into three parallelograms, trenching.
as in fig. 1GO, the soil must have been removed from g to /*, which would
have more than doubled the labour of wheeling. A
fourfold division would not, however, have been liable
to the same objection, which confirms the rule, that
the division ought always to be into equal numbers.
Where a plot is circular or oval it may be divided into
zones, and an irregular plot may be thrown into figures
approaching as near as may be to regularity. In dig-
ging for pulverization and mixture, the surface is re-
versed by the operator, and broken at the same time,
Fig. ico. A plot of ground &Q ^^ ft new gurface is exp0sed to the air. When a crop
disadvantageousiy marked *• , „ - -
off for digging or trenching, is to be sown or planted, this surface is broken more
or less fine according to the kind of crop, and in very
dry weather in summer, it is sometimes raked smooth as the digging
proceeds, to lessen the evaporation of moisture. When the ground is not
to be immediately cropped, it is commonly "rough dug," that is, laid
up in unbroken spitfuls, so as to present as large a surface as possible
to the action of the weather ; and afterwards, when a crop is to be intro-
„.
TT , Fig. 159. A plot of ground pro-
Had reriy marked off for digging or
230 HORTICULTURAL LABOURS ON THE SOIL.
duced on ground which has been " rough dug," it is " pointed," or slightly
dug and smoothed on the surface. " Double digging " is in horticulture what
subsoil ploughing is in agriculture ; the surface soil is kept on the surface, but
the bottom of the trench is dug over as the work proceeds, and the soil turned
over, but still kept in the bottom of the trench. By many this is called
" bastard trenching." " Baulk digging" is an operation for rapidly exposing
a large surface to the atmosphere, and consists in taking out a line of spitfuls
and laying them on a line of firm ground, so that only half the ground is
moved. It is only used where economy is a main object, and where the soil
being tenacious, will be much benefited by exposing a large surface to the
frost. When soil, compost, or manure is to be dug in, it is previously distri-
buted over the ground in heaps, by the aid of the wheelbarrow, and spread
over the surface in moderate portions at a time, if loss will be sustained by
evaporation ; but if soil, such as sand or burnt clay, or a compost of lime and
earth, is to be dug in, the whole may be spread over the soil at once ; as the
drier it becomes before being dug in, the better it will mix with the soil (see
172). In every description of digging the trench should be in a straight
direction, from one side of the plot to the other, and equally wide throughout ;
or if curved, the same curvature should be maintained throughout ; for if the
trench is increased in length, it becomes lessened in capacity, and the soil can
neither be moved to the proper depth, nor sufficiently mixed. It is unneces-
sary to repeat what we have introduced as a general rule, viz., that digging
ought never, if possible, to be performed when the soil is wet, or the surface
frozen, or covered with snow or ice ; but it may be proper to add, that small
stones or roots, or other rough porous bodies, ought seldom to be picked out
of soils ; because the former retain moisture, and tend to consolidate light soils ;
while the latter retain air, and have a tendency to lighten such as are too
compact. Hence the practice occasionally resorted to, of mixing pieces of free-
stone in peat soil, in which heaths are grown; and of digging in sawdust, spent-
tan, or decayed branches and spray chopped up, in strong clays. Stones also
having a greater capacity for heat than soil, form a source of that element,
when the soil has been cooled by rain or other means. When stones lie on
the surface of the soil they absorb more heat during the day than the soil will
do, and give out more during the night, till they become of a lower tempera-
ture than the atmosphere, when dew is deposited on them, and hence they
become a source of moisture as well as of heat.
534. Trenching. — The object of trenching is to increase the depth of soil
fit for plants, by which means it becomes a larger reservoir of air, mois-
ture, and of manure, and in the case of plants which do not permanently
occupy the soil, it admits of entirely changing the surface, so as to bring up
fresh soil every time the ground is trenched. The plot to be trenched is
marked out by a line, exactly in the same manner as in digging ; but instead
of a narrow furrow which suffices for that operation, a trench at least as
broad as the depth to which the ground is to be moved, say from two to three
feet, is marked off and opened, the soil being wheeled to the place of finishing,
as in digging. The next point to determine is, whether the whole of the
soil to be moved is to be equally mixed together ; whether the subsoil only is
to be mixed, and the surface soil still kept on the surface; or whether the
surface is to be laid in the bottom of the trench, and the subsoil laid on the
top.
535. In trenching ground that is to be cropped with culinary vegetables for
HORTICULTURAL LABOURS ON THE SOIL. 231
the first time, the whole of the soil turned over should be equally mixed
together, manure or compost being added and incorporated at the same time.
When the ground of a kitchen garden has been originally trenched in this
manner to the depth of three feet, a fresh surface may be exposed for cropping
every year, by the following practice, recommended by Mr. Nicol : — " Take
three crops off the first surface, then trench three spits deep, by which the
bottom and top are reversed, and the middle remains in the middle ; take three
crops off this surface, and then trench two spits, by which the top becomes the
middle, and the middle the top ; and take also three crops off this surface, and
then trench three spits, by which that which was last the middle, and now-
top, becomes the bottom, and that which is now the bottom, and was the
surface at first, now becomes surface again, after having rested six years.
Proceed in this manner alternately, the one time trenching two spits, and the
other three ; by which means the surface will always be changed, and will
rest six years and produce three." (NicoTs Scotch Gardener , 2dedit., p. 202.)
536. In the operation of trenching, when the object is to reverse the surface,
the firm soil is loosened, lifted, and thrown into the trench in strata, which,
when completed, will hold exactly the reverse positions which they did in
the firm ground ; but when the object is to mix the soil throughout, or when
the surface soil is to be kept uppermost, the face of the surface of the moved
ground must be kept in a sloping position, hi order that every spitful thrown
on it may be deposited in the proper place, with a view to mixture. The
simplest and best mode of trenching, with a view to this object, and provided
only one man is to be employed for every other object of trenching, is to line
out the ground into an even number of strips of three or four feet broad ; to
open a trench at one end of one of the corners of the plot, and to proceed from
one end to another of the strips till the whole plot has been gone over. This
mode saves much wheeling of soil, and where the plot is already level, and
care is taken to leave no firm ground between the strips, it is then unobjec-
tionable. Where the spade only is used in trenching, the operator stands on
the surface of the firm ground ; but where the pick is rendered necessary, he
for the most part stands in the bottom of the trench. " Ridge trenching" is
the term applied when the surface of the moved soil, instead of being smoothed
and levelled, is laid up in the form of a ridge, in order to benefit by exposure
to the atmosphere. Whatever mode of trenching may be adopted, it is of
great importance that the bottom of the trenches should either be level, or form
one or more regularly inclined planes, in order to carry off the superfluous
water of the surface soil. In a very retentive subsoil, if the bottom is
trenched irregularly, the places marked a, &, c, in fig. 160*, would retain
Fig. 160* Section illustrative of food and bad trenching.
stagnant water injurious to the roots of trees, £c. ; but if the bottom were
loosened so as to form a regular slope, as from d to e, the water would
gradually follow that direction.
537. Forking soil is simply stirring the surface with the broad-pronged fork,
(fig. 84, in p. 135,) which is greatly preferable to the spade for working among
the roots of growing crops. For working with litter or dung, the 'forks with
round-pointed prongs are used ; the rotundity of the prongs diminishing fric-
tion, both in inserting the fork in the dung, and in discharging the forkful.
232 HORTICULTURAL LABOURS ON THE SOIL.
Soil cannot be stirred with advantage by the fork when in a moist state, but
littery dung may be turned during rain.
538. Hoeing is a mode of stirring the soil on the surface, and at the same
time cutting up weeds or thinning out crops ; and it is effected either by the
draw hoe or the thrust hoe. Soil is also drawn up to, or taken away from,
plants ; and drills, or narrow furrows, are drawn by the former tool, of which
there are several kinds, more or less adapted for these different purposes. In
no kind of draw hoe should the plane of the blade form a right angle with
the handle, as at a, in fig. 161 ; but it should always be within a right angle,
^ _«_»—_—— more or less, as at & or c. If
the ground be soft the angle
should be more acute than when
r - - 1 -- ~~ it is hard, or when its surface is
\ much matted with weeds. This
variable angle should be pro-
vided for, partly in the forma-
tion of the eye or socket of the
Fig. 161. Diagram* showing the angle which the blades of j^g an(J partly by the
draw hoes ought to make with the handles. .« • 11 Va j.v v 1
tion of a small wedge, the heel
of which should be turned up, like those used for scythe-handles, in order
that it may be driven out at pleasure. In short, the angle which the handle
forms with the blade should be such, that when the latter is inserted in the
soil to the required depth, the blade, in being drawn towards the operator,
may retain that depth with the least possible exertion to his muscles in guiding
it ; for whatever muscular exertion is required in this way, beyond what is
necessary for overcoming the resistance of the soil, is a waste of power,
When the blade is properly set, little more is necessary than simply
drawing the tool ; but if badly set, it requires pressing down, or raising up,
as well as drawing ; or, in order to keep the blade in a proper cutting direc-
tion, one of the arms of the operator must be elevated or depressed out of its
most effective position, which is, when the hands are never much below or
above the centre of his body. The handle of the draw hoe should be held in
such a position by the operator, as that the plane of the blade should coincide
with the plane with which it cuts the soil to the proper depth, and with the
least exertion of bodily labour ; and this plane will generally be found to be at
some angle between 50° and 65° with the horizon. For this reason the handle
of a hoe ought to be considerably shorter for a short person, or for a person
stooping, than for one who is taller, or works in an upright posture ; or, in
lieu of this, the short person should hold
the handle nearer to the blade. For the
purpose of cutting weeds, or thinning out
crops in light sandy soil, a hoe with a broad
blade may be used; and of these the best
that we know is the Leicestershire or shift-
ing-blade hoe, the blades of which are
pieces of the blade of an old scythe. This
hoe is shown in fig. 162, in which d is the
head, consisting of a socket for the blade,
162. The Jeicestershire or shifting- ^d a tubular Socket Or hose for the
blade draw hoe. handle, without the blade ; 6, one of the
blades not inserted in the socket ; c, the socket with the kind of blade
HORTICULTURAL LABOURS ON THE SOIL. 233
inserted which is used for general purposes, and more especially for hoeing
between rows of drilled crops ; and a, a socket with the blade b inserted,
which is used chiefly for thinning turnips. — (See farther details of this hoe
in Gard. Mag. for 1841, p. 311.) For working in strong soil, a hoe with a
narrow stout blade is required ; and for very stiff soil, the Spanish hoe
(fig. 21, in p. 132) is the best tool. For hoeing, with a view to cut weeds,
the different descriptions of thrust-hoes are the most effective tools, espe-
cially among tall plants, but they are not calculated for stirring the soil to
any depth. A thrust-hoe with a shifting blade, like the Leicestershire draw-
hoe, would doubtless be a valuable implement.
539. Raiting is an operation used for separating the surface of soil from
stones, roots, and other extraneous matters ; for rendering even dug surfaces
or gravel ; for covering seeds ; for collecting weeds, leaves, or mown grass ;
and, in general, for smoothing, covering, and collecting. The teeth of the
rake are placed at nearly a right angle to the bar to which they are riveted,
and somewhat bent towards the handle, so that when the operator keeps the
handle at an angle of 45°, the teeth will pass through the soil at nearly that
angle, and consequently penetrate to nearly the whole length. The teeth of
iron rakes should be made with a small shoulder, neatly formed, so as to rest
flatly against the under side of the bar in which they are riveted. The
holes made in this bar for their reception should be widened below to admit
a thickening next the shoulder of the tooth, as shown in
fig. 163, for there the stress lies, and there, in nine cases out
of ten, the breakage occurs in the teeth. The rest of the
perforation should be narrow, in order not to weaken the
head-bar, a slight countersink only being required for the
rivet or clench on the upper side. The neck of the tooth is
exposed to a force, tending to bend or fracture it across ; but
when once the neck is secured, the remaining part which
passes through the head-bar has only a longitudinal tension.
The two principal uses of raking are to prepare the soil for
Fig. 1G3. Section of receiving seeds, and to render clean and even, surfaces among
the head of a gar- plants which have been recently hoed to destroy weeds.
AowtAetl'e'h^oM R^lng is tne operation which gives the finish to most others
be inserted m it. that are performed on the soil, and without which, and the
besom, no garden could be kept in high order. One of the most.common pur-
poses to which raking is applied, is covering small seeds sown broad- cast ;
and this operation requires more care and skill in the operator, than any
other which is performed with the rake. If the ground has been raked
previously to sowing the seeds, its surface will be ribbed or covered with
very small furrows left by the teeth of the rake, at regular distances and
of uniform depth : the seed being scattered evenly over the surface,
will fall one-half in the furrows, and one-half on the small ridges between
them : if in raking afterwards the teeth of the rake could be made
to split the ridges between the furrows and do nothing more, the seed
would be perfectly and equally covered ; but owing to various causes,
and principally to the unavoidable treading of the soil by the feet of
the operator, it is next to impossible to effect this ; and in consequence of
more raking being required in the hard and depressed places than in the soft
ones, as well to loosen the soil as to raise it to the proper level, the seed there
becomes too deeply covered ; and a part being drawn from the places from
234 GARDEN LABOURS WITH PLANTS.
whence the extra covering is taken, the seedling plants rise very irregularly.
There are various modes of preventing this from taking place, the more
common of which, when the surface of the soil is dry, is to " tread in " the
seed by going over the plot with a kind of shuffling movement, holding the
feet close together. Another mode is to roll the ground with a roller, more
or less heavy according to the nature of the soil ; and a third is to form the
ground into beds with narrow paths between, and to cover the seed with soil
taken out of these paths. Perhaps the best of these modes for general pur-
poses and on a large scale, is treading in, or rolling in, which is preferable to
treading ; because raking in alone, if the soil is very dry and loose, even
though the seeds should be covered equally, will admit the access of air and
light to many of them in a greater degree than is favourable for germination
(See Sowing, 552.") In raking off weeds, and in raking off short grass or leaves,
the rake requires to be held in such a position as that the teeth shall form a
much more acute angle with the horizon than in raking dug soil ; because the
object in raking off grass or leaves is not to stir the soil, but merely to remove
what is on its surface. All raking, excepting that of gravel, and newly mown
grass, should be performed in dry weather. Wet weather is the most favourable
for raking gravel, because if stirred in a wet state, and rolled afterwards when
dry on the surface, it binds better; and wet weather is most suitable for
raking grass, because the leaves when wet adhere better together than when
dry.
540. Rolling is applied to walks to render their surface smooth, firm, and im-
pervious to rain, and it is always most effective when the gravel is moist below and
moderately dry above. When dry gravel is laid over the bottom of a walk that
is in a very wet or puddled state, rolling should not be attempted till the whole
is uniformly saturated, either by rain, which is preferable, or artificially ;
otherwise it will long remain unconsolidated. Grass lawns are also rolled to
render the surface of the soil smooth and even, for which purpose they are pre-
viously raked or scraped to destroy such inequalities as are produced by worm
casts, or other accumulations that would interfere with the scythe, the
uniform pressure of the roller, or the uniform smoothness and colour of the
lawn. The scraping and raking are best performed in dry weather, and the
rolling as soon after rain as the surface has become somewhat dry. Rolling
dug grounds in order to break and reduce a cloddy surface, or to press in and
cover newly sown seeds, can only be performed to advantage when both soil
and weather are dry. Beating, which in many cases effects the same object
as rolling, is also most effective when the body of the soil is moist and the
surface dry ; and the same may be said of Ramming, and of every other mode
of consolidating soils, turf, or gravel.
541. Screening or lifting soil or gravel is best performed when these mate-
rials are dry ; but excepting for sowing seeds, or planting very small or tender
plants or cuttings, sifted soil is seldom wanted, it being found that pieces of
turf, roots, and stones in soil are useful to plants, as forming vacuities for air,
or for accumulations of decaying vegetable matter; or, more especially in the
case of freestone, sources of moisture.
542. Other labours on the soil are either not peculiar to horticulture, such
as picking, shovelling, sweeping, inserting stakes by perforators (391); or they
are peculiar to particular departments of gardening, such as cuffing, which is
a nursery labour, forming loam edgings, which is a local practice, &c.
GARDEN LABOURS WITH PLANTS. 235
SUBSECT. 2. — Garden Labours with Plants.
543. Garden labours with plants may be reduced to sowing, cutting,
clipping, mowing, and weeding ; all of which may be performed at most
seasons, and during moist weather as well as dry. In the first three of
these labours, it must be borne in mind that growing trees and large shrubs
should not be deprived of their branches when the sap is rising in spring,
on account of the loss of that fluid which would be sustained at that season ;
that wounds can only be healed over when made close to a bud or shoot; and
that the healing process proceeds from the alburnum and cambium, and not
from the bark. For the operations of weeding and mowing with the scythe,
wet weather is preferable to dry ; but the grass requires to be dry when the
mowing machine is employed. Clipping may be performed in wet weather.
544. Sawing is the most convenient mode of separating large branches,
because it effects the separation with less labour than cutting with the axe
or the bill, and also with less waste of wood. In sawing off large branches,
whether close to the trunk, or at a distance from it, it is advisable to cut a
notch in the under side of the branch, or to enter the saw for a few inches in
depth there, and in the same plane with the proposed saw cut, in order to
prevent the bark from being torn down when the branch is sawn through
and drops off. It is also advisable to smooth over the section with a chisel
or knife, in order that it may not retain moisture ; and to cover the entire
wound with a cataplasm of some sort, or with putty, or with paint, in order to
exclude the air, and by that means to facilitate the process of healing.
545. Cutting and sawing are essentially the same operation; for the
common saw is formed of a series of wedges cut in the edge of a thin plate
of steel, and the knife only differs in having these wedges so small and so
close together as not to be perceptible to the naked eye ; the asperities pro-
duced in the edge of the knife by sharpening, acting in the same manner as
the teeth of the saw. The blade of the knife thus becomes a sawing wedge.
When a wedge is entered and equally resisted on both sides of the body
separated, they are equally fractured ; but when it is so entered that the
resistance is more on one side than on the other, the fracture will be
greatest on that side which offers the least resistance. On these facts arc
founded the operation of cutting living plants, whether with the axe, the
bill, the chisel, or the knife. As in cutting living plants a smooth unbruised
section will less interfere with the vital energies of the plant, and conse-
quently will be more easily healed over than a rough one ; hence, in all
cutting or amputating, the rough or fractured section ought to be on the
part amputated. In separating a branch, or cutting through a stem, with
an axe, bill, or chisel, the operation is effected by the obliquity of the
strokes of the instrument to the direction of the body to be cut through,
and with a knife by drawing it more or less obliquely across the shoot ;
but principally by the non-resistance offered by the part of the shoot to
be cut off. Hence, all shoots cut from living plants ought to have the cut
made in an outward direction from the stem or root of the plant ; because
if the reverse of this practice were adopted, as is sometimes done in plashing
hedges, the fractured section would be left on the plant. Every cut made in
a living plant ought to be sufficiently near a bud or a shoot to be healed
over by its influence, and the section made should never be more oblique
than is necessary to secure its soundness and smoothness. In general,
236 GARDEN LABOURS WITH PLANTS.
therefore, the separation of all branches from living plants ought to be
made by cutting or sawing across at very nearly a right angle to the direc-
tion of the stem, or branch, in order that it may be the more rapidly
healed over. When due attention is not paid to this rule, and the cut is
made very obliquely to the line of the shoot, a wedgelike stump is left
protruding beyond the bud or branch as in fig. 1G4, a, which never can be
healed over, and which, consequently, soon decays, and dis-
figures and injures the tree, by retaining water and bring-
ing on the rot ; but when the cut is made not more than
the thickness of the branch above the bud or shoot, and
nearly directly across as at &, the wound is healed over com-
pletely and in the shortest possible time. It must be
observed, however, that the distance of the cut above the
bud must depend in a great measure on the porosity of the
1 'Improperly £M/';°b a wo°d °f tne shoot, and the proportion of its diameter which
branch cut properly, is occupied by the pith ; for if the raspberry and the vine
were cut close above the bud, the shoot would dry up beyond the bud, and
prevent it from developing itself. Hence, in all such cases, and even
sometimes in common fruit-trees, it is customary to make the first cut an
inch or more above the bud ; and when the shoot has grown and produced
two or three perfect leaves, to cut off the remaining stump. This would be
the best mode in every case, but as it occasions double labour, the risk of its
not being attended to induces most persons to cut near to the bud at once.
For the pruning of all branches, or the cutting over of all stems under two
inches in diameter, the pruning shears which cut nearly directly across,
and of which there are different sizes for branches of different degrees of
thickness, are greatly to be preferred to the knife, bill, or axe. (See
fig. 47, p. 130.)
546. Clipping in gardening is chiefly applied to hedges, and to the edgings
of walks or beds, when composed of dwarf box or under shrubs. The com-
mon hedge shears differ from the pruning shears in crushing the shoot
which is clipped, on both sides of the section (see p. 139), and hence clipping
is not a desirable mode of pruning plants in general ; nor from the want
of mechanical power are the common hedge shears applicable to any shoots,
except those of one, or at most two years' growth. In clipping box or
other edgings which are in a straight direction, a line is generally stretched
close alongside the box at the height to which it is to be clipped. The
top of the edging is then clipped down to the proper height, after which the
line is taken up, and stretched along the centre of the top of the edging ;
and the width of the top being determined on, the sides are cut accordingly,
leaving the edging somewhat wider at the bottom than at the top. The
height and width of edgings vary according to the width of the walks, or
beds, and the taste of the gardener ; two inches wide and three inches high
are ordinary proportions ; but some gardeners prefer having their edgings
smaller, as less likely to harbour vermin. The ordinary time for clipping
edgings is the spring ; before the shoots of the season are made ; but many
gardeners prefer waiting till the shoots have been completed, and clip in
June, after which the plants put out one or two leaves at the points of most
of the shoots, which thus obliterate the marks of the shears on the other
leaves. With box this appears to be decidedly the best mode. Where
lines of edgings are not straight, they are of course clipped by the eye
GARDEN LABOURS WITH PLANTS. 237
without the application of the line ; a matter of no difficulty to an expert
operator.
547. Clipping hedges is generally performed by the eye without the aid of
the line ; but in the case of architectural hedges in gardens laid out in the
geometrical style, both the line and the plummet are occasionally resorted
to, to prove the exactness of the work. In the case of lofty hedges, for
example, the beech and hornbeam hedges at Bramham Park, Yorkshire,
and the holly hedge at Moredun, near Edinburgh, scaffolding is requisite, and
this is adjusted to different heights ; the operation of clipping commencing
at the bottom of the hedge, and being continued upwards in successive
breadths, much in the same way that mowing is performed by several men
following one another at regular distances. Hedges are generally clipped in
the summer season; immediately after the growth of the year has been
completed. In some parts of the country instead of the hedge- shears,
(fig. 46, in p. 139) the hedge-bill (fig. 42, in p. 138) is used. In this case,
the ends of the shoots which form the surface of the hedge are not bruised
as in clipping ; and hence they are not liable to rot, or to produce an exu-
berance of small shoots, which, from the greater stimulus, are always more
abundant from a fractured section, than from one cut smoothly over. That
this result will take place is known to every cottager who has been in the
habit of splitting the upper ends of the stumps or stems from which cabbages
or other kale have been cut, in order to induce them to throw out sprouts.
The width of a hedge at the base need seldom exceed two feet in gardens ;
but where a strong fence is required, or where the height exceeds twelve
or fifteen feet, three feet in width at least, will be required at the base ;
for the closest and best clothed hedges are found to be those whose sec-
tion forms the sides and base of a pyramid. If the sides are perpendicular
the hedge sometimes gets naked at the bottom ; but if is wider at top than
at bottom, no art will prevent it from getting every year more naked, till,
at last, plashing, or otherwise securing the gaps, must be resorted to, and
then its beauty as a live fence is gone. Another advantage is gained by
sloping the sides of hedges, and that is, in respect of keeping them
clean; for when so cut the twigs at bottom, sharing in the dews and light,
thrive and grow so close to the ground that few weeds can rise below
them. Again, in fields, the uniformity of surface which can be maintained
with ease in hedges cut on the sloping principle, prevents animals from
readily attempting to leap or make a breach in them. If they observe the
appearance of a breach they make towards it, and, crowding together at the
spot, the foremost is " put to the horn," if he attempts to turn away. Of
two evils he finds it perhaps the best alternative to dash forward through
the hedge, leaving an easier passage for those behind him ; some of them
being hurried after him by force, and others by a sort of instinct. If a
stone fence is built of a uniform height, a hare will not readily leap over
it of her own accord ; but if the wall be heightened excepting in some places,
the hare will attempt these apparently more easy places without hesitation,
and certainly without being aware that those places are not in reality lower
than they were formerly.
548. Mowing, like cutting, may be described as a species of sawing ; and
it is perhaps the most laborious work which the gardener is called on to
perform ; every muscle of the human frame being by this kind of labour
K
238 GARDEN LABOURS WITH PLANTS.
called into severe action. In mowing corn or long grass, the blade of the
scythe may be moved along in a direction in which the plane of the blade
forms an acute angle with the surface of the ground ; but in mowing short
grass, the blade requires to be kept parallel to the surface, and, when the
grass is kept very short, even to be pressed against it. The motion requires
to be rapid and uniform, and the edge of the scythe to be kept very sharp by
the frequent use of the whetstone. In the case of mowing lawns which
contain scattered trees and shrubs without any dug space round them, the
use of the grass-shears is required to cut the grass which comes in contact
with the stems and branches. (416 and 417.) Mowing is chiefly used in
lawns and pleasure-grounds, to keep the surfaces of grass short, smooth, and
green ; but it is also employed to destroy weeds on grassy surfaces, and at
the bottom of pieces of water, by cutting them over, as soon as they have
advanced an inch or two in height in the spring, and repeating the opera-
tion, with every trifling increase of growth during the season, and every
succeeding one, till the roots cease to have the power of throwing up leaves.
The scythe for mowing at the bottom of water ought to have an iron handle,
in order that it may pass more readily through the water from its small
diameter, and sink readily from its weight ; and it must not be forgotten
that the time at which weeds must be mown is not when they are an inch or
two above the surface of the water, but every time that they are an inch or
two above the bottom of the pond or river. In mowing lawns, the mow-
ing machine (442.) is often used on a large scale; and the common
hedge-shears on a small scale for shortening the grass at the roots of
shrubs or trees, which the mowing machine or scythe cannot conveniently
reach.
649. Weeding is simply the pulling up of weeds, or any plants that are
out of place ; and it is generally effected by the hand, more or less aided by
weeding implements of the different kinds before described (400) ; to which
we may add, the Guernsey weeding prong (described in the Gardener's
Chronicle, vol. i. p. 66), which appears well adapted for preventing stooping,
and the touching the weeds and Drubbing in the soil with the fingers. The
head of this implement (fig. 165). is in the shape of a claw hammer; with
the one end flattened into a chisel, an inch wide, and the forked or clawed
end, consisting of twro flat
sharp prongs by which
the weeds are grubbed ==""~7\
up and lifted at the same /J
time. The length of the head from the extremity of the chisel end to that
of the prong end is nine inches, and it is attached to a handle five feet long.
A great part of the labour of weeding may in most gardens be performed by
women and children ; and it will not only be lightened, but their hands will
be kept clean, by the adoption of the Guernsey prong.
550. Otherlabours with plants might be enumerated, but they are either such
as are common to arboriculture, agriculture, and other arts, or belong more
properly to garden operations. We may, however, here notice splitting
the stocks or roots of trees ; as, though it belongs properly to the forester, it
is yet a labour which a gardener may have occasionally to practise. It is
effected by entering a wedge always more or less in the direction of the fibres
of the wood. This wedge must be struck with a heavy iron hammer, with a
PROPAGATION. 230
sufficient force to overcome the inertia of the mass constituting the wedge.
With a heavy wedge and a light hammer no effect will be produced ;
because the impulse of the latter has not sufficient power to overcome the
inertia of the former.
SECT. II. — Operations of Culture.
Operations of garden culture may be arranged under the heads of propa-
gation, rearing, preservation, and amelioration.
SUBSECT. I. — Propagation.
551. Plants are propagated either by seed, or by division : the latter mode
including cuttings, joints, leaves, layers, suckers, slips, budding, grafting, and
inarching. All the modes of propagation by division are founded on the
principle — that a bud, whether visible or latent, is essentially the same
as a seed, and will consequently produce a plant; and that, as there is
a bud, either visible or in an embryo state, in the axil of every leaf,
it follows that for every leaf a plant contains, a young plant may be
originated by art. This, however, is not done with equal ease in every
species, and perhaps with some it may be almost impracticable; but it
holds good with the great majority of plants, and may therefore safely
be laid down and acted on as a general principle (12, 114 to 116).
There is an important difference between propagating by seed, and
propagating by any of the other modes known to gardeners : viz., that
in propagating by seed, the species in the abstract is propagated, while in
propagating by any of the other modes, the species is continued with the
habits of the individual parent. Thus, a shoot taken from a weeping ash,
and grafted on a common ash, will produce a tree like the parent ; while
a seed taken from a weeping ash will not in general produce a weeping plant,
but an upright growing one like the species. Nevertheless this does not
always hold good, even in such trees as the weeping ash, and the weeping
oak ; and it does not hold good at all in the case of trees in a high state
of culture, such as fruit trees ; or in the case of herbaceous plants in a
highly artificial state, such as the culinary vegetables of our gardens, and
the principal agricultural plants of our farms. The weeping ash was an
accidental sport (16); but notwithstanding this, out of many hundred
plants raised from seed collected from a weeping tree by a nurseryman at
Berlin, one or two were found to exhibit the weeping characters of the
parent ; and when we consider that all the common weeping ash trees in
Europe have been propagated from one tree, that at Gamblingay, in Cam-
bridgeshire, and that this tree is a female, so that the blossoms, when fertile
seeds have been produced must have been fecundated by the male blossoms
of some adjoining common ash, the small proportion of weeping plants
raised is not surprising. The acorns produced by a celebrated weeping oak
at Moccas Court, in Herefordshire, produce plants almost all of which
have the branches drooping, though this tree is not farther removed from
nature than the weeping ash, both having been found accidentally in a wild
state. The stones of a green-gage plum, and the seeds of a golden pippin
apple, will unquestionably produce plants, many of which will bear varieties
of the green- gage and golden pippin ; and though these may vary from the
fruit of their parents, yet they will not vary more than the produce of a wild-
ing, such as a crab apple, or a wild plum, will sometimes do from its parent.
B 2
240 ON PROPAGATION BY SEED.
The seeds of the cultivated varieties of cabbage, peas, wheat, oats, &c. it is
well known, produce plants in all respects like their parents, or in horticul-
tural language " come true." The seeds of trees, however, are not so much to
be depended on, as those of herbaceous plants, and especially of annuals, in a
high state of culture ; fora kernel out of the same apple which produced the
Ribstone pippin produced another tree, the fruit of which proved little better
than a crab. From these facts we consider it safe for the gardener to adopt it
as a principle, that the seeds of trees, as well as of herbaceous plants, will
not only reproduce the species, but, to a considerable extent, also the variety;
though we cannot depend on this mode for reproducing the variety, with
the same certainty as we can on propagation by division.
§ 1. On propagation by seed.
552. The seed as we have seen (132), is of a mucilaginous consistency
when young, and it becomes more or less solid when matured. Before
germination can take place, the solid part of the seed must be rendered
again mucilaginous, and soluble in water ; and this is effected by the mois-
ture and heat of the soil, and the oxygen of the atmosphere. The absence
of light, or at least, of much light, is also favourable to germination, but
not essential to it ; for though, when seeds are sown, they are generally
covered in proportion to their size, in order to maintain an equal degree of
moisture, and to keep them in darkness, we also sow the smaller seeds, such
as those of ferns and heaths, on the surface, and maintain the requisite
moisture by means of a close covering of glass, only moderating the light by
placing them in the shade. That the want of moisture prevents the germina-
tion of seeds, though every other requisite should be present, is known to
every gardener ; and indeed, were it otherwise, it would be next to impossible
to preserve seeds from one season to another, since, though it is in our power
to keep them dry, it is scarcely practicable to prevent the access of air and
heat. That the want of air has an effect in preventing the germination of seeds
is proved by the following experiment. If a number of seeds be put in a
bottle with from ten to twenty times their bulk of water, and all communi-
cation with the surrounding atmosphere be cut off, so that the water may
not absorb any oxygen from it, the seeds will not germinate, though placed
in a temperature suitable for germination ; but if the same experiment be
repeated with a proportionately larger quantity of water, the seeds will find in
the air which it contains sufficient oxygen to enable them to germinate.
(Gard. Mag. for 1841, p. 482). That seeds will not germinate without
the presence of a certain degree of heat, is rendered evident by the fact of
self-sown seeds lying in the soil all the winter, and only vegetating when
the temperature becomes sufficiently high in the spring.
553. Process of germination. The first change which takes place in
the germinating seed is seen immediately after the absorption of water,
when its substance becomes softer, often assumes a greenish tint, and tastes
sweetish. After this a lengthening of the radicle takes place, which
receives its nourishment from the cotyledons, or the albumen. It then
penetrates the testa or husk, through the micropylus or hiluro, (a very
small hole in the husk of the seed, which corresponds with the point of the
radicle,) and ruptures it at this spot, so that the embryo now bursts forth.
The young plant is then nourished by the aliment laid up in the cotyledons,
or in the albumen of the seed, till the root begins to branch. Hence, it
ON PROPAGATION BY SEED. 241
often happens, that when the cotyledons are ileshy, and are destroyed by
insects or otherwise, the young plants are irretrievably lost. As soon as the
testa or husk becomes soft and tender, the seed absorbs the surrounding mois-
ture, and generally germinates very quickly, if it be not too old. If the husk
be, on the contrary, hard, or, as in many cases, stony, the moisture penetrates
only through the micropylus, and is communicated to the feculent part by the
root. In these cases the seeds lie sometimes very long in the ground with-
out germinating ; the absorption of moisture going on, in general, too slowly
to effect a quick and strong development, which is absolutely necessary to
burst those firm husks or shells which are bound together, as it were, by
sutures. These seeds are often lost when they lie for many years ; and, to
make sure of their germination, artificial means should be applied. To
cause a rapid germination of the seeds of the acacia, soaking them in boiling
water has been applied of late years with success; but, in general, this is a
very unsafe means, and may do more injury than good. The safest and
best way is to cut or file the hard shell, which it is only necessary to pene-
trate at one spot to the albumen or cotyledons. From this spot the seed imbibes
the requisite quantity of air and moisture, the radicle is quickly developed,
and, with the help of the swollen tissue within it, bursts the sutures of the
husk. In this way many hard-shelled seeds of monocotyledonous and
dicotyledonous plants, such as canna, paeonia, acacia, abrus, erythrina,
cassia, schotia, guilandina, adenanthera, bauhinia, and caesalpinia, have
been made to germinate in a short time, mostly in from ten to twenty days.
If the seeds be old, they should, after cutting, be laid for a few days in
lukewarm rain-water, and, if they have any life remaining, this will sti-
mulate it. Something similar also takes place with seeds which, besides the
testa, or husk, are also enclosed in a pericarpium, or outer-covering. They
lie either in fours, at the bottom of a dry hollow cup, as in the labiatae and
boragineae ; or they are single, or several, surrounded with a thick fleshy
cup, as in many species of the rosaceaa ; or single, or in twos, covered with a
dry cup, as in compositae, umbelliferae, and their allied species. Lastly, in
the gramineae, we find them only surrounded with the pericarpium, as true
caryopsi. Many of these germinate as easily as naked seeds ; but this depends,
in some measure, on the capacity or incapacity of the husk to absorb water
in a natural state. We find seeds hard and stony only among the rosaceae,
as in rosa, primus, cotoneaster, mespilus, cratae'gus, &c., and these require
catting or filing, if intended to germinate quickly. The remainder are
divided, according to their formation, into two groups; those possessing
albumen, in which the embryo lies, and those that do not. This division is
useful, for the cotyledons always imbibe the water first and easiest, whereas
the albumen is less hygroscopic ; and hence the germination of those seeds
which have none, but whose interior is entirely filled with the embryo and
its cotyledons, as in the boragiueae, labiatae, compositae, &c., will be more
easily effected. The gramineae and umbelliferae, on the contrary, possess
albumen : in the former, the embryo lies outside of the albumen, on which
account they easily germinate ; whereas, in the latter, the embryo is entirely
surrounded by the albumen, for which reason, with the exception of most
of the annual or biennial sorts, they are more difficult to vegetate. As
these seeds cannot be cut with advantage, it is usual to sow them late in
autumn, with other difficult-growing sorts ; so that when the universal
period of germination comes, in the spring, they may be sufficiently pcnc-
242 ON PROPAGATION BY SEED.
trated with moisture. This method is very well suited for sowing on a
large scale ; but as the seed often perishes during the winter, and the earth
becomes soddened, or thickly covered with moss, the preferable way for
valuable seeds which are to be raised in the open air, is to sow them in the
spring, after they have been soaked for some days previously in warm water
(Regel in Gard. Mag. for 1841, p. 485). Seeds that are to be raised under
glass, with the aid of artificial heat, may be sown at any time.
554. The period necessary to complete the process of germination varies in
different seeds, though all attendant circumstances may be alike. The
grasses generally vegetate most rapidly, and they are quickly followed by
some of the cruciferous and leguminous plants; umbelliferous plants are
generally slower, and rosaceous plants still more so. Adanson gives the
following table of the period of germination in several seeds tried by him-
self in France.
Days. Days.
Wheat, millet 1
Strawberry blite, beans, mustard, kidney
beans, turnips, radishes, and rocketg 3
Lettuce, and aniseed . . . . 4
Melon, cucumber, gourd, and cress . 5
Horse radish, leek . . . 6
Barley 7
Oiache 8
Purslane 9
Cabbage 10
Hyssop 30
Parsley . . . . 40 or 50
Cow-wheat, almond, chestnut, peach,
and peony . . . One Year
Rose, hawthorn, hazel, nut and
cornel . . . . Two Years
(Fam. des Plantes, vol. I. p. 84.) — The same author found that the seeds
which germinated in twelve hours in an ordinary degree of heat, might be
made to germinate in three hours by exposing them to a greater degree of
heat ; and that seeds transported from the climate of Paris to that of Senegal,
have their periods of germination accelerated from one to three days. On
the same principle seeds transported from a warmer to a colder climate
have their period of germination protracted till the temperature of the
latter is raised to that of the former. The seeds of annuals generally ger-
minate quicker and with more certainty than those of perennial plants ;
and they generally retain their power of germination much longer.
555. The quantity of moisture most favourable to germination must depend
on various circumstances, such as the degree of heat with which it is accom-
panied, the vital power of the seed, and the nature of the species. The seeds of
aquatic plants vegetate when immersed in water, and the plants live, and attain
maturity in that element ; but those of land plants, though they will vegetate in
water, yet if the plants be not removed immediately after germination, they
will become putrid and die. In general, the most favourable degree of mois-
ture for newly sown seeds, is that which a free soil holds in its interstices.
Clayey soil will retain too much moisture for delicate seeds, and sand too
little ; but an open free loam will attract and retain the proper quantity for
all seeds, excepting those which are very small and very delicate ; and for
these a mixture of peat, loam, and fine sand, will retain just moisture
enough, and no more. With all delicate seeds it is better rather to have too
little moisture than too much ; and with all seeds whatever, it is of great
importance to preserve the degree of moisture uniform. For this purpose, in
the open garden, newly sown delicate seeds are shaded or covered by different
means, such as sowing them on the north sides of hedges or walls, interpos-
ing hurdles placed upright or horizontally, between the sown seeds and the
sun, covering with mats, or branches, or litter, or, in the case of very small
ON PROPAGATION BY SEED. 243
seeds, with moss. The more tender kinds are also sown in frames, or under
hand or bell glasses, by which evaporation is prevented or checked, and a
steady degree of moisture effectually maintained.
556. The water requisite to cause old seeds to germinate should be more gradu-
ally given to them, than that given to vigorous young seeds; because the power
of absorbing water in old seeds is not diminished in the same proportion as
their power of decomposing it. When old seeds are placed hi moist soil, they
are consequently very liable to rot ; more especially, if the temperature be
not somewhat higher than new seeds of the same species usually require.
Hence, old seeds should be sown in a much drier soil than new seeds, and
should be supplied with water much more sparingly, or left to absorb it from
the atmosphere. Very old seeds will, however, sometimes germinate
quickly by being steeped for some days in warm water ; and M. Regel men-
tions an instance of this, with regard to some very old seeds of Umbelliferae.
In the botanic garden at Bonn, in the spring of 1838, four pans were sown
with seeds, full ten years old, of Ferula tingitana, />., in which the embryo
seemed entirely dried up, and only those in two of the pans were previously
soaked. The latter sprang up all together in from ten to twenty days, while
of those in the other pans, which were left for trial, only a few plants came
up in one pan in the spring of the following year, the rest of the seed having
all rotted.— (Gard. Mag. for 1841, p. 485.)
557. The depth to which a need is buried in the soil has, for its chief object,
the maintenance of a due degree of moisture, but another purpose is to exclude
the light, and to give the future plant a better hold of the ground ; though
there is no seed whatever that will not vegetate on the surface, if that sur-
face be kept uniformly moist and shaded. It may be assumed that every
seed will vegetate and establish itself in the soil, if buried to its own thick-
ness ; but the experience of gardeners proves, that some large seeds, sucli as
leguminous seeds, nuts, &c., make better plants when buried much deeper.
558. The degree of heat most favourable for the germination of seeds may
be considered as that best adapted for the growth of the parent plants ; and,
hence, if the native country of any plant is known, it may be assumed that
the seeds will germinate best in the temperature of the spring, or growing
season of that country. Some seeds of cold climates, such as those of the
common annual grass, duckweed, groundsel, &c., will germinate in a tem-
perature little above the freezing point; but, in general, few northern
plants will germinate under 40% and the most favourable temperature for
germinating Dr. Lindley states to be — for the seeds of cold countries, from
50° to 55° ; for seeds of greenhouse plants, from 60 to 65° ; and for seeds
of the plants of the torrid zone, 70° to 80. (Theory of Hort., p. 166). It
may be remarked that though the seeds of warm countries will not vegetate
in the temperature of cold countries, yet that the reverse of this does not
hold true, as may be observed in the germination of British weeds in our
stoves ; but the plants thus produced, unless immediately removed to the
open air, remain weak and sickly.
559. The degree of heat which the seeds of plants will endure has already
been slightly noticed. Certain leguminous seeds, as those of some acacias,
may be subjected to the boiling point for a few minutes without injury ;
others may be allowed to steep and cool for twenty-four hours in water
heated to 200°. The seeds of Acacia Lophantha were subjected to boiling-
water for five minutes, and the plants raised from them were exhibited before
244 ON PROPAGATION BY SEED.
the Horticultural Society, some years ago, by Mr. Palmer of Bromley, Kent.
Messrs. Edwards and Colin found that wheat, barley, and rye could germinate
between 44° and 45° ; that they were killed by remaining three days in water
at the temperature of 95° ; that in sand and earth, at 104°, they lived for a
considerable time ; but that at 113° most of them perished ; and that at 122°
all of them perished ; but it was found that a higher temperature could be
borne by these and other seeds for a shorter time. At 143°, in vapour, wheat,
barley, kidney-beans, and flax retained their vitality for a quarter of an
hour ; in dry air these seeds sustained no injury at 167° ; but in vapour, at
this temperature, they all perished. Dr. Lindley mentions the very remark-
able case of the germination of the seeds of a raspberry, which had been
picked from a jar of jam, and which, consequently, must have been subjected
to the temperature of the boiling point of the syrup, which is 230°.
560. The degree of cold which seeds will endure differs according to the species,
their native country, and their condition in respect to moisture. Dry seeds
stand so high a degree of cold, that even the lowest temperature of the frigid
zone does not injure them; but if they have imbibed any moisture they freeze
according to the degree of growth which may have been excited, and the
degree of cold to which they had been accustomed in their native zone.
661. Atmospheric air, as we have seen (102), is as necessary to the ger-
mination of seeds as moisture and heat ; and this is the principal cause why
seeds buried to a certain depth in the soil do not vegetate. It also affords
a reason for having the surface of the soil, in which seeds are sown, porous,
and exposed to the action of the atmosphere, and to rain-water, which con-
tains more air than the water of wells. Hence the rapidity with which seeds
spring up in the open ground after the first warm spring showers. Hence,
also, the propriety of giving fresh air to hot-beds, and to hand and bellglasses
covering sown seeds, even though they have not come up. Old seeds are
found to germinate sooner in pure oxygen than in atmospheric air : doubtless,
because less efforts are required by the vital powers of the seed to assimilate
the oxygen with its carbon, so as to form carbonic acid.
562. The influence of light on the germination of seeds has been already
alluded to (552). Bright light is found to be universally unfavourable ;
because it has a tendency to decompose carbonic acid, and fix carbon ;
whereas, as we have seen (553), the first step in the progress of germination
is to render carbon mucilaginous and soluble in water, so to change it into
carbonic acid. Light, therefore, ought to be excluded from all seeds which
it is wished should germinate freely.
563. Accelerating the germination of seeds. In ordinary practice this is
chiefly effected by the application of a higher degree of heat, as by placing
pots of sown seeds in hot-beds, or by immersing seeds in tepid water, or by
cutting or paring nuts, or gently fermenting them in heaps of sawdust, as is
done with chestnuts, walnuts, acorns, almonds, &c., by the Paris nursery-
men. On a large scale, both in the field and the garden, the most common
resource is steeping in warm water for a few hours, which is found to bring
up the seeds of barley, turnips, beets, parsnips, onions, &c., when the soil in
\vhich they are sown is very dry, much sooner than would otherwise be the
case ; this is found to prevent them from becoming a prey to insects or birds.
The sowing of some seeds before they are perfectly ripe has also been found
to promote their early vegetation; but the experience of gardeners in this
mode of acceleration is at present very limited.
ON PROPAGATION BY SEED. 245
564. Various experiments have been made to accelerate germination with
different degrees of success. These all proceed on the principle that germi-
nation cannot take place until the carbon of the seed is changed into carbonic
acid ; and as this can only be done by extraordinary supplies of oxygen, the
agents employed are such as have the power of supplying that substance in
greater abundance than water or air, from which, under ordinary circum-
stances, the plant obtains it by decomposition. Humboldt was the first to
observe that watering with chlorine induced speedy germination ; and, as,
according to the observations of Goppert, iodine and bromine, hi conjunction
with hydrogen, produce a similar effect, it appears that both these matters, as
well as the oxalic and other acids frequently applied for that purpose, hasten
the process of assimilation. It cannot be denied that all these substances
accelerate germination ; but to the practical gardener they must be considered
as experiments unfit for general practice, for the young plants thus called
into existence most frequently become sickly through the excitement, and
die off, which cannot surprise us, as the same effect is seen when plants of
cold climates are reared too warmly, and are not placed in a cooler situation
after germination. Dr. Lindley, after quoting the experiments of Mr. Otto
of Berlin, who, by employing oxalic acid, made seeds germinate which were
from twenty to forty years old, and the statement of Dr. Hamilton, that he
had found a like advantage from the use of this acid (see the details in
Gard. Mag^vui., 19G and x,, 308, 453), makes the following remark, appli-
cable also to the employment of a diluted solution of chlorine, as tried by
Humboldt : — Theoretically it would seem that the effects described ought to
be produced, but general experience does not confirm them ; and it may bo
conceived that the rapid abstraction of carbon, by the presence of an unna-
turally large quantity of oxygen, may produce effects as injurious to the
health of the seed, as the too slow destruction of carbon in consequence of the
languor of the vital principle. (Theory, 6$c., p. 174.)
5G5. Electricity and alkalies as stimulants to vegetation. "It has been
ascertained," Mr. Lymburn observes, " that electricity is connected with all
transformations or changes of organic substances, either as cause or effect ;
when electricity is present, it accelerates or causes chemical decomposition ;
and, according to Dr. Carpenter, when chemical decomposition takes place,
electricity is always developed ; though, perhaps, in most instances, it is
absorbed again by the new state of the compound. M. Maltueri, in experi-
ments made some years ago with seeds, found that they germinated much
sooner at the negative or alkaline pole of a galvanic battery, than at the
positive or acid pole ; and, following up these discoveries by enclosing seeds
in phials of alkalies and acids, he found they germinated quickly in the former,
and with difficulty, or sometimes not at all, in the latter. Connected with
the same subject are the recent experiments of Dr. Horner, on the differently
coloured rays of the spectrum ; the violet or deoxidising end produces a
chemical effect, similar to the negative or alkaline pole, and the red end pro-
duces the opposite or acid effect, by the retention of the oxygen. Guided by
these theoretical opinions, I was induced to try their effects on some very old
spruce fir seed in 1836, which had been three years out of the cone ; the year
before, 1835, some of the same seed did not produce one-sixth part of a crop,
and I had good reason to suppose it would be worse the next. The year before,
when the seed was damped to accelerate germination, it had a musty fungous
smell ; and the seed leaves came up yellow, and, hanging by the ends in the
246 ON PROPAGATION BY SEED.
ground, had not strength to free themselves from the soil. In 1830, how-
ever, after being damped, I added quicklime in the state of powder, which,
besides furnishing an alkali, has a great affinity for carbonic acid, which is
necessary to be extracted from the starch before it can be made soluble, and
which produces heat by concentration of the oxygen and carbon when being
extracted. After the seed was thoroughly damped, I sprinkled it with the
powder of lime, and kept it damp by the use of a watering- pan, for ten or
twelve days ; at the end of which time it had swelled off plump, and had all
the sweet smell of the sugar formed in healthy seed when malted in this way :
and, when deposited in the ground, it was not long in pushing up its seed
leaves, as healthy, upright, and dark green hi the colour, as the first year it
was sown ; and the seedling plants were strong and healthy. The reasons
why I preferred lime were, its cheapness, and the affinity of quicklime for
carbonic acid : as to its alkaline properties, soda is much more powerful, but
lime seemed to be that which had produced most effect in the experiments
of M. Payen and others on the same subject. The seed must be carefully
kept damp till sown, as the dry powder is apt to corrode ; and seeds do not
suit well to have their dormant powers brought into action without being
sustained, which, if far forward and severely checked, may destroy life alto-
gether. Since I experimented as above on the spruce fir seed, I have not had
any other seed so long kept to make trial of; I have, however, tried lime on
magnolias and other weak-growing seeds difficult to start, and found them to
germinate sooner, and make stronger plants than usual. Some others who
have tried it have also found it of benefit. It is to seeds containing their
albumen principally in the form of starch, that it will be of most benefit ;
and to those which have been hurt by long keeping dry, or being exposed to
great heat : those which have been spoiled by dampness have their food de-
composed and spoiled. It is difficult, also, to say how far the drying can be
endured without being prejudicial, and when the organised tissue, the seat of
life, may have its powers of resuming vital activity so far trenched on as to
be considered dead. After this has taken place, any stimulus that can be
applied can only hasten consumption, as the vital force which should preside
over and direct the chemical force has fled." — (Gard. Mag. for 1841, p. 520.)
566. The length of time during which seeds retain their vitality varies ex-
ceedingly in different species ; and the difference in this respect, even in the
plants in common cultivation, as every seedsman knows, is very considerable.
It is remarkable that the seeds of annual plants not only germinate in general
quicker and with more certainty than those of perennials, but, also, that
they retain their power of germination much longer. The greater part of
the seeds of perennial plants and trees, when well kept, preserve their germi-
nating powers for a long time; while certain oily seeds, like those of
dictamus, magnolia, and myristica, &c., decay soon after ripening. Melon
seeds have been known to retain their vitality for nearly half a century,
kidney-beans for a century, and the seeds of the sensitive-plant upwards of
sixty years.
567. The length of time that seeds will lie in the ground without growing,
is not less remarkable than the difference in their retention of vitality.
Many seeds, which, when sown in spring, come up soon afterwards, will not
come up the same year if sown in autumn. This is the case with many
common annuals, which when sown immediately after ripening either do
not come up at all that year, or come up sparingly and sickly, In May
ON PROPAGATION BY SEED. 247
1838, M. Regel, of Berlin, gathered seeds of Draba prae'cox, and sowed them
in pots which were kept in a cold pit. Only two plants came up that year,
of very stunted growth, and they never attained sufficient strength to
flower; while next spring the remaining seeds came up very thick and
strong, and flowered in the space of four weeks. On the other hand, the
seeds of the greater portion of biennial plants, if sown immediately after
ripening, come up freely, become strong plants before winter, and flower
the following year. This is also the case with a great number of annual
plants, especially those of California, which in their native country spring
up before winter, and are preserved through that season by a covering of
snow. The seeds of crataegus, mespilus, ilex, prunus, cerasus, and some
others, if sown immediately after being gathered, will in part come up the
following spring, but chiefly in the second spring, though some will not
germinate till the third or fourth season. If these seeds, instead of being
sown immediately after gathering, are dried and sown the same autumn,
none will come up till the spring of the second year. This holds good also
with the seeds of a number of trees and shrubs, among which may be
mentioned daphne, ribes, rubus, rosa, potentilla, berberis, pseonia, &c.
De Candolle mentions a sowing of tobacco which continued to send up
plants in sufficient numbers to form a crop every year for ten years. It is
a common occurrence to find plants, especially annuals, springing up in
ground newly brought into cultivation, after it had been used many years
for other purposes. Thus, a field of grass, that was ploughed up near
Dunkeld, in Scotland, after a period of fourteen years in turf, yielded a con-
siderable crop of black oats without sowing. Mustard-seed has sprung up
in the fern lands, which must have lain there upwards of a century ; and
white clover, it is well known to every agriculturist, springs up, on the.
application of lime in soils, where it had not been before seen in the memory
oilman. In pulling down old buildings, seeds capable of germinating have
been found in the clay used as mortar. The seed of Veronica hederaefolia,
-L., after heavy rains, has been known to spring up on the surface of fields,
where previously no trace of that plant was to be found. At Gottingen, M.
Regel found Alsine Segetalis, L. come up in great profusion, which had not
been found there for more than twenty years. He also found Rumex mari-
timus, Zr., and Cyperus fuscus, Z,., thickly overspreading the bottom of a
pond that had been dried the year before — no trace of these plants being
to be found in the neighbourhood, and the pond having, for many years,
been kept full of water (Gard. Mag. for 1841, p. 480).
568. The season for sowing seeds is, in nature, when they are ripe, but
in artificial culture it varies according to the object in view. The spring,
however, is the most favourable period for germination, because at this
season the vegetable kingdom awakens from the sleep of nature. Seeds
removed from foreign countries, and also the seeds of any rare indigenous
plant, should be sown as soon as they are removed or gathered, in a soil
and situation favourable for germination and growth. For a succession of
crops of annual culinary plants, or annual flowers, the gardener sows at
different periods ; and in the case of biennial plants, he sows in the autumn.
The following are the results of experiments made by Mr. G. Gordon, of
the Hort. Soc. Garden, upon raising plants from seed : — " All seeds from
North America and California should be sown in the autumn as soon as
ripe ; to defer the sowing them till the spring may in all cases be disadvon-
248 ON PROPAGATION BY SEED.
tagcous, excepting the case of annuals ; that Mexican and Chilian seeds
succeed best if sown in spring ; that with regard to Europe, and the north
of India, trees and shrubs should be sown in the autumn, and annuals or
perennials in the spring ; that all seeds, of whatever kind, should be sown in
dry soil, and not watered till they begin to vegetate ; in the case of old or
sickly seeds, to water them at the time of sowing is to ensure their destruc-
tion by rotting ; that shading is to be preferred to watering ; and that one of
the best constructions for the purpose is a pit glazed with double sashes like
one in the Society's Garden ; finally, that all seedlings should be potted or
transplanted as soon as possible, except bulbs {Proceedings of the Hort. Soc.
for 1840, p. 176).
A69. The mechanical process of sowing is very simple ; whether the seeds
are sown broad-cast, that is, distributed equally over an even surface, or
deposited in drills or regular furrows, they are delivered from the hand, and
not, as in agriculture, from sowing machines. Some rough seeds, such as
those of the carrot, are mixed with sawdust or sand, to separate them so
that they may drop singly, and other very small seeds, such as those of
rhododendrons, and other ericacea, are mixed with fine sand to prevent them
from falling too thickly. The smallest seeds of all, such as those of the
ferns, and of some of the hardy orchideaB, are sown on the surface of pots or
pans filled with well drained peat and sand, and placed in a shady place
and covered with glass. American tree seeds of small size are generally
sown in pans or boxes as soon as received, and kept under glass in a cold
pit, and shaded during sunshine till they vegetate. Cape and Australian
seeds, and in general all seeds from warm climates, are sown as soon as
received in a mixture of loam, peat and sand, and placed in a temperature
similar to that of the growing season in the country they came from.
570. Sowing seeds in powdered charcoal has been tried in the Botanic
Garden at Munich with extraordinary success. Seeds of cucumbers and
melons sown in it germinated one day sooner than others sown in soil,
and plunged in the same hotbed ; becoming strong plants, while the others
remained comparatively stationary. Ferns sown on the surface of fine sifted
charcoal, germinate quickly and vigorously ; and it seems not improbable,
that this material may be found as useful in exciting seeds difficult to ger-
minate, as it is in rooting cuttings difficult to strike.
671. Sowing seeds in snow. This practice originated at Munich five or
six years ago, and the following account of it was given by M. Lucas in the
Garten Zeitung for 1841, and translated in the Gardener's Magazine for
the same year : — " For five years past I have been very successful in sowing
seeds in snow that are considered difficult to germinate ; such as the follow-
ing alpine plants : gentiana, ranunculus, anemone, &c. ; and in this manner
1 raised several hundred young gentianas in Messrs. Hague's establishment
at Erfurt. In our gardens in the north of Germany, it is a well-known
practice to sow the auricula in snow, and this spring the idea struck me of
making the same trial with exotic seeds, which are generally more difficult
to germinate ; I therefore sowed a few of the seeds of New Holland plants,
principally of the papilionaceous and mimosa kinds, also erica, rhodoraceae,
cactaceas, cucurbitacese, &c., all of the most distinct families. I filled the
pots with earth the most suitable to each kind of plant; I then put a layer of
snow, then the seed, and covered it with another layer of snow. I set them
in a box covered with glass, and placed it in one of the houses at a tempera-
ON PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 249
tui;e of from GO0 to 05° Fahr., in which the snow melted. I was not deceived
in my expectations; some acacias, such as A. subccerulea and A. Cunning-
hami, and several mammillarias, such as M. uncinata, germinated in the
course of two days. These seeds not only germinated well, but in rapidity
surpassed my expectations ; and I even succeeded in raising crotalaria pur-
purea in this manner, which I had never been able to do before by any
other method. When the snow had melted on the latter, I did not cover
the seed with a little sandy earth as I had done with the others, but waited
till the germ had fairly made its appearance, when I put the sand on ; and,
from the success of both, I consider the practice is established as generally
useful. When newly fallen snow is not to be had, that which is frozen in
ice-cellars, and easily preserved till the month of Jnne, will do equally well."
(Card. Mag. for 1841, p. 303.)
572. The discoveries daily making in chemical science, promise to throw
much light on the germination of seeds; but as they do not seem to be
matured, and as much is expected from Liebig's edition of Turner's
Chemistry, not yet published, we have deferred giving an epitome of the
new doctrines on the subject of germination, till the preparation of our
Appendix.
§ 2. — On Propagation by Cuttings.
573. A cutting is a portion of a shoot containing either leaf-buds, or leaves
in the axils of which buds may be produced. It must at least be of suffi-
cient length to have two buds or two joints — one at the lower extremity to
produce roots, and another at the upper end to produce a shoot. A portion
of a stem with only one bud is not considered a cutting, but is techni-
cally an eye or joint. Though propagation by cuttings is the most
general of any of the artificial modes, yet it is not applicable to stem-
less plants, such as the Primula family, nor to the greater number of
monocotyledons, which are chiefly bulbous plants, without leafy stems. It
is applicable, however, to all woody plants, and to all herbaceous plants
which send up stems bearing leaves ; and it is the principal mode of propa-
gation employed with woody plants kept in pots under glass. It is almost
unnecessary to state that the cause of success is to be found in the analogy
between a cutting and a seed ; the bud being the embryo plant, and the
alburnum of the cutting containing the nutriment which is to support the
development of the bud, till it has formed roots sufficient to absorb nutri-
ment from the soil. The roots formed by the cuttings are protruded from
the section at its lower extremity, and are, in fact, a continuation of the
alburnous process, which, had the cutting not been separated from the plant,
would have been employed in adding to its young wood and inner bark.
Every cutting must either contain a stock of alimentary matter in its albur-
num, as in the case of cuttings of ripened wood without leaves, or it must
contain healthy leaves, capable of elaborating alimentary matter from the
moisture absorbed from the soil joined to the alburnous matter already in the
cutting. All cuttings may be divided into two kinds : those made and planted
when the plant is without its leaves, as in the case of the common gooseberry
or the willow ; and those made of shoots with the leaves on, as in the case of
all evergreens and of many greenhouse plants, such as the geranium, the
fuchsia, heaths, &c. In both cases the cutting, after being planted, is excited
by heat, and supported by the moisture absorbed from the soil. In the case of
the leafless cutting the buds are swelled, and in proportion as they develop
250 ON PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS.
their leaves, roots are protruded from the lower end of the cutting, just as the
radicle is protruded from a seed ; while the moisture absorbed by the cuttings
with the leaves on enables the leaves to continue performing their functions
and ultimately to send down organisable matter to the lower end of the cut-
ting, which sooner or later protrudes from it in the form of roots. In the pro-
gress of this process, the organizable matter in many species first appears as
a callosity on the lower end of the cutting, sometimes covering only that
portion of it from which the roots are protruded, viz., between the bark and
the wood, as is often seen in the cuttings of roses and gooseberries, and some-
times covering the entire section, as in cuttings of geraniums and fuchsias.
Though by theory all leafy-stemmed plants may be propagated by cut-
tings, yet in practice this is found very difficult to effect with some species,
and with a few that mode of propagation has never yet been accomplished; but
this applies to so very few, that the exception hardly merits notice. Indeed
such is the rapidly increasing skill in gardeners, that in a very short time
there will probably be no exceptions whatever. The German gardeners
have lately rooted cuttings in charcoal which could never be rooted before
by any means. — (See Gard. Mag. for 1841.)
574. Selecting plants from which the cuttings are to be taken. — Every plant
from which cuttings are taken ought to be healthy, because in a diseased
state the cutting cannot perform the functions necessary to produce roots ;
and besides, excepting in the case of variegated plants and a few others, it is
not desirable to propagate disease. It is found from experience, that cut-
tings taken from the lower branches of plants which are near the soil, root
more readily than such as are near the summit of the plant and are sur-
rounded by drier air ; doubtless because the tissue of the wood which con-
tains the nutriment is in a more concentrated and hardened state in the
latter case than in the former. Hence the practice of putting plants which
are difficult to strike into a warm moist atmosphere, and keeping them there
till they have produced shoots sufficiently soft in texture to ensure their
rooting. Hence cuttings of evergreens, such as the holly and laurel, strike
more readily after a wet season than after a dry one, and better in the Irish
nurseries than in those of England or France. Hence also the practice of
nurserymen of forcing plants in pots for a few weeks before cuttings are
taken off, in order to get young growing wood, or placing green-house plants
in the open air during summer, in order to get succulent wood. The
latter practice is sometimes used in the case of heaths, and the former in
the case of the finer sorts of China roses, dahlias, and a great many green-
house plants. On the same principle is founded the growing of plants
from which nurserymen intend to propagate, in pits to which very little
fresh air is given, and which are kept perpetually moist, so that all the
wood produced, whether by the top or side branches, is equally soft and fit
for making cuttings. Perhaps the most successful propagator of house
plants by cuttings in Britain is Mr. Cunningham, of the Comely Bank
Nursery, Edinburgh, and his success is principally owing to his growing the
plants, from which the cuttings are to be taken, in a close, moist, warm
atmosphere. Mr. Cunningham's plant- structures have in general no front
glass, and indeed for the most part may be considered as pits ; many of
them, however, on a very large scale. The closeness, it is obvious, is pro-
duced by giving very little air at any time, and none except when the tem-
perature is raised to an extraordinary degree by sun heat. The moisture is
ON PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 25]
produced by watering every part of the house ; and it is so great that the
surface of the walls, of the stone shelves, and of the pots, is everywhere
covered with lichens, mosses, hepaticae (such as marchantia), and even
fungi. The warmth, it is needless to state, is produced by hot-water pipes
or flues, and by the sun ; and it is carried to a considerable degree further
than is ever done in growing plants for any other purpose than propagation.
In short, every plant in Mr. Cunningham's propagating-houses enjoys the
same close, still, moist, warm, unchanging atmosphere, which it would do if
placed under a bell-glass. The more rare plants which are to be propagated
are planted in a bed of sandy peat and leaf-mould, or of some such soil,
where they are found to grow much more freely than in pots, and speedily
to produce shoots, which are taken off in a young and tender state, and
struck in sand. Various modes are adopted to induce the plants which are
to be propagated from, to protrude young shoots, such as when they have
small leaves, like heaths, &c., by bending down, twisting them, &c. ; and
in the case of plants having larger leaves, such as the Statice arborea, or
some of the more rare fuchsias, by cutting a notch in the stem above every
bud, and inserting a wooden wedge in the notch to keep it open, in conse-
quence of which the ascending sap being checked, every bud protrudes a
shoot, which is taken off in a tender state, with or without the base of old
wood from which it sprang, according to circumstances. In some cases the
shoot is taken off, and the base left to produce other shoots from the latent
buds ; in other cases, the shoot and its base are taken off together, and occa-
sionally, before taking off the shoot and its base, a notch is made below the
bud as well as above it, and the lower notch as well as the upper one is kept
open by a wedge, till a callosity is formed on the upper edges of the lower
notch, from which roots are very readily protruded, after the cutting (with
its base attached) has been taken off and planted in sand. A stranger, in
passing through Mr. Cunningham's propagating-houses, is at first oppressed
with the excessive moisture of the atmosphere, and wonders that none of the
plants damp off ; but this seems to be prevented by the high temperature.
575. Selecting the shoot. — The wood of the present or of the past year is
almost invariably chosen for cuttings. In the case of plants which are not
difficult to strike, a portion of the young shoot is cut off at any convenient
distance from the branch from which it proceeded, and of such a length as
may be considered most convenient for forming a plant. Thus in the case
of willows, gooseberries, currants, &c., from nine to eighteen inches is consi-
dered a suitable length ; and the points of the shoots of these and other
kinds of easily rooting plants are cut off, as not being sufficiently ripened
to have strong buds, or as containing too many small buds. In plants some-
what difficult to strike, lateral shoots are chosen, and these are often drawn
or " slipped " out of the wood, so as to carry with them the axillary forma-
tion of the bud and the vessels of the leaf. This is the only way in which
shoots covered with a woolly tissue, such as several gnaphaliums and heli-
chrysums, can be made to root. This method is also very successful with
plants that are difficult to root, and that have leaves surrounded with
prickles, such as Mutism ilicifolia, Berkley a grandiflora, Logama floribunda,
latifolia, &c.; also with those the leaves of which have stalks with very strong
veins, or their circumference is very strongly defined, such as Banksm grandis,
Berkleya ciliaris, the different species of Daviesia, Chorozema ovata, &c. ;
or those that have winged stems, such as Acacia alata. The reason of the
252 ON PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS.
success is, that the heel being formed by the first, growth of the lateral, con-
sists of wood more or less ripened ; and consequently, when it is planted,
it is less likely to be damped off by the moisture of the soil than younger
wood. When the heel is too ripe, the cutting will not strike.
576. Shoots which have formed blossom buds ought in general to be avoided;
because it frequently happens that all the assimilated nourishing matter has
been laid up for their future support, and no root formation can take
place. Many plants that have flower- buds at the points are, therefore, very
difficult to propagate by cuttings ; such as Blaina ericoides ; whereas, with
some others, it has very little influence, as .Erica tenella, and several species
of Phylica.
577. As general rules, it may be stated that cuttings made of the ripened
wood of deciduous plants that have a large pith, succeed best when taken
off with a portion of the preceding year's wood ; such as the gooseberry,
currant, vine, fig, honeysuckle, elder, hydrangea, spiraea, syringa, philadel-
phus, &c. Cuttings of hard wooded plants difficult to strike, such as Erica,
Epacris, Burtonm, are best made from points of the shoots cut off where
the wood is beginning to ripen, as in .Erica pinguis, aristata, ferruginea,
Hartnelli, cerinthoides, empetrifolia, picta, /asiculata, vernix, &c. ; or
from lateral shoots made from wood of the same year, as in almost all the
more easily growing species of .Erica, left ; such are .Erica margari-
tacea, rubens, ramentacea, mucosa, tenera, tenella, scabriuscula, Persoluta,
pellucida, and all those of a similar growth. Cuttings of soft wooded
plants, or of plants with woolly bark, such as Manulea, Mutisia, Gnaphalium,
&c., are best made of lateral shoots beginning to ripen at the lower
end, and drawn out from the main shoot with a heel. Cuttings of .soft
stemmed plants which are easily rooted, such as Dahlm, Petunia, Geranium,
&c. may be cut off from any growing shoots where the tissue is somewhat
firm, but moderately strong shoots will be found the best.
578. The time of taking off cuttings depends much on the nature of the
plant to be propagated. In the case of hardy deciduous trees and shrubs,
such as the gooseberry, poplar, £c., any period between the falling of the
leaf in autumn, and the swelling of the buds in spring, will answer ; but
the autumn is preferable, because more time is given for the cutting to
accommodate itself to its new situation and circumstances before the growing
season. This it does by cicatrising the wounded section, and thus prevent-
ing it from absorbing moisture in excess when the growing season com-
mences. If the cutting be not taken off till spring, the buds on it will have
been supplied with moisture from the roots, and the sudden cutting off of
this supply will materially check the growth of the buds. Cutting of
hardy evergreens not difficult to strike, such as those of the box, laurel,
&c., may be taken off in the ripened wood in the autumn rather than in
spring, for the same reason as given in the case of deciduous cuttings of
ripened wood. Cuttings of house plants, whether deciduous or evergreen,
such as Fuchsia, Aloysia, Camellia, &c., may be taken off at whatever
season the wood ripens. Cuttings which are taken off in a growing state,
or when the plants have nearly completed their growth, such as those of
heaths, diosmas, epacrises, &c., and indeed the greater number of house
shrubs, must necessarily be taken off when the plants are in a growing state,
which is generally in spring or in the beginning of summer, or if not in a
growing state naturally at that season, they can be rendered so by a slight
ON PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 253
degree of forcing. The advantage of taking off cuttings in spring is, that
they can be well rooted before winter, and that as the days are then lengthen-
ing, and the solar heat increasing, less artificial heat is required ; whereas when
cuttings of growing shoots are made in autumn, artificial heat, or at least
protection from frost, is required during winter, and the want of light and
the presence of damp at that season often occasions their death.
679. Preparation of the cutting. Before the cutting is taken from the
plant, the propagator should determine in his mind the length which will be
most suitable. In the case of fruit shrubs, such as the gooseberry, a long
cutting is desirable in order that the bush may be raised from the ground, so
that its fruit may be kept clean ; but in the case of shrubs which are allowed
to form suckers, as the honeysuckle, or of trees which are to be formed by
training up a single stem from the cutting, as the poplar, the length is of
less consequence ; though the larger the cutting is the greater the quantity
of nourishment which it contains for the buds. The length of cuttings made
with the leaves on depends partly on the number of leaves which the
cutting will support, and partly on the proportion of firm wood which is
required on the lower end of the cutting, which varies in different plants,
and can only be ascertained by experience. Jn the case of some cuttings
which are difficult to strike, such as those of the orange tribe and the
camellia, the cutting is made of such a length as that its lower extremity
may touch the bottom of the pot, or of a sandstone placed there, or even
a mass of sand. The use of the contact with the pot does not appear to be
altogether understood, though it is probable from the fibres of plants always
clinging to porous stones within their reach, that the pores may contain
aqueous or gaseous matter in a state more acceptable to the spongioles than
common soil.
680. The number of leaves which are left upon the cutting. " The number
of leaves which are left upon the cutting has much to do with the success
of the propagator. When we take a cutting from its parent tree, we
deprive it of the supply of nourishment which it formerly received; but
notwithstanding this, its leaves, being still acted upon by the atmosphere, give
out the moisture which they contain, and have drawn from the vessels of
the plant which supplied them before the separation took place. If we
could by artificial means still supply the leaves with this nourishment, the
best plan would be to leave the whole of them on the cuttings, to
elaborate sap, and send down roots for their more complete support.
But we cannot do this, and therefore we must only allow as many
leaves to remain upon the cutting, as we can supply writh nourishment.
Any one may convince himself of the truth of these remarks by the
following simple experiment : — Take such a plant as Petunm violacea for
example ; make one pot of cuttings from it nine inches long, and let all the
leaves remain upon them ; make another set three inches, and allow only
three or four of the top leaves to remain ; water both pots well, and place
them side by side in a damp frame. The difference will soon be apparent —
those cuttings with all the leaves left on them will soon flag, while the
others will scarcely be affected, and will go on performing their functions.
This will be particularly apparent if the cuttings, from carelessness,
or any other cause, are neglected. (J?. F. in Gard. Chron. for 1841,
p. 467.) The cuttings of Cape Heaths and such like plants, observes the same
254 ON PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS.
intelligent gardener, are generally made quite short, not exceeding one inch,
one inch and half, or 'two inches in length ; in order that the whole of the
leaves which are left on may be supplied with food, and have their energies
brought into action. The lower leaves of a cutting, when they can be kept
on, have more influence on the formation of roots than the upper ones,
because they expose a larger surface to the action of light ; and hence, when
from their long petioles, or any other cause, they are not likely to rot, they
should always be kept on. The leaves which are small and closely set,
such as those of Erica, Brunia, &c., when covered with soil, soon begin to
rot, and endanger the cutting, and they ought therefore to be taken off.
This ought always to be done with a very sharp-pointed pair of scissors, and
the greatest possible care should be taken not to lacerate the bark by the
operation, or to bruise the end of the cutting in cutting it across with a knife.
The cuttings of Pelargoniums, on the other hand, may be of any length and
covered with leaves ; but short cuttings make the handsomest plants.
581. In taking off a cutting, regard should be had to the healing of the
section left on the plant, and therefore the cut ought to be made upwards
or outwards, so as to leave a smooth unfractured section that will speedily
heal over. The lower end of the shoot taken off in this case will be
more or less fractured, and must therefore be cut a second time. The
cut on the lower end of the cutting should be made with a very sharp
knife, so as not to crush in any degree the vessels of the shoot, and thereby
prevent them from cicatrizing, and forming a callosity. The cut should
not be made through the joint, because the roots seldom proceed from
the joint itself, but rather from its base,
beneath the point of insertion of the pe-
tiole of the leaf. Shoots that have oppo-
site leaves should be taken off by cutting
across at a right angle with the direc-
tion of the shoot, either immediately
under the base of the petiole, or where
its combined vessels distinctly reach
the stem. Shoots that have alternate
leaves should have the knife inserted
on the opposite side of the bud, under
the node, and the cut should be per-
formed in a slanting upward direc-
tion from the base, or under that of
the point of the insertion of the leaf,
so as to convey away its combined vessels
in as perfect a state as possible, which
produces the same effect as when a lateral
shoot is torn off and then cut clean.
This practice is found very successful
with many cuttings, such as those of
camellias, banksias, and similar plants.
The lower ends of stout cuttings of
plants somewhat difficult to strike, such
as the Orange, are sometimes cut direct Fie- 166- P^pared cutting of a shaddock.
across, so as to rest on the bottom of the pot, and sometimes they are in
ON PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 255
addition split up for an inch or two, and the wound kept open with a wedge.
This has been found by long experience greatly to facilitate the rooting of
such cuttings, probably by increasing the surface by which absorption of
moisture takes place, and at the same time insuring only a moderate supply
of moisture; and perhaps, creating a greater demand for the action of the
leaves to cicatrize the wound with granulous matter. See fig. 168, in which
a cutting of shaddock is not only slit up at the lower end at a, where it is cut
off immediately below a joint, but tongued or cut at the first joint at b.
582. Treatment of cuttings from the time they are made till they are
planted. — In general, cuttings are no sooner made than they are inserted in
the soil where they are to remain till they strike root ; but there are several
exceptions, as appears by the following extract from M. Regel, already
quoted from : — As the crude sap in the cutting is not raised byendosmose,
but by the process of evaporation, care must be taken that the surface of the
cut does not become dry before being put in the earth, and air get into the
lower end of the vessels ; for, as soon as this takes place, only very strong
shoots are capable of drawing up moisture, as has been proved by the ex-
periments of various philosophers. The cuttings should therefore be stuck
in wet sand, if they cannot immediately be put where they are intended to
remain, although it were better to avoid this. If, however, they are such
as ought to lie a day or two, in order to insure success, such as some
banksias, acacias, &c., it ought to be in a damp place ; and the precaution
must be taken, if possible, to cut them again before planting. If cuttings
of Dryandra, some banksias (B. integrifolia, B. Baueri, B. media, B.
Caley?, &c.), most of the long-leaved acacias (A. longissima, A. pendula, A.
brevifolia, A. glaucescens, A. longitolia, A. micracantha, &c.), and some
sorts of Diosma (D. dioica, formosa and umbellata), be stuck in the earth
immediately after being taken from the parent plant, the inner bark will
become black in from fourteen days to four weeks, and the cutting will
perish. — This phenomenon appears to be in close connexion writh the form
of the leaves of these plants, as those of the acacias have very small stomata,
while those of the dryandras have none at all. In their stead, on the under
side of the leaves of the latter plants are small dimples, lined with short
hairs, which the diosmas also possess. Now, as the crude nourishing matter
is drawn up through the open wood in its existing state, and received by
the cutting, while the spongioles of the roots only imbibe it in a very
thin solution, it appears that the above-named plants, on account of the
peculiar formation of their leaves, cannot elaborate in any great quantity this
gross nourishing matter ; and hence arise stagnation of the juices, and
the before-mentioned appearances. The good effect of leaving these cut-
tings lying, and thus interrupting the growing process, appears to be the
prevention of the superabundant rise of the crude nourishing matter ; and this
is the more probable, as it is usual, for the same purpose, to rub over the
section with a piece of clay.
583. Cuttings of succulent, or feshy., plants must also lie for a time before
planting, and on no account in a moist atmosphere, that the surface of the
cut may be sufficiently dried. They retain so many watery particles in
their cellular tissue, that, when this is neglected, the face of the cut soon
rots. The species of the families Melocactus, Echinocactus, Mammillaria,
Opuntia, Cereus, &c., have an extremely thick bark, and a fine epidermis,
with very few stomata ; on which account the process of evaporation is so
s2
256 ON PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS.
slow, that they remain alive for a long time without receiving external
nourishment. The dried cuttings of these plants, therefore, are generally
planted in dry earth, and set in a bed or house filled with warm air, and are
not watered till they have formed roots from the nourishing matter accu-
mulated in themselves. The roots can scarcely ever penetrate the thick
bark, and are produced on the section between the wood and the bark. In
some of the Opuntia and Cereus species, however, they come out of the bark
at the side. The other succulent and fleshy plants, such as the A'loe,
Haworthifl, £empervivum, Mesembryanthemum, Crassula, Plumieria, and
its congeners, as well as all the Cacti, which form side roots, may be watered
as soon as they are planted. Lastly, plants with milky juice require
similar treatment, as they are equally liable to damp off. — As soon as a part
of one of these plants is cut off, the milky juice exudes in great quantities,
covers the whole surface of the cut, and hardens like caoutchouc, by which
the vessels are all stopped up, and the ascension of the moisture prevented.
In the Munich garden, cuttings of .Ficus, and the dry roots of .Euphorbia,
are put in water, where they remain twenty-four hours before they are
planted in the earth. The same end is also attained when they are put in
dry sand immediately after being cut, and afterwards the sand and the milky
juice cleared away ; but the succulent and very milky euphorbias must
lie for some time." — Garten Zeitung, May 23rd, 1840.
584. The soil in which cuttings are planted depends on the greater or less
facility with which they emit roots. Cuttings of hardy trees and shrubs
that root easily, are planted in common garden soil ; those that are somewhat
difficult, in sand or sandy loam on a base of garden soil ; and those which
are most difficult in sand covered with a hand-glass. Cuttings of house
plants are almost always planted in pots or boxes well drained, and the
drainage covered, first, with a layer of good soil, or leaf mould, or peat, ac-
cording to the soil which the plants to be propagated naturally prefer ; next
with a stratum of sand, in
which the cuttings are
planted. The sand retains
as much moisture as is ne-
cessary for the existence of
Fig. 167. A cutting of a Cape^e cutting, and no more, so
Heath, prepared and planted,- the that its loW'Cr end IS not
dotted line in this and the follow- nkeiy to rot ; and the stratum
ing figures of cuttings, represent- ".. . , pjff jgg A cutting of an
;nfrth* ,Uffafe of the *oii in the of soil below the sand sup-
ing tne swja.ce oj me sou r Epacns prepared and
pot. plies nourishment to the planted.
roots as soon as they penetrate through the sand. The cuttings of Cape
Heaths, and almost all plants whatever which are difficult to root, are
planted in sand, which is quite free from soil, metallic oxides or salts, and
of a pure white colour.
585. The depth to which cuttings are planted varies according to the length
and thickness of the cutting, but in general it should not be more than six or
eight inches. On taking up large cuttings, or truncheons of willow or
poplar which have been inserted in the ground in order to grow, it will be
found that all the roots they have made are within little more than a foot of
the surface, and that none have been produced from their lower ends ; more
especially if the soil in which they stand should be compact and moist. The
same thing will be found to take place with gooseberry cuttings, and those of
ON PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS.
257
1C9. A cut-
ting of the young
wood of Achcia
alata, prepared
and planted.
common trees and shrubs, which have been planted more than nine inches
or ten inches in depth. This is quite analogous to what takes place with seeds ;
when buried below a certain depth there is no sufficiency of either heat or air to
cause them to germinate ; and the same want of heat and air,
and probably excess of moisture, prevents roots from being-
emitted from the lower ends of cuttings when inserted in the
soil to a much greater depth than that at which seeds would
vegetate. Hence all delicate cuttings, such as those of heaths,
diosmas, acacias (fig.l 69), epacrises, &c., succeed best when not
planted in sand more than from half an inchto an inch in depth.
Some heaths root best when the cuttings are not above three
quarters of an inch in length, with not more than a third of
that length in the soil.
686. In planting cuttings it is of importance to make them
quite firm at their lower ends, by pressing the sand or soil to
them with the dibber used in planting them ; or in the case of
large cuttings, such as those of common laurel, which are
planted in trenches, by pressure with the foot. In the case
of Cape Heaths and such like cuttings planted in sand, the
dibber or pricker, which need not be larger than a knitting
needle, is taken in the right hand, while the cutting is held in
the left, and the hole being made the cutting is inserted,
nearly as deep as the leaves have been clipped off, and the
pricker is again applied to close the sand round it, as closely and compactly
as possible, without bruising the cutting. Large cuttings are planted pre-
cisely in the same manner, but with a larger dibber. Large cuttings of kinds
which are somewhat difficult to strike, when not planted in pure sand, are
made to touch and press against the bottom or sides of the pot, which is
found to facilitate their rooting — probably on the principle already men-
tioned (581).
687. The distance at which cuttings are planted varies according to the size
of the cutting, its leaves (either on the cutting, or to be produced from its
buds), the season of the year, the length of time they require to root, and
other circumstances. The object is to root as many cuttings as practicable
in a limited space, and consequently to plant them as close together as can
be done without incurring the risk of rotting or damping them off. Keeping
these objects in view, it is obvious that cuttings which strike in a short time
during spring or summer may be planted closer than those which require a
longer period, or are put in in autumn or winter; and that short cuttings,
such as those of heaths, may always be placed closer together than long
cuttings. All cuttings whatever that are planted with the leaves on, require
to be immediately well watered, in order to settle the soil about them ; and
all those that are in a growing succulent state, and are at all difficult to
strike, should be immediately covered with a hand- glass or bell-glass ; for,
though the cutting receives as much moisture through the face of the cut as
it loses in ordinary circumstances by evaporation, yet no sooner is it placed
in very dry air or in a draught, or exposed to the sun's rays, than a dispro-
portion takes place between the demand and supply. When this is the
case, more watery particles are lost through evaporation, than are raised in
the body of the wood, which is very easily perceived in large soft leaved
cuttings. On this account plant structures are required, in which the outer
258 ON PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS,
air can be excluded, a moist temperature maintained, and in very warm
sunshine a dense shade can be given. Even in these houses, bell-glasses
should be placed over the more difficult cuttings, to protect them from
all such external influences as might destroy them before they have made
their roots.
588. After treatment of cuttings. — The hardiest sorts in the open garden,
such as gooseberries, &c., require no particular treatment whatever, and
need not even be placed in a shady situation ; but those which root less
freely, such as box, holly, juniper, &c,, succeed best when planted in a shady
border, in a sandy soil. Cuttings planted in pots or boxes require to be
placed not only in a shady situation, but for the most part under glass, in
order to diminish evaporation from the soil as well as from the cuttings.
All the more delicate sorts of cuttings, such as heaths and most house plants,
require to be covered with a bell-glass, and shaded during bright sunshine.
In close moist warm atmospheres, such as that maintained in the propagating
pits of some nurserymen (see 574), most kinds of cuttings will strike with-
out bell-glasses over them ; but in general, these glasses are requisite, in
order to maintain a steady moist atmosphere. All cuttings with the leaves
on require to be looked over frequently, supplied with water when it is
wanting, and such leaves as decay taken off, as well as any dead or dying
cuttings removed.
589. The most proper form of bell-glass for covering cuttings is that which
gradually tapers from the base to the top ; as from glasses of this shape the
moisture, which adheres to the inside in the form of drops, runs gradually
off, without the dropping so injurious to cuttings. This disadvantage is
found in all other forms more or less ; such as those that are round at the
top, or cylindrical with the top bluntly truncated. The enclosed air under
the glasses will soon lose its oxygen through the respiring process of the
plants within, and also be vitiated by other exhalations ; and, if it is not
changed, it generates mouldiness, and the cuttings lose their fresh appear-
ance. For this reason the glasses, if possible, should be daily ventilated and
wiped ; or, what is still better, as it will entirely renew the air, dipped in
a vessel of cold water, and well shaken before being put on again, so that
too many drops of water may not remain on the glass. Jn an extensive
establishment this operation requires too much time, and therefore round
holes, of about from ^ in. to f in. in diameter, should be made in the tops
of the glasses ; and these will prove very serviceable, if the pans stand on
hotbeds or other heated surfaces. In small gardens, where the cuttings are
placed with other plants on the bed or shelf close under the front glass,
bell-glasses, without holes, would be preferable. When the ground is
warmed to about 55° Fah., it is better, with some few exceptions, such as
the Z/aurus species, to place the glasses inside of the pots, so that the tem-
perature within may not rise too high ; but when the warmth is not so
great, they may, without injury, be placed on the outside of the edge of the
pot.
590. Watering cuttings is an operation requiring great care and judgment.
The object is, to maintain as uniform a degree of moisture in the soil as
possible, without occasioning mouldiness on its surface or rotting the leaves.
Hence, the water is in some cases poured on the soil in such a manner as not
to touch the leaves of the cuttings, and in others a reservoir of water is
formed by placing a small pot in the centre of a larger one, the water being
ON PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS.
259
left to ooze slowly through the porous sides of the pot, as shown in fig. 370,
in which a, d, is a No. 60 pot, with the bottom
closed up with clay, put into one of larger
size ; 6, the drainage in the larger pot ; c, the
sand or soil in which the cuttings are inserted ;
and d, the water in the inner pot, which is
prevented from escaping through its bottom
by the clay stopping at a. Mr. Forsyth, the
inventor of this mode of striking cuttings,
proposes it to be used with hardy plants, such
as pinks and wall-flowers, under hand-glasses
or frames, in the open air, as well as for all
manner of house-plants. The advantages,
he savs, are the regularity of the supply of
* ' y r Fig. 170. Forsyth s mode of striking
moisture, without any chance of saturation ; cuttings.
the power of examining the state of the cuttings at any time without
injuring them, by lifting out the inner pot; the superior drainage, so
essential in propagating, by having such a thin layer of soil ; the roots
being placed so near the sides of both pots ; and the facility with which
the plants, when rooted, can be parted for potting off, by taking out the inner
pot, and with a knife cutting out every plant with its ball, without the
awkward but often necessary process of turning the pot upside down to get out
the cuttings. A common mode of supplying water, when the bell-glass is
placed within the rim of the pot, is to pour on the water between the glass
and the rim. However, where there is a sufficiency of heat, and the pots are
properly drained, no harm results from watering over the tops of the cuttings,
as the heat soon evaporates the water that falls over the leaves. No water
but rain-water should ever be used, either for seeds or young cuttings.
691. The temperature most suitable for cuttings may reasonably be
expected to be that which
is most suitable for the
parent plants, when in
the same state as to growth
as the cutting. Hence,
for all hardy plants the
temperature of the open
air will generally be found
sufficient, though when
they begin to grow a some-
what higher temperature
than what is natural to
them will be advantage-
ous. This, however, will
be of no use, but rather
injurious, when cuttings
areplanted without leaves,
or when evergreens with
ripened wood are put in ;
for a certain time is re-
Fig. 171. A cutting of Rosa semperftoren* prepared and planted. quired for eyery cuttmg
to accommodate itself to its new situation. As a general rule for the tern-
260 ON PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS.
perature at which cuttings should be kept, that in which the respective
plants from which the cuttings are taken are found to produce shoots of
freest growth, is doubtless the best. The bottom heat should nearly equal,
but not exceed, that of the atmosphere. If the shoot has, however, been
much excited into growth by heat, in order to obtain the cutting (574), the
latter must have that heat kept up in its new situation, otherwise its
vegetation will be checked. For cuttings of all the difficult-rooting
greenhouse plants, the best heat for the soil is from 53° to 60° Fah. ; for
those of hothouse plants from 60° to 68° Fah., which should be as regular
as possible. This regularity is of great moment to insure the success of the
cuttings ; for if they are kept at a cooler temperature the greater part of
them form a callosity, but, for want of the necessary heat to assimilate the
deposited nourishing matter, do not form roots. The callosity continues to
grow in many species, such as Quercus, Hakea, and Protect, and often
becomes of so considerable a size, that it not only covers the face of the cut
with a thick layer, but also penetrates between the wood and the bark.
When this is the case, and the callus is not cut away, no roots are made,
and the cutting often remains several years without dying. Where the
propagation of house-plants by cuttings is carried on extensively, a pit or
house should be formed on purpose, in which there should be a bed of
gently fermenting matter, such as tan or leaves, or, what will in general be
found preferable, of sand, or coarsely-powdered charcoal, heated by the
vapour of hot water from below. Where dung beds are employed, great
care is necessary to prevent the exhalations rising from the dung to contami-
nate the air of the bed, which would destroy most cuttings. In general,
all cuttings whatever ought to be kept in what may be called the winter
temperature of the plant, for some time after they are planted, and only put
into their spring temperature when they have formed a callosity, and are
ready to grow. The cool period for cuttings put in without leaves, or with
leaves, but with ripened wood, will, of course, be much longer than those
put in with leaves, and in a growing state, such as geraniums, petunias,
dahlias, and even heaths.
Cuttings of the plants in common cultivation in British gardens may be
classed as under : —
592. Cuttings of hardy deciduous trees and shrubs, such as the gooseberry,
currant, willow, poplar, &c., are easily rooted in the open garden, and the
same may be said of the vine and fig. As it is desirable that the gooseberry
and currant should not throw up suckers, and should have a clean stem, all
the buds are cut clean out, except three, or at most four, at the upper end
of the cutting. The cuttings are planted erect, about six inches deep, and
made quite firm by the dibber at their lower extremity. Cuttings of honey-
suckles, syringas, ampelopsis, art&nisza, atragene, atrlplex, baccharis, ber-
cherm'a, bignonta, calycanthus, ceanothus, chenopodum, clematis, China
roses, fig. 171, and the like, are rather more difficult to root, and succeed
best in a shady border and a sandy soil.
593. Cuttings of hardy evergreens, such as the common laurel, Portugal
laurel, laurustinus, arborvitse, evergreen privet, and a few others, may be
rooted in common soil in the open garden ; being put in in autumn, and
remaining there a year. Cuttings of frupleureum, ftuxus, /uniperus, rhamnus,
holly, sweet bay, aucuba, £c., require a shady border and a sandy soil.
They are put in in autumn, of ripened wood; but young wood of these and
ON PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS.
261
all the kinds mentioned in this and the preceding paragraph will root freely,
if taken off in the beginning of summer, when the lower end of the cutting
is beginning to ripen, and planted in sand, and covered with a hand-glass.
594. Cuttings of all the Conifera and Taxdcece may be taken off when the
lower end of the cutting is beginning to ripen, arid planted in sand, with a
layer of leaf mould beneath, in pots well drained, in the month of August
or September, and kept in a cold frame, from which the frost is completely
excluded, till the growing season in spring, when they may be put into a
gentle heat. It is not in general necessary to cover these cuttings with bell-
glasses. Taxodium is an exception, as it roots best in water.
595. Cuttings of hardy or half-hardy herbaceous plants, such as pinks,
carnations, sweet-williams, wall -flowers, stocks, dahlias, petunias, verbenas,
rockets, and in general all herbaceous plants that have stems bearing leaves,
root readily in sand under a hand-glass, placed in a shady border, or in a
gentle heat, if greater expedition is required. All the cuttings must be cut
through close under a joint, or in the case of pinks, carnations, or sweet-
williams, the operation of piping may be performed.
59G. Piping can only be performed with plants having tubular stems,
and it is only with a few of these that gardeners
are accustomed to practise it. The operation is
performed when the plant has flowered, or soon
afterwards, when it has nearly completed its
growth for the season. The shoot chosen is held
firm by the left hand, to prevent the root of the
plant from being injured, while with the right
the upper portion of the shoot is pulled asunder,
one joint above the part held by the left hand.
A portion of the shoot is thus separated at the
socket formed by the axils of the leaves, and
the appearance is as in fig. 172. Some propa-
gators shorten the leaves before planting, but
others leave them as in the figure. The soil
in which the pipings are to be planted being
w
Fig. 172. A piping of a pink pre-
pared and planted.
rendered very fine, mixed
with sand and then well wa-
tered, the pipings are stuck
in without the use of a dibber
or pricker, and the operation
is completed by a second wa-
tering, which settles and ren-
ders firm the soil at the lower
end of the piping.
597. Cuttings of soft-wooded
greenhouse plants, such as pe-
largoniums, fig. 173, fuchsias,
fig. 174, brugmansias, mau-
randyas, and all other soft-
wooded plants, being cut off
where the wood is beginning F
262
ON PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS.
to ripen, and planted in sand or sandy loam, or sand and peat, root readily,
with or without a bell or hand-
glass, in a shady situation, and in a
greenhouse temperature. Cuttings
of these and all other soft- wooded
plants may be divided into one or
more lengths ; it being only essen-
tial that there should be two joints,
one for burying in the soil to emit
roots, and the other kept above
the soil to produce a shoot. The
cuttings of soft-wooded plants
which root best, are laterals, which
are of average strength.
598. Cuttings of hardwooded green-
Fig. 174. A cutting of a fuchsia prepared and planted. . ,,.
house p/arcte,suchas camelhas,myr-
tle, evergreen acacias, and most Cape and Aus-
tralian shrubs with comparatively broad leaves,
are more difficult to root than soft-wooded
greenhouse plants. The cuttings are made
from the points of the shoots, after the spring
growth has been completed, and before the
young wood is thoroughly ripened. If put in
in February or March, such cuttings will be
fit to transplant in July or August. Some-
times they are put in in autumn, or the
beginning of winter, in which case they will
not root till the following spring, and must Fig. l7b,A cuttingofthe young wood of
be kept COOl till that Season. In either Case, « camellia, prepared and planted.
all the leaves must be kept on, except one, or at most two, on the lower
end of the cutting, which need not be planted more than an inch in depth,
and should in general be covered with a bell-glass.
599. Cuttings of heath-like plants, such as Erica, E'pacris, Diosma, Brum'a,
&c., are among the most difficult to root. They should be taken from the
points of the side shoots early in spring, when the plants have nearly ceased
growing ; not be more than from an inch to two inches in length, and cut
clean across at a joint, and the leaves clipped or cut off for about half an
inch upwards from the lower end of the cutting. Thus prepared, they
should be planted in pure white sand, with a little peat soil as a substratum,
and the whole well drained. The pot should then be covered with a bell--
glass, and placed in a frame, or in the front of a greenhouse, and shaded
during sunshine. See figs. 167 and 168.
600. Cuttings of succulent plants, such as Cactuses, Cereuses, Euphorbias,
Mesembryanthemums, Crassulas, Stapelias, and the like, require to lie a
few days before being planted, in order to dry the wounds; after which they
may be inserted in pots containing a mixture of peat, sand, and brick rub-
bish, well drained ; after which the pots may be set on the front shelf of
a warm greenhouse, and occasionally watered, but shading will be unne-
cessary.
601. Cuttings of the underground stems and roots. A great many plants,
both ligneous and herbaceous, may be propagated by cuttings of the under-
ground stems, as in the liquorice ; and of the roots, as in the common thorn,
ON PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 263
and most of the Rosaces. The roots should be those of healthy plants,
rather young than old, and in general from half an inch to one or two
inches in thickness. They may be cut into lengths of from three to six or
nine inches, and planted in free soil, with the tops just above the surface.
Care must be taken that the upper end of the cutting, or that which was
next the stem before it was separated from the plant, be kept uppermost,
for if that is not done, the cutting will not grow. This is the case even with
cuttings of the horse-radish and sea-kale ; but if cuttings of the roots of these
and similar plants are laid down horizontally, and but slightly covered with
soil, they will protrude buds from what was the upper end before removal, and
send out roots from the lower end. All roses may be propagated by cut-
tings, and all fruit-trees which are seedlings, or have been raised by cuttings
or layers. The Robinia, Acacia, Gleditschta, Coronilla, Gymnocladus, and
many other leguminosse ; Ailantus, Catalpa, the balsam Ontario and
Lombardy poplars, the English elm, the mulberry, the Madura, various
other ligneous plants, and all plants whatever that throw up suckers, may
be increased by cuttings of the roots ; as may a great number of herba-
ceous perennials. The best time of taking them off is when the plants are
in a dormant state, and all that is required is a clean cut at both ends.
602. Striking cuttings in water or moist moss. — All marsh plants having
leafy stems, whether ligneous or herbaceous, will strike root in water, and
still better in vessels containing moss kept thoroughly moist. Besides
marsh plants, a great many others will root in this way, which, indeed,
seems the most ancient mode of artificial propagation. Cuttings of southern -
wood have been rooted in phials of water in cottage windows in Scotland
from time immemorial. Balsams also, and many other plants, may be so
rooted, but not any plant that is difficult to strike in sand. The chief diffi-
culty attending this mode of propagation is the transference of the rooted
cuttings from the water to the soil, which can hardly be done without a
severe check. The only mode is to saturate the soil thoroughly with water
before inserting the plants in it, and to keep it well soaked afterwards till
the plants have begun to grow.
603. Striking plants in powdered charcoal. — The use of sifted charcoal
dust, or, in other words, of charcoal in a state of powder, with the particles
not much larger than those of common sand, appears to have been first
adopted for rooting cuttings in the Royal Botanic Gardens at Munich, by
M. G. Lucas, in 1839. The details at great length will be found in the
" Gardeners' Magazine" for 1841, translated from the Garten Zeitung. It
may be sufficient here to state that powdered charcoal is used as a substitute
for sand, and that it answers best when it has for some months been ex-
posed to the air and weather ; also that it differs from sand in not only
facilitating the rooting of cuttings, but in supplying them with nourish-
ment after they are rooted, and consequently no under stratum of soil
becomes necessary, as is the case where sand is used. The rationale of this
practice has been given in the Garten Zeitung^ by Dr. Buchner (see Gard.
Mag., 1841, p. 252), and the following summary is from a work recently
published in London : — " It is essential to the rapid growth of a plant that
carbonic acid should be taken up by its roots as well as by its leaves. The
carbonic acid may be furnished in two ways; either the soil may absorb it
from the atmosphere, or the decay in some of the matter contained in it may
disengage this product. It is a remarkable property, possessed by several
264 ON PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS.
porous substances, of absorbing gases, and especially carbonic acid gas, to
the amount of many times their own bulk. Of all these, charcoal is one of
the most powerful in this respect, and it has been found that many plants
may be grown in powdered charcoal, if sufficiently supplied with water,
more luxuriantly than in any other soil. The charcoal itself undergoes no
change, but it absorbs carbonic acid gas from the air ; this is dissolved by
the water, which is taken up by the roots, and thus it is introduced into the
system. In such cases the plant derives its solid matter as completely from
the atmosphere alone as if its roots were entirely exposed to it, for not a
particle of the charcoal is dissolved ; and it, therefore, affords no nutriment
to the plants." ( Vegetable Physiology, in a Popular Cyc. of Nat. Science,
p. 117.) In the Gardeners Magazine lists will be found of cuttings of a
great many different species which had rooted in charcoal much sooner than
they usually do in sand or soil ; and from the most recent accounts it appears
that the practice is still carried on in Germany with success. We would
therefore strongly recommend its introduction into British gardens.
604. Propagation by joints and nodules. This mode of propagation is
founded on the principle, that every bud, whether visible or adventitious.
is capable of being made to produce a plant ; and it only differs from pro-
pagating by cuttings, in the buds or joints being taken off the plant with
a smaller quantity of nutritive matter attached to them. Plants are also
propagated by inserting the buds under the bark of other plants ; but this
mode, which is called budding, will form the subject of a separate section.
As bulbs are only buds, nature may be said to employ this mode of propa-
gation in the case of some species of bulb-bearing plants, such as ylllium
and JLilium, in which the buds frequently drop from the stems on the soil,
and root into it. All the offsets of bulbs are of course buds, and may be
employed in propagation ; the nutriment to the young plant being supplied
from the scales, which eventually elongate into leaves, and the roots pro-
ceeding from the plate or base to which these scales are attached. The buds,
with the exception of bulbs, which are taken from the stems, branches, or
roots of plants, for the purpose of being rooted in the soil, always contain
a portion of the stem or root, to supply them with nourishment till they
are able, by the roots they form, to abstract it from the soil. In the case of
the vine, a joint is commonly taken; but in that of the potato, a single bud,
with a portion of the underground stem or tuber attached, is found sufficient.
There are very few plants, besides the vine and the potato, which are at
present propagated by rooting buds or joints in the soil, though there can
be no doubt that this mode is applicable to a great number of plants with
which it has not yet been tried. It is probable, also, that all or many
of those plants which can be propagated by cuttings of the roots might be
increased by small portions of these, so short as to be considered more in
the nature of joints than cuttings. For example, root-cuttings of the
common thorn and sea-kale are commonly made of several inches in length ;
and it is known that, if they are laid down lengthwise, and covered with
an inch of soil, they will produce roots at one end of the cutting and shoots
at the other. Now, by shortening the cutting to an inch, or half an inch,
and treating it in the same manner, it is probable the same result would
take place, though the plants produced might be weaker. It is true this
would be nothing more than propagating by very short cuttings ; but rooting
plants from joints may be so designated. The advantage of propagating by
ON PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 265
buds or joints is, that a plant is produced from every bud or joint ; whereas,
in propagating by cuttings, at least two buds, and commonly several, are
required. The plants raised by buds, on the other hand, are commonly
weaker than those raised by cuttings, from having a smaller supply of nutri-
tive matter for their support during their infancy.
605. A nodule, as we have seen (115), is a concretion of embryo buds,
such as may be frequently seen in the matter extra vasated from the joints
of pelargoniums and the stumps of old elms and poplars, olives and mul-
berries, occasioned by the returning sap not flowing freely to the root.
These nodules are seldom used for the purpose of propagation, except in the
case of the olive ; but there can be no doubt that they might be employed
for this purpose, and would answer, were it not that the plants which pro-
duce them are in general very readily propagated by cuttings. The only
remarkable instance of propagation by this mode that is on record is prac-
tised in Italy with the olive. The old trees are commonly found to con-
tain swellings or nodules in the trunk, called uovole, and these being sepa-
rated, are planted in the soil in the manner of bulbs, and produce plants.
The operation of separating is performed with a sharp pen-knife, and the
mother plant does not seem to suffer the slightest injury by the operation.
(Gard. Mag. vol. vii. p. 663.) This no doubt might be practised with the
nodules of all plants, and we believe it has occasionally been done with those
of the white poplar, the mulberry, and the pelargonium.
606. In propagating by joints of the vine it is reasonable to suppose that
the larger the portion of wood attached to the joint the stronger will be the
plants produced. Mr. Knight found that the buds of the vine, wholly
detached from the alburnum, were incapable of retaining life ; but that a
very few grains of alburnum were sufficient to enable a bud to form minute
leaves and roots, such as would have been produced by plants raised from
seeds. By increasing the quantity of alburnum, the shoots produced from
the buds increased in the same proportion ; and when the bud had a piece
of two years' old wood, a foot long, attached to it, the growth was nearly as
strong as it would have been if the bud had remained on the parent tree.
Joints of the vine are preferred to cuttings for propagation, because they
form plants more easily managed in pots than are larger cuttings or layers ;
and they are preferred to layers also, because they are always furnished with
roots in due proportion to their shoots, whereas plants raised from layers
have frequently, from not being separated from the parent plant at the
proper time, very strong shoots and very few ill-ripened roots. In pre-
paring joints of the vine, about half an inch of the wood is left above and
below the bud, as in fig. 176 ; but this and all other
plants that are so propagated are found to root better
when the shoot is cut through, so as to separate
about one- third part of the pith, as shown in fig. 177.
By this latter mode of treatment plants have been
Fig. 176. A joint of a vine j d fw)mbuds and half.
prepared in the common
manner, and planted. joints of Camellia, pOHlSettm,
euphorbia, brugmansia, and
other species. Mr. Murray observes of the lych-
nis coronaria, the flower-stem of which has opposite
leaves, that not only will individual joints strikeout
if each joint be Split into tWO Vertically, two distinct and pith are removed previous
plants may be obtained. (Gard. Chron. for 1841, to planting.
266 PROPAGATION BY LEAVES.
p. 297.) There can be no doubt that a great number of plants, both
ligneous and herbaceous, may be propagated by joints or half-joints, though
cultivators have hitherto made comparatively few trials.
607. Propagation by bulbs., and entire tubers and tubercles, is effected simply
by separating them from the parent plant, and inserting them in the soil about
the same depth at which they are found on the parent plant, or a little
deeper in very light soil, and not quite so deep if in very heavy soil. A phe-
nomenon, Decandolle observes, common to all tubers is this : that while in
the seed the radicle or descending part pushes first, in the tuber, on the
contrary, the ascending part or plumule is first developed, and the roots
appear a short time afterwards. The potato and the Jerusalem artichoke
are often planted by entire tubers, as well as by separating them into eyes
or sets. The same may be said of the tubers of the anemone and the
ranunculus. The tubercles or small tubers of saxifraga granulata, adoxa
moschatellina, and of many species of oxalis, are propagated by planting the
tubers entire. The offsets of all bulbs are also planted entire, and, as
already observed, they may be considered as buds ; though they differ from
ordinary buds, in which the nutritive matter is laid up in the alburnum of the
plant, by having it deposited at the base of the leaves or scales of which the
bulb is composed.
608. Propagating by bulb-bearing leaves. The leaves of malaxis paludosa
bear little bulbs at their extremities; several sorts of allium originate bulbs in
the axils of the bracts ; and in some ferns, such as asplenium bulbiferum,
and Woodwardia radicans, bulbs are found at the extremities of the leaves,
which when these touch the soil, grow, throw down roots, and produce
young plants. Bulbs, or germs analogous to them, are found in marchantia
polymorpha, and on many arums and dioscoreas, by all of which the plants
may be propagated ; taking care, in difficult cases, to preserve the soil, on
which the bulbs are placed, uniformly moist, shaded, and at a somewhat
higher temperature, and the atmosphere, by means of a bell-glass, in a
greater degree of moisture, than is required for the parent plant.
§ 3. Propagation by Leaves.
This mode of propagation is of considerable antiquity, though it has not
till lately been much practised. It is said by Agricola, (Z/ Agriculteur Par-
fait, <5fc., ed. 1732) to be the invention of Frederick, a celebrated gardener at
Augsburg, and to have been first described by Mirandola, in his Manuale di
Giardinieri, published in 1652. Subsequent experiments by C. Bonnet, of
Geneva ; Noisette, Thouin, Neuman, and Pepin, of Paris ; Knight, Herbert,
and others, in England ; and quite recently by Lucas, in Germany, have proved
that there is no class of plants which might not be propagated by leaves. It has
been tried with success with cryptogamous plants, with endogens and exogens;
with the popular divisions of ligneous and herbaceous plants, annuals, bien-
nials, and perennials, and with the leaves of bulbous plants and palms.
609. The principle on which the propagation of plants by leaves is founded
is considered by some as the organisability of the sap of the plant, and by
others as founded on the universal diffusion through the plant of embryo buds.
" That the vital power residing in the latex or blood of the plant," Mr.
Lymburn observes, " is sufficient to form buds, no one can doubt who has
observed the matter extravasated at times from the stems of geraniums,
dahlias, &c., and the stumps of old trees. At first it is only a mass of
cellular matter, but gradually begins to thicken on the surface, and get of
PROPAGATION BY LEAVES. 267
a red and green colour ; vessels are seen to be produced and buds organised,
which, if placed in favourable circumstances, will evolve into shoots. I have
seen the buds literally crowded together like bees in a hive. Dr. Carpenter
says, that the blood of animals, even when altogether separated and spread
out, has been seen to organise vessels, from the strength of the vital principle."
This seems also to have been Mr. Knight's opinion. Jt is, however, of
less consequence to adopt either theory than to follow a practice which has
been found successful by cultivators, and which takes place in nature in the
leaves accidentally broken and left on moist soil of cardamine hirsuta, the
common water -grass, sedums, and other succulent -leaved plants, and
probably various others, independently of those which root by the leaves
in consequence of these producing bulbs, as in the case of Woodwardm
radicans (608).
610. The conditions generally required for rooting leaves are, that the leaf
be nearly full grown ; that it be taken off with the petiole entire ; that the
petiole be inserted from an eighth to half an inch, according to its length,
thickness, and texture, in sandy loam, or in pure sand on a stratum of rich soil;
and that both the soil and the atmosphere be kept uniformly moist, and at
a higher temperature than is required for rooted plants of the same species.
The leaves of such succulents as cacalia, crassula, cotyledon, kalankoe, por-
tulaca, sedum, sempervivum, cactus, and similar plants, root when laid on
the surface of soil, with the upper side to the light, and the soil and atmo-
sphere is kept sufficiently close, moist, and warnu The first change that
takes place is the formation of a callosity at the base of the petiole ; after
which, at the end of a period, which varies greatly in different plants, roots
are produced, and eventually, at an equally varying period, a bud from
which a leafy axis is developed. M. Pepin states that rooted leaves of Hoy a
carnosa, and those of several kinds of Aloe, did not produce a bud till after
the lapse of ten or twelve years. The leaves before they emit roots must
be slightly shaded to prevent excessive perspiration during sunshine, but
afterwards they may be fully exposed to the light.
611. Rooting portions of leaves. It appears that some leaves will throw
down roots with only a part of the petiole attached, and that others
will even root from the mid-rib when the leaf is cut through. In 1839,
M. Neuman, of the Paris Garden, seeing the theophrasta latifolia (Clavija
ornata, D. Don) growing so well from cuttings of leaves, conceived the
idea of cutting several of them in two, and treating them in the same
manner as entire leaves. Accordingly, he cut a leaf in two, and planted
both parts in the same pot, treating them exactly alike. In about three
months, the lower half of the leaf (fig. 178) had made roots, but the upper
half had none ; though, some time afterwards, when it became necessary
to separate the cuttings, M. Neuman found that the upper part of the
leaf had also made roots (fig. 179), but that these roots were much shorter
than those of the lower half. The rooting of the two halves of a leaf of the
theophrasta, so hard and dry as every one knows these leaves to be, appearing
to him an interesting circumstance, he continued to pay attention to them for
six months. He wished to ascertain if they would produce buds as in other
cases, for he was in hopes they would, as he remarked that the roots increased
in the pot. At last in the seventh month, for the first time, he saw at the
extremity of his two half leaves, buds appearing, as well formed as those pro-
ceeding from the base of the petiole of an entire leaf. In June, 1840, these two
268
PROPAGATION BY LEAVES.
cuttings had become beautiful and healthy plants, which it was impossible to
distinguish from others produced from entire leaves.
We see from this experiment that it requires double the time to produce
a bud from the upper part of a leaf, that it requires for the lower half to
produce one ; and that, in propagations by leaves, it is not always necessary
to take the heel or lower end of the petiole with the leaf, which sometimes
injures and deforms the shoots. M. Neuman's experiment proves further,
that wherever cambium can be formed, there are at
the same time a number of utricules or germs of
buds formed, from which a new plant will be deve-
loped when the parent is
placed in favourable circum-
stances. From this circum-
stance, in short, we may
conclude that all the veins
ma^ serve for the reproduc-
tionjof plants. The dots in
fig 179 show the parts of the
upper half-leaf which were
cut off to allow of its being
put into a small pot; and
this proves that it is only the
Fig. 178. The lover W of the middle rib (or prolongation of
leaf of theophrasta rooted and the petlole),which IS required Fig. 179. The upper half of
sending up a shoot. for reproduction. Half leaves f/ie°P>'r<*sfa rooted and tend.
„ , , , T . i i . *n8 up a thoot.
of various plants have been rooted m charcoal in
Germany (603).
612. The plants usually raised by leaves in British gardens are comparatively
few, and chiefly gesneras, gloxinias ; bulb-bearing leaves, such as br^ophyl-
lum; some succulents, such as sempervivum, and a few others. Leaves of the
orange, the hoya, the aucuba, the camellia, ficus elasticus, the clianthus, the
common laurel, and a few more, are occasionally rooted, but more as
matter of curiosity than for the purpose of increase.
613. Propagation by the leaves of bulbs has been successfully effected by the
Hon. and Rev. W. Herbert, who first tried it, in 1809, by setting a cutting
of a leaf of a Cape Ornithogalum. " The leaf was cut off just below the
surface of the earth in an early stage of its growth, before the flower-stalk
had begun to rise ; and it was set in the earth, near the edge of the pot in
which the mother plant was growing, and so left to its fate. The leaf
continued quite fresh, and on examination (while the bulb was flowering)
a number of young bulbs and radical fibres were found adhering to it.
They appeared to have been formed by the return of the sap which had
nourished the leaf. Thereupon two or three more leaves were taken off
and placed in like situations ; but they turned yellow, and died without
producing any bulbs. It appeared to me then, and it was confirmed by
subsequent experience, that in order to obtain a satisfactory result the leaf
must be taken off while the plant is advancing in its growth. I found it
easy thus to multiply some bulbs that did not willingly produce offsets.
I afterwards tried, without cutting the leaf off, to make an oblique incision
in it under ground, and in some cases just above ground, attempting, in fact,
to raise bulbs by layering the leaf. This attempt was also successful, and some
PROPAGATION BY LEAVES. 269
young bulbs were formed on the edge of the cut above ground as well as below.
I tried cuttings of the stem of some species of Lilium, and obtained bulbs at
the axil of the leaf, as well as from the scales of the bulb ; and that practice
lias been since much resorted to by gardeners, though I believe it originated
with me. I raised a great number of bulbs of the little plant which has
been successively called massonia, scilla, and hyacinthus corymbosus, by
setting a pot full of its leaves, and placing a bell-glass over them for a short
time. A bulb was obtained with equal facility from a leaf of a rare species
of Eucomis ; and experiments with the leaves of Lachenalias were equally
successful. I apprehend that all liliaceous bulbs may be thus propagated ;
but the more fleshy the leaf, the more easily the object will be attained."
(Gard. Chron., for 1841, p. 381.)
014. Rooting leaves and parts of leaves in powdered charcoal. Leaves and
parts of leaves of the following plants were rooted in charcoal, by M. Lucas,
of Munich, in 1389. Half-leaves of Piereskm, Polianthes mexicana Zuccar.,
and leaves of Euphorbia fastuosa, in a short time filled their pots so full of
roots that they were obliged to be repotted.
In from eight to fourteen days leaves of Cecropia palmata, O'xalis mandi-
occdna, O. purpfrrea, Euphorbia fastuosa, Cyclamen indicum, Lophospermum
scandens, Martyna craniolaria, Begonia monoptera, B. bulbifera, Ipomoe'a
superba, I. spec, e Corcovado, Mesembryanthemum tigrinum, Gesnem
latifolia, G. atrasanguinea, Sinningia guttata, Piper piereski«/0/iwm, all sorts
of Gloxinia, even calices and mere flower-stems, pieces of leaves of Convol-
vulus Batatas, Peireskia grandifolia, Polianthes mexicana, and warts of the
large- warted mammillaria.
In three weeks the tops of the leaves of Agave americana fol. var., leaves
of Jacardnda brasiliensis, bundles of leaves of Pinus excelsa, leaves of
Mimosa Houstom, and Cyperus vaginatus.
In five weeks, whole and half -cut folioles of Encephalartos caffer and
Zamia integrifolia produced a number of roots from the surface of the cuts.
Many leaves have not yet made roots, but for a considerable time have
formed callosities; such as jLaurus nitida, Bignonia Telfairi^, Carolines
prin-ceps, Ardfsise, Gardenia, Adansonm digitata, Draese'na, &c. As expe-
riments that did not succeed, we may mention portions of the leaves of
Amaryllis and Crinuni, of ferns, of tropical Orchldeae, of Dasylirion and
Hecht/a, Tillandsia, Panddnus, Phormium tenax, of tropical tuberous-
rooted ^roldeae, old leaves of the Agave, and some others which, partly
through roit ting by wet, or other mischances, were prevented from growing.
015. Leaves with the buds in the axils root freely in the case of many
species. The buds and leaves are cut out with a small portion of the bark
and alburnum to each, and planted in sandy loam, so deep as just to cover
the bud ; the soil being pressed firmly against it, and the back of the leaf
resting on the surface of the soil. Covered with a bell-glass and placed
on heat, in a short time the buds break through the surface of the soil,
and elongate into sho6*ts. The late Mr. Knight tried this mode with
double camellias, magnolias, metrosideros, acacias, neriums, rhododendrons,
and many others, some of which rooted and made shoots the same season,
and others riot till the following spring.
610. Immature fruits have even been made to produce plants. M. Thouin
planted fruits of the Opuntia Tuna, which were about three fourths ripe,
with their peduncles entire, in pots of sand almost dry, and covered them
270 PROPAGATION BY LEAVES.
with a bell-glass, placing the pot on a hot-bed. In eighteen days, callosities
appeared at the base of the peduncles, which soon became roots, and a few
days afterwards little protuberances appeared on the summits of the fruit,
which, at the end of two months, became shoots. The same result took
place in the case of the fruits of Opuntia polyanthos, and Mammillaria
simplex. (Cours de Culture, c<yc., tome II., p. 551.) Some or the whole
of the parts of the flower are frequently metamorphosed into leaves, and
even shoots, in warm, moist seasons, and from these there can be no doubt
plants could, in many cases, be raised by taking them off and treating them as
cuttings.
617. The essence of all the different modes of forming plants from cuttings
may thus be stated. Y\7herever a joint of the ripened wood of a plant, or of
the unripened wood, with a leaf or leaves, can be procured, it is probable
that a rooted plant may be produced by proper treatment ; that in many
cases, especially where the leaves are large, a bud with a leaf attached will
produce a plant ; that in a number of cases
plants may be produced from leaves alone,
and that in some cases they may be even pro-
duced from parts of leaves, from the calyxes,
and other parts of flowers, and from imma-
ture fruits. That to render more certain the
rooting of a cutting or a bud, or even a leaf,
it is advisable partially to separate it from the
parent plant some days, weeks, or, in some
cases, months, before it is entirely taken off,
by cutting a shoot half through immediately
Fig. iso. wedges inserted above and be- ™der a joint or leaf, and keeping the wound
low buds to check the flow of the sap, open, if necessary, with a wedge, as in fig. 180,
and excite them to produce shoots. 6) or by ringing under each bud, as in fig.
181, c. That, in regard to soil, the safe mode is to plant in pure sand, with
a layer of the soil in which the plant delights below ; and, in regard to light,
that the cuttings should in all cases, when they are
under glass, be placed as close to it as possible.
Finally, that in regard to woody plants, those with
the leaves on, and the wood half-matured at the
lower end of the shoot, will root more readity than
shoots of ripened wood without the leaves. Camellia
shoots of the season, put in in July or August, will
be rooted by December, while those not put in till
September, will not root till the following spring.
That the rooting of cuttings with the leaves on de-
pends very much on the action of light, is proved
by the folio whig experiment, made by M. Caie : —
A pot of cuttings of Monsoa incisifolia was placed
in a close pit, at two feet from the glass; another Fig. isi. A shoot ringed toaccu-
at two feet three inches ; and a third at two feet mulate sap at the base of the
•• FT** ... . , _ buds,and prepare them for throtv-
six jnches. The cuttings in the first pot were rooted, tng otltroots vhen they ure taken
but very little advanced in growth ; those in the off and planted.
second were elongated in the tops, but had only callosities at the lower
ends of the cuttings ; and those of the third pot were grown as high or
higher than those of the second, but without either callosities or roots.
(Gard. Chron. vol. i., p. 782.)
PROPAGATION BY LEAVES. 271
618. To induce stems or shoots to produce leaves or growths from which cut-
tings may be formed, various modes have been adopted, the object of all of
which is to stimulate the normal or latent buds. The most common mode
with plants in pots or under glass, is by an increase of temperature and atmo-
spheric moisture ; but there are modes which are applicable to all plants
whatever, the object of which is to interrupt the ascending or descending
sap. When the ascending sap is accumulated by art at a joint, and can no
longer pass freely onwards, it stimulates the buds which exist there, either
normal or adventitious, to develop themselves, and the sap thus escapes
organised into the form of leaves or shoots ; while the interruption of the
descending sap, more especially under a joint or bud, produces an accumu-
lation or callosity there, which, sooner or later, is organised into roots. To
accumulate the ascending sap at any point, the shoot maybe bent to one side
from that point ; and it may be bent back again from a second point, and if
the shoot is long, the operation may be repeated, so as to leave it in a ser-
pentine or zigzag form from every exterior angle in
y_ which, as at a, a, in fig. 182, a bud will be developed.
Where the shoot cannot conveniently be bent, a notch
may be made in it immediately above a bud, so deep
as to penetrate the alburnum ; or in the case of more
slender shoots, the knife may be merely inserted
above the bud, or above several buds, so as to penetrate
into the alburnum, and the wound kept open by insert-
ing wedges in them, as in fig. 180, a. Some days or
weeks afterwards, according to the nature of the plant,
a notch or cut may be made under the bud, in order
a to interrupt the sap returned by the leaf, and thus
^__ form a callosity there for the production of roots. In
Fig. 182. A shoot bent to cause^* wav a11 tne DU(Js or joints on a tree or shrub of
the buds at the angles to pro. almost any size maybe prepared; and if a tree so
treated could be covered with moss kept moist, leaving
only the buds, or the joints, or points from which buds were expected, exposed
to the light ; or if it could be laid down on the surface of soil kept moist, and
very slightly covered with soil, or laid down flat on the surface of water, so
as just to touch it, a rooted plant, or at least a shoot, would be produced
from every bud or joint. In preparing buds in this manner, however, it
must always be borne in mind, either that the plants require to be kept in a
close, moist atmosphere, or to have the wounds covered with moss or soil ;
for if they are exposed to dry air, they will frequently neither cicatrise, nor
emit roots, in consequence of the excessive evaporation which will necessarily
take place.
Even the petioles of large leaves may be prepared before they are taken
off, by being cut half through near the base, by which means they will form
a callosity there, and root more rapidly when planted. The roots of plants
which contain latent buds may be stimulated to develop them by the ex-
posure of portions of them to the light, or by bending, or twisting, or cutting
notches in them, in the same manner as in stems. Piercing the stems or
roots by a longitudinal cut through a joint, and keeping the wound open with
a wedge or splinter, or driving pegs or nails through them, will facilitate
both the formation of roots and the development of buds ; and various other
modes of exciting buds, and causing the protrusion of roots, will occur to the
T 2
272 PROPAGATION BY LAYERS.
gardener who understands what has been already said on the subject. It is
only necessary to bear in mind that when the ascending sap is to be inter-
rupted by cutting, the knife must penetrate into the alburnum, and that
when roots only are the object in view, it is only necessary to penetrate
the bark.
§ IV. Propagation by Layers.
G19. The Theory of Layering is founded on the following facts: — The
sap absorbed from the soil by the roots rises to the buds and leaves chiefly
through the alburnum ; for though it has been proved, by the transmission
of coloured fluids from the roots upwards, that a communication is main-
tained throughout, the whole stem, yet the greatest flow of sap, whether
ascending or descending, takes place through the youngest layers, whether
of wood in ascending, or inner bark in descending. A decortication may
therefore be made with little or no interruption resulting to the ascent of
the sap. The elaborated fluid, in returning from the leaves, descends by
the inner bark, depositing in its progress an organised layer of alburnum,
a portion of this extending to the extremities of the roots, where it pro-
trudes in the form of spongioles. From those facts it will appear evident that
although ringing does not interrupt the upward flow of sap, because the
incision does not reach the vessels in which it proceeds, yet that the descent
is prevented by the chasm formed by the operation ; on the brink of this
chasm it accumulates, and under favourable circumstances a callosity is
formed, or mass of cellular substance protruded, which by degrees assumes
a granulated form, and these granulations ultimately elongate into spon-
gioles ; or the teguments above the incision, being rendered soft by the
earth or other suitable moist covering, are ruptured, and afford egress to
the nascent roots. From this the principle of the operations of ringing,
applying ligatures, twisting, tonguing, or splitting the parts about to be laid,
will be easily understood.
620. The operation of layering, like that of forming cuttings, is chiefly
applicable to plants having leaf-bearing steins ; and the advantage which a
layer has over a cutting is that it is nourished, while roots are being formed,
by the parent plant ; whereas the cutting has no other resource than the
nutritive matter laid up in it, or that produced by the functions of the leaves.
Hence, layering is one of the most certain modes of propagation, by division,
though it is in general slower than any other mode. In whichever way
layering is performed it consists in the interruption of the descending sap at
a joint of a stem, or shoot, and placing it under circumstances favourable for
the production of roots. The interruption is most successful when it takes
place immediately under a bud or joint, when the shoot is more or less
matured, and when it penetrates into the alburnum ; though, if the albur-
num is penetrated too far, the ascent of the sap will be interrupted, and the
supply to the buds or leaves will be insufficient to develop them, or
keep them from flagging. The descending sap may be interrupted either
wholly by cutting off a ring of bark, or partially by a cut or notch,
by driving a peg or nail through it, by a slit kept open, by twisting
the stem at a joint, by strangling it there with a wire, by bending it so
as to form an angle, by pressure by laying a stone on it, or by attracting
it by heat and moisture. The latter mode of causing a branch to
protrude roots may often be observed in nature, in the case of the lowest
PROPAGATION BY LAYERS.
273
branches of trees and shrubs that rest on the soil, and by their shade keep it
moist, which, after some time, root into it. Whatever mode of interrupting
the sap be adopted, the wounded part of the layer from which roots are
expected to proceed must be covered with soil, moss, or some other suitable"
material kept moist, or it must be partially or wholly immersed in water.
Layering, from the certainty which attends it, was formerly much more
extensively employed as a mode of propagation than it is at present ; the
art of rooting cuttings being now much better understood, and being chiefly
adopted in house and in herbaceous plants ; and layering being confined in
a great measure to hardy trees and shrubs, of which it is desired to produce
plants that will speedily produce flowers, or that cannot otherwise be so
readily propagated.
621. The state of the plant most favourable for layering is the same as that
most suitable for propagation by cuttings (574 to 576). The wood and
bark should be soft and not over ripe, and this is most likely to be the case
with lateral shoots produced near the surface of the soil, or in a moist atmo-
sphere. The worst shoots are such as are stunted and hide-bound, though
there are no shoots whatever, unless such as are in a state of disease, that
will not root by layers, if sufficient time be allowed them. Layers, like
cuttings, may be made either of ripe wood in the autumn or spring, or of
growing wood any time in the course of the summer; the only condition, in
the latter case, being that the part of the shoot where the sap is interrupted
be somewhat mature, or firm in texture.
622. Hardy trees and shrubs, with reference to layering, may be divided
into two kinds, those which, when cut
down, throw up shoots from the collar, that
is, technically, which stole, such as most
kinds of deciduous trees and shrubs ; and
those which do not stole, such as all the
conifers. The former are planted and cut
down, and layers made of the young shoots
which proceed from the collar ; while the
A latter are either laid entirely down, and
J| lL their branches extended along the surface
of the soil, and the extremities of all the
shoots layered, or such side branches as
can be bent down to the soil are made fast
there by hooked pegs, and their shoots
layered. When the shoots to be layered
are small, they are frequently twisted or
Fig. 183. Layering with the tongue made in slit through at the point where the roots
the undenide of the shoot. are to j,e produced ; but when they are
strong the knife is entered beneath a joint, and the shoot cut half through,
and the knife afterwards turned up half an inch or more, so as to form what
is technically called a tongue (fig. 183, a), and the shoot being bent down
and its point turned up, the wound is kept open as at b ; the shoot being kept
down by a hooked peg, or by a portion of a twig, first twisted to render it
tough, and next doubled, as at c, one or more buds being left on the layer, r/,
the wound being kept open by the bent position of the shoot. When the
shoots are small or brittle, in order to lessen the risk of breaking them by
tonguing below, the incision is made above, and the tongue kept from uniting
f
""*< '"
274 PROPAGATION BY LAYERS.
by giving the layer a twist when pegging it down, as shown in fig. 184, in which
e is the tongue made in the shoot before being laid down, / the position
taken by the tongue after the layer is fixed
in its place, and g the peg which keeps the
layer down. The dotted line in this and
the preceding figure indicates the surface
of the soil. Layers are always buried in
the soil, and secured there, and the soil
pressed firmly against them. The plant
furnishing the shoots which are layered is
called a stool, and as it generally furnishes
a number of shoots, these are laid down ra-
diating all round it, as in fig. 185, and the
soil formed into a circular basin, the better
to retain water about the rooted parts of
the layers. Layers that are difficult to
root are laid into pure sand with good Soil
beneath, as is done with cuttings difficult
to strike ; and the shoots laid down and layered are commonly shortened to
one eye above the soil, in order that there
may be only one stem to the plant to be
produced. See figs. 183 and 184.
In former times when few trees were
propagated in nurseries, excepting limes
and elms, the shoots produced from the
stools were not laid down, but after two
years' growth the shoots were earthed up,
and after remaining on two years longer,
they were slipped off and found to have a
sufficient supply of roots to ensure their
independent existence, after, however, be-
ing cut in and headed dowrn. Some shrubs, such as hibiscus, vitex, are still so
propagated in French nurseries. Sometimes the circumference of the stool
was split or fractured to excite the buds ; and in Genoa, at the present day,
young orange trees are frequently cut down within a few inches of the soil,
and the stock and root split into four parts, which, after a year, can be
separated into as many distinct plants.
623. Shrubs with very long shoots, such as clematis, tecoma, vitis, wistaria,
honeysuckle, &c., are stretched along the surface, and every joint, or every
alternate joint, prepared for rooting; so that one shoot produces half as
many plants as it contains joints, or even a plant for every joint. The joint
in this case is not tongued but bruised, pierced, or slit, or simply pressed down
to the moist soil by a hook, peg, or small stone — the latter having the advan-
tage of retaining moisture, as well as checking the return of the sap. Shoots
which continue growing all the summer, such as those of the wistaria, are
laid as they extend in length ; and when the parent plant is placed on moist
heat, under glass, and near it, it is incredible the number of rooted layers
that may thus be obtained in one season. After such layers are formed, a
ring of bark may be taken off between each layer, which will prevent the sap
returned from the leaf which is left growing at each joint, from being sent
down to the parent root, and force it to go to the nourishment of the roots
sent down from the separate joints.
Fig. 185. A stool with several of the shoots
layered.
PROPAGATION BY LAYERS. 275
624. Layering by insertion of the growing point. — Shoots of the bramble
will emit roots by the usual mode of twisting and pegging down ; but if the
growing point of the shoot is merely inserted in the soil to the depth of au_
inch, an astonishing quantity of roots will be produced in the same season,
more, in fact, than in two years by the other mode. The gooseberry, the
Aristolochia, and the common nightshade, treated in the same way, succeed
equally well ; and doubtless many other species might in like manner be
easily and quickly propagated.
G25. Plum and Paradise stocks for fruit trees are raised in large quantities,
by a somewhat similar mode. The shoots of the stool are pegged down flat
on the surface, and covered entirely over, to the depth of half an inch, with
loamy soil. This is done early in spring, and in the course of the summer
every bud sends up a shoot which roots at its base, and at the end of autumn
is fit to be taken off as a separate plant. The tree peony is sometimes pro-
pagated in this manner, but with this difference, that a ring of bark is taken
off between each bud. A great many trees and shrubs might, doubtless, be
rapidly propagated by this mode.
G26. Roses, with the exception of the kindsof Indian origin, are generally pro-
pagated by layers, which in
the nurseries are made both
in spring and autumn, and
sometimes at both seasons,
on the same stool. The
shoots being brittle are
generally twisted, or slit
through, and the slit kept
open with a fragment of
stick or stone. When they
are tongued the tongue is
generally made on the up-
per side of the shoot, fig. 1 84,
which greatly lessens the
risk of breaking the shoot
when bending it down.
Fig. 186. A petunia layered. 627. Hardy herbaceous
plants seldom require to be propagated by layers, but the practice is occa-
sionally resorted to for the sake of getting stout plants in a shorter time
than by cuttings. The Petunia is frequently layered, fig. 186, and also
the Verbena, and even the Chrysanthemum ; and this is also the case
with the carnation, fig. 187, and with some other hybrids, or varieties
belonging to the same genus. The shoots are chosen when of sufficient
length, which is generally when the plant is coming into flower, and the lower
leaves being cut off, the knife is entered beneath a joint, passed half through
the shoot, and continued half an inch or more upwards, kept open, if neces-
sary, by a splinter of wood, and pegged down and covered with sandy loam,
or sand and leaf mould. Some herbaceous plants which propagate readily
by cuttings are layered, as a mode requiring less care after the operation
is performed than cuttings, as well as being more certain of success. Some-
times a shoot separated from a plant is layered, the lower end of the shoot
being inserted in a vessel of water to supply it with moisture, while the
rooting process is taking place, as in fig. 188.
276
PROPAGATION BY LAYERS.
Fig. 1 87. A carnation layered.
G28. Shrubby plants in pots kept under glass may either be layered by
laying down the entire plant on its side (622), or by
placing pots under it, or raising pots among its branches,
and layering the shoots into these. The shoot may either
be laid down into the pot, or brought up through a hole
c.\ / -f-4- in its bottom, or in its side (fig. 52, in p. 143); a tin case
filled with soil or moss may be suspended from the plants,
and the shoots ringed, as indicated in figs. 189 and 190;
cutting. or a ring of bark being taken off, the wounded part may
Fig. 189. A branch ringed and prepared to be rooted in
a tin case without separating it from the tree.
Fig. 190. Different branches
layered in tin cases.
PROPAGATION BY LAYERS. 277
be enveloped in a mass of loam covered with moss, a mode practised by
the Chinese ; or with moss alone. The moss, in either case, may be kept
moist by suspending near it, and somewhat higher, a vessel of water with
borne worsted threads, connecting the water with the moss, and acting as a
syphon. The threads ought to have small weights tied to their ends, in
order to keep them to the bottom of the vessel of water, in order that the
supply may go on as long as it contains any ; one thread will be enough for
every layer. This mode, however, in the present day is more a matter of
curiosity than of utility. Most plants when ringed beneath a joint will root
into moss alone, when placed in a warm moist atmosphere ; they will also
root in water when so ringed, provided the plant be in a growing state.
029. The soil in which plants are layered should, in general, be that in
which the parent plants naturally thrive best, but with a mixture of sand,
or with the wounded part entirely enveloped in sand or powdered charcoal,
to prevent it from retaining too much water, which would prevent the wound
from protruding granulous matter, and cause it to rot. Plants which grow
in heath soil, such as most of the Ericacere, and all other hair-rooted plants,
must be layered in sand or in heath soil, but almost all others will root
freely in sandy loam. Where the soil and the season are not naturally
moist, layers, even in the open garden, require artificial watering, or, at
least, are much benefited by it. Mulching may also be advantageously
employed in order to retain moisture.
630. Hooked pegs were formerly considered as essential articles for fixing
down the layers, but the general practice at present is to take a piece of the
shoot from the stool, or any waste piece of shoot about a foot in length, or
longer if the soil be very loose, and twisting it in the middle so as to prevent
it from breaking when bent, to double it like a lady's hair-phi over the
shoot, as shown at c, in fig. 183. The layers of herbaceous plants are
sometimes kept down by short loops of bass-mat put over them, and their
ends made fast in the soil with a small dibber.
631. The time which layers require to produce roots varies in different
plants, from one to two, and even, in some cases, three or four years. The
process of rooting is facilitated by increased heat and moisture, and by ring-
ing below the tongue, or wounded or bent part from which the roots are ex-
pected to protrude ; but this operation can only be safely performed where
the parent plant is in vigorous health, because, otherwise, it would weaken
the root, and prevent it from sending up sap to nourish the layer. In taking
off layers which are difficult to root, it is a safe mode not to cut through the
layer at once, but by degrees, at intervals of several weeks. In the case of
stools in the open air the butt ends of the shoots from which the layers have
been taken are cut off close to the stool, to make room for a second succession
of layers, which are made annually from the upright shoots produced during
the preceding season. In the case of layers taken from plants in pots, the
stumps left after the layer is taken off should be cut to a leaf-bud, in order
that a shoot may be produced to supply the vacancy made in the head of the
plant by the removal of the layer.
§ V. Propagation by suckers, slips, offsets, runners, and simple division.
632. A sucker is properly a shoot sent up from the under-ground part
of the stem, from latent buds there existing, or from adventitious buds on
that part of the stem, or on the horizontal roots. Those proceeding from
278 PROPAGATION BY SUCKERS, SLIPS, ETC.
the upright stems, may be called stein-suckers or slips. A cutting of
a gooseberry or currant, if planted without removing any of the buds, will
send up shoots from that part of the stem which is under ground, as well
as that which is above it; and the former are properly stem-suckers. It is
commonly said that plants raised from suckers are more apt to produce
suckers than such as are raised from cuttings ; and the reasons are, that the
sucker has always more buds at its base, unless in the case of a cutting which
has been slipped off with a portion of the joint from which it protruded. It
is also to be observed that plants which naturally produce suckers, such as
the plum, or the everlasting pea, will produce them in whatever manner
they may be propagated, though, doubtless, not so soon when they are pro-
pagated by cuttings of the extremities of the branches as from suckers, more
especially if the buds on that part of the cuttings which are to be buried in
the soil are cut clean out, as is frequently done in the case of cuttings of
gooseberries and currants. Many herbaceous plants are propagated by
root-suckers ; a number of shrubs, such as the lilac, the spiraea, the rasp-
berry, &c., and some trees are occasionally so propagated, such as the white,
trembling, and balsam poplars, the English elm, &c. The suckers of her-
baceous plants are chiefly taken off in spring and autumn, when they are in
a growing state, and those of ligneous plants late in autumn, when the sap
is dormant ; but suckers of both kinds may be taken off at any season, pro-
vided those which are in a growing state are put into a moist atmosphere
and shaded.
633. Stem-suckers or slips may be described as shoots which proceed from
the collar, or above it from the lower part of the stem, and which have few
or no roots, unless the stem has been earthed up. Heading down plants,
or otherwise rendering the top inadequate for the due appropriation of the
supply of sap furnished by the roots, favours the production of stem-
suckers. The tendency is also induced in consequence of any sudden
check given to the foliage, such as that arising from excessive drought,
or the depredations of insects, more especially if the roots are at the
same time growing in rich, moist soil. These shoots, being drawn or
slipped off, are planted and treated as cuttings, and they are found to
root more readily than shoots taken from the plant at a greater distance
from the root. To produce slips on the lower parts of stems they may be
cut down, and in the case of plants in pots stimulated by an extra supply
of heat and moisture. The stumps of pine-apple plants are sometimes so
stimulated after the fruit lias been gathered, and slips or suckers are in that
case produced by the buds which had remained dormant in the axils of the
leaves. The base of such plants as the banana, when treated in a similar
manner, are attended with similar results ; and by destroying the growing
point or central bud of such plants as Yucca, Dracsena, and Zamia, and also
of Mammillaria, and other Cactacese, and of all bulbs, slips, suckers, or
offsets, will be produced from the latent buds in the axils of the leaves.
By earthing up, these shoots may generally be made to emit roots before
being separated from the parent plant ; or they may be slipped off without
roots, and treated as cuttings. Cuttings or layers from the branches of
coniferous plants sometimes continue growing a number of years before they
throw up a leading shoot ; but this result may be obtained much sooner
than it otherwise would be by pegging down the entire plants, when a stem-
sucker will be produced, as in fig, 191, in consequence of the check given
PROPAGATION BYSUCKERS, SLIPS, ETC.
279
to the ascending sap by the acute angle formed by the bend, after which all
the other branches of the plant may be cut off close to the stem-sucker.
Cuttings of the side branches of Cun-
ninghamia lanceolata have by this
treatment made as good plants as seed-
lings ; and we believe it has also been
successful with Araucaria exc&sa.
634. Offsets. — An offset is a term
for the most part confined to the small
bulbs, corms, tubers, or underground
stems, which are formed at the side of
the base of large ones, and by which the
plant producing them may be propa-
Fig.i9i. Thebranches of a coniferous piantpegged,^ They are very readily observed
down to force it to throw up a stem-sucker as 6 <f J I*
a leader. in the hyacinth, tulip, and crocus, in
which they afford the only means of propagation, excepting by seed. All offsets
have a natural tendency to separate from the parent bulb, excepting when they
are very small and young; in which case they are left adhering to the parent
bulb or tuber for another growing season. When offsets are to be separated,
the bulb, when it is in a dormant state, is taken up, and the offsets are
removed and planted by themselves, at various depths, according to the size
and nature of the offset ; and bearing in mind that all bulbs are buds, and
consequently that they would all grow if placed on
the surface of moist soil, and pressed firmly against
it, without any covering of soil. Offsets may be
produced from bulbs, by searing or otherwise destroy-
ing their central bud by mutilation, or by cutting
them over a little above the plate, from which
proceed the scales, as in the hyacinth, and the con-
centric coats, or rudiments of tubular leaves, as in
the onion; the buds in both cases being in the axils
of the members. Sometimes the frost destroying the
outer scales of a bulb will stimulate the buds in their
axils to develop themselves (fig. 192) ; and some-
•ib times, when the scales are very closely compressed
conse uence o tn'u ^ *°P' ^G ^uds ^ t^le"r aX^S W^ ^6 developed, and
riet sustained by the scales will protrude below (fig. 193). A bulb of Crinum
from frost. canaliculatum, cut over a little above the plate, was
found by M. Syringe to throw out no fewer than forty offsets. Practices of
this kind are rendered unnecessary with tubers, or
underground stems, which containing numerous
buds distributed over them, as in the potato, the
anemone, &c., are propagated by division; but
those roots which are commonly called tubers, as
the ranunculus and the dahlia, are naturally in-
creased by offsets, and the production of these can
in general be forwarded by destroying the central
bud, by which several latent ones are developed.
635. Runners or stolones are long slender shoots,
with joints at distant intervals, which are protruded
from the collar of perennial herbaceous or sub-her- Fig. 193. Buds developed beic
baceousplants,suchasthestrawberry,manygrasses, conse(iuence °f the »cal
* closely compressed at top.
Fig. 192. The buds in the
280
PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING, ETC.
some saxifrages, potentillas, &c. The joints of these plants rest naturally
on the ground, send down roots, and upwards leaves or shoots ; and being
separated from the internodi of the stolones, constitute rooted plants.
Very little assistance from art is required in this mode of propagation ;
but the soil may be loosened and enriched, and the joint pressed firmly
against the soil, by pegging it down with a hooked peg, or by laying a small
stone on each side of the joint. The principal plant propagated in this
manner in gardens is the strawberry.
636. Simple division is an obvious mode of propagating all herbaceous
perennials, not bulb-bearing, and all shrubs which produce numerous suckers.
The most common mode is to take up the entire plant, and separate it into
as many stems as have roots attached ; or if only a few plants are wanted,
these may be taken off the sides of the plant without greatly disturbing the
interior of the root stock.
§ VI. Propagation by grafting, inarching, and budding.
637. The term graft is in England generally confined to one mode of
performing that operation, viz., grafting with detached scions ; but it is our
intention in this article to use it, in the continental sense, as a generic term,
including, also, inarching, or grafting with attached scions, and budding or
grafting by means of a bud attached to a plate of bark. The principle on
which all these operations are founded is the phenomenon of the union of
newly generated tissues when in the act of being generated. No union can
take place between the parts of plants previously formed, but only when
these parts are in the act of forming. Thus two shoots or branches may
be selected, and by means of similar sections be most accurately joined, and
placed under the most favourable circumstances for uniting, as in fig. 194,
representing a stock and a scion ; yet when
the two are bound together, though a union
ultimately does take place, not one particle of ,JI
the existing tissue at the time of grafting W
becomes united with similar tissue brought in
contact with it. Close contact is all that takes
place with regard to these surfaces of the scion
and stock, for a vital union only occurs when
nascent tissues meet. The parts a, a, which
are alburnum of the preceding year, never
unite. The vital union is formed solely by the
coalition of newly generated tissues, thrown
out by such parts as have the power of gene-
rating them. This power does not exist in
the heart-wood, nor in the outer bark, but
only in the alburnum, or rather the substance
imbedded between it and the inner bark, con-
stituting the cambium, represented by the
lines, &, b. If the sections are placed against
each other, so as the inner barks coincide, the Fig> 194 Scionand^cktoillustratethe
scion may perhaps derive an immediate supply principle on which they are united.
of moisture ; but it does so only in a mechanical way, and a piece of dry
sponge might as truly be said to have formed a connexion from its absorbing
moisture, in consequence of being placed on the top of a stock, as the scion
PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING, ETC. 281
that only takes up moisture as above-mentioned. When, however, new
tissue is formed by the parts, 6, 6, of the respective sections, and when the
portions so formed protrude so as to meet, they immediately coalesce, form-
ing a connecting chain of vessels between the buds of the scion and the
roots of the stock. If an old grafted tree is cut down, and all the wood cut
away to the original portions which existed at the time of grafting, it will
be found that the sections similar to a, a, made by the grafting-knife, are
only mechanically pressed together; and may be easily taken asunder.
Instances frequently occur of the inner bark of the scion being placed out
of contact with that of the stock, and a union nevertheless ensues ; but this
takes place in consequence of the cellular substance protruding from the
respective alburnums over the surface of old wood, which it only covers,
as soon as the new-formed tissue of stock and scion touch each other, a
union is then formed.
638. The origin of grafting is of the most remote antiquity, but whether
it, was suggested by the adhesions of the parts of two plants, frequently seen
in a state of nature, or by the appearance of one plant growing on another,
as in the case of the mistletoe, it is impossible to divine. Theophrastus and
other Greek authors mention the graft ; and upwards of twenty modifica-
tions of it have been given by the Roman Varro. The principal modern
author on the subject is M. Thouin, of Paris, who has described and figured
more than a hundred kinds, and M. Tschudy, of Metz, who was the inven-
tor of the art of grafting herbaceous plants, and ligneous plants in an herba-
ceous state. The theory of grafting was first given in a lucid manner by
the celebrated De Candolle in his " Physiologic Vegetale" From these works,
and our own observations, we shall first treat of what is common to grafting
inarching, and budding, and next treat of these modes separately.
639. The phenomena of grafting are thus explained by De Candolle : —
The shoots springing from the buds of the scion are united to the stock
by the young growing alburnum, and, once united, they determine the ascent
of the sap rising from the stock ; and they elaborate a true or proper juice,
which appears evidently to redescend in the inner bark. This sap appears
to be sufficiently homogeneous in plants of the same family — to be, in
the course of its passage, absorbed by the growing cellules near which it
passes, and each cellule elaborates it according to its nature. The cellules
of the alburnum of the plum elaborate the coloured wood of the plum ;
those of the alburnum of the almond the coloured wood of the almond. If
the descending sap has only an incomplete analogy with the wants of the
stock, the latter does not thrive, though the organic union between it and
the scion may have taken place ; and if the analogy between the alburnum
of the scion and that of the stock is wanting, the organic union does not
operate, and as the scion cannot absorb the sap of the stock, the graft does
not succeed. In the case of the mistletoe, which may be considered as a
natural graft, there is an analogy between the two alburnums, but none
between the barks ; whence it follows that, though the mistletoe can very
well unite itself with the alburnum of the tree on which it grows, yet the
descending sap formed b\T the bark of the mistletoe does not enter the bark
of the tree which bears the parasite, and therefore cannot nourish it. This
is the cause of the impoverishment of branches of trees on which the mistletoe
has fixed itself, and perhaps the possibility of that parasite living on trees of
every natural family, and which possibility M. De Candolle attributes to the
identity of the ascending sap. (Phys. Veg., vol. ii., p. 814.)
PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING, ETC.
G40. The conditions essential to the success of the graft are the exact
coincidence of the alburnum and the inner bark of the scion with those of
the stock. The graft is effected in two forms : that of a cutting or scion,
which consists of wood and bark with buds (as in grafting and inarching),
and that of a bud, which consists of a shield of bark, containing a bud or
buds, but deprived of its wood, as in budding. In the case of the scion it is
essential to success that its alburnum coincide exactly with that of the
stock ; and in the case of the bud it is essential that the disk of bark to which
it is attached should be intimately joined to the alburnum of the stock by
being placed over it, and gently pressed against it by means of ligatures.
The buds of the scion and of the shield are supplied with sap from the
alburnum of the stock, and develop themselves in consequence. As a proof
that it is the ascending sap which supplies the nourishment in both cases,
the scion and the bud succeed best when the stock is cut over almost
immediately above the graft ; and when the scion or the shield are placed
immediately over a part of the stock which contained buds. The success
of a scion or a bud placed in the internodia of the stock where no normal
buds can exist, will therefore be much less certain than if it were placed on
the nodia ; because the vessels which conducted the descending sap to the
original buds are ready to supply it to those which have taken their place.
Hence in the case of the graft, fig. 194, the stock is cut sloping, and so as
to have a bud on or near the upper extremity of it, in order to prevent the
stock from dying down behind the graft ; and the section a, against which
the scion is to be placed, is made at the lower part of the sloping section, in
order to insure abundance of sap at its upper extremity as well as at its
lower; for were there no bud to expend the sap, it would cease to be
impelled through that part of the stock, which would consequently die.
By the end of August the scion and stock will be united, and the section at
the top of the latter healed over perhaps as far as c ; and if the heel, or part
above c, is then cut off, the stock will probably be completely healed over
by the end of the season.
641. Anatomical analogy. Plants can only be budded or grafted on one
another within certain limits, and these depend on the anatomy or organic
structure of the tissue, and the physiology or vital functions of the organs of
the plant ; but the anatomy of the cellules and the structure of the vessels
are so delicate and difficult to observe, that the differences between plants in
these respects are not sufficient to enable us to arrive at any practical con-
clusion from examining their organisation, and hence our only guide in this
matter hitherto has been experience. From this it is found that as plants
of the same natural family have an analogous organisation, they alone can
be grafted on one another with any prospect of success ; though the success
of the operation even within this limit will not always be complete ; partly,
perhaps, from some difference in organic structure, as in the case of the
apple and pear, which can only be united for a few years, but chiefly on
account of the physiological differences which may and do frequently exist.
Hence it follows that the greater part of what is recorded by the ancients,
respecting the grafting of plants of one family on those of another totally
opposite, such as the jessamine on the orange, the vine on the walnut, &c.,
is without foundation in fact. The mistletoe is the only exception to the
general laws of grafting, as it seems to grow equally well on plants of many
different families, and this is accounted for from the mistletoe only attracting
PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING, ETC. 283
watery or non-elaborated sap, which it does not return to the plant on which
it grows by the bark, as in the case of other grafts ; and hence, says De
Candolle, the necessity of plants in general having a natural analogy between
the scion and the stock, is founded on the descent of the sap by the bark,
while the mistletoe, which absorbs the watery sap and returns nothing, can
live on all exogens of which the ascending sap is of a watery consistence.
As a proof that plants of the same natural family may be grafted on one
another, De Candolle succeeded in grafting the lilac and the fringe tree on the
ash, the fringe tree on the lilac, the lilac on the phillyrea, and the olive on
the ash and the privet ; and though these grafts did not live a long time,
on account of the physiological differences of the species, yet their having
succeeded at all sufficiently proves the anatomical analogy of plants within
the same natural order. This analogy is greater between plants of the
same genus ; more so still between individuals of the same species, and most
so between branches of the same individual.
(542. Physiological analogy. In a physiological point of view, the epochs
of vegetation are the principal points to be attended to, and hence no plant
can be grafted on another which does not thrive in the same temperature.
Two plants in which the sap is not in motion cannot be successfully
united, because it is only when cellular tissue is in a state in which it can
form accretions that a vital union can be formed, and a reciprocal
activity must exist both in the stock and scion. Hence evergreen trees
seldom succeed for any length of time when grafted on deciduous kinds.
The analogy of magnitude is also of some importance, for if a large
growing tree is grafted on one naturally of small stature, the graft, by
exhausting the stock, will ultimately deprive it of life ; and when a small
or weakly growing species is grafted on a large vigorous one, it receives too
much sap, and ultimately perishes from superfluity, as the other did from
insufficiency. The analogy of consistence also merits notice. Soft woods
do not associate well with hard woods, nor ligneous plants with such as are
herbaceous, nor annuals with perennials. An analogy in the nature of the
sap is also requisite, experience having proved that plants with a milky sap
will not unite for any length of time with plants the sap of which is watery.
Thus the A^cer ^latanoides — the only species of A'cer which has milky sap
— will not graft with the others ; and numerous as are the species of tree
on which the mistletoe grows, it is never found on those which have a
milky sap.
643. The modifications effected by the graft, is a subject of great practical
interest to the cultivator. The graft neither alters the species, nor the
varieties, but it has some influence on their magnitude and habits, and on
their flowers and fruit. The apple grafted on the paradise stock becomes
a dwarf, and on the crab stock, or a seedling apple, a middle-sized tree. The
size of the stock here seems to influence the size of the graft ; but in the
case of the mountain ash, which is said to grow more quickly when grafted
on the common thorn, than when on its own roots, the stock is naturally a
smaller plant than the tree grafted on it. The habit of the plant is some-
times altered by grafting. Thus A^cei' eriocarpum, when grafted on the
common sycamore, attains in Europe double the height which it does when
raised from seed. C'erasus canadensis, which in a state of nature is a ram-
bling shrub, assumes the habit of an upright shrub when grafted on the
common plum. Various species of Cytisus become greatly invigorated when
284 PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING, ETC.
grafted on the laburnum, as do the different varieties of Pyrus Avbma, when
grafted on the common thorn ; the common lilac attains a large size when
grafted on the ash ; and Tecoma radicans, when grafted on the Catalpa,
forms a round head with pendent branches, which are almost without ten-
drils. The hardiness of some species is also increased by grafting them, as
in the case of the Eriobotrya japdnica on the common thorn, and the Pis-
tacia vera on the P. Terebinthus ; the Quercus virens is rendered hardier
by being grafted on the evergreen oak ; but in other cases, the species are
rendered more tender, as when the lilac is grafted on the phillyrea. Those
species that are rendered hardier by grafting have probably tender roots,
and by being placed on such as are hardier, they suffer only from the cold
at top, instead of being injured by the effects of cold both at root and top ;
or if they grow more stunted, they will also be less susceptible of cold. The
period of flowering is well known to be accelerated by grafting ; and hence,
both in the case of fruit-trees and ornamental trees and shrubs, the shoots
of seedlings are frequently grafted on the extremities of the branches of old
trees ; in consequence of which, they blossom several years sooner than if
left on their own roots. The mountain ash, and the different varieties of
Pyrus Jf ria, produce double the number of fruits when grafted, to what
they do on their own roots. The increase of the size of fruits, more espe-
cially of kernel fruits, is said by Thouin to be often from a fifth to a fourth
part, but the number and size of seeds produced is diminished. The flavour
as well as the size of fruit is said to be altered by the graft. Thus pears
are said to become gritty on quince or thorn stocks ; and the greengage plum
to vary in flavour, according to the kind of plum-stock on which it is grafted;
producing insipid fruit on some stocks, and fruit of the most delicious flavour
on others ; the cherry also when grafted on the Cerasus Mahdleb, on the
wild cherry, on the bird cherry, or on the common laurel, will produce fruit
very different in flavour on each. The duration of trees is greatly altered
in certain cases by the graft ; the apple on the paradise stock is generally
shorter lived than on the crab-stock ; while the Pavia, grafted on the horse-
chesnut, has its longevity increased. The period of leafing and flowering
is also occasionally changed by the graft, the general effect of which is to
produce a somewhat earlier vegetation ; because the graft, by arresting the
descent of the sap, produces in some measure the effect of ringing. Thus
far as to the influence of the stock upon the scion.
644. The influence of the scion on the stock is very limited, and as far as
experience has hitherto gone, it consists only in communicating disease. The
only proof of this is the fact of the bud of a variegated common jasmine
having been inserted in a species without variegated leaves, and having
communicated its variegation to the entire plant, both above and below the
graft. This, De Candolle observes, is in accordance with the theory of
Moretti, that variegation, being a disease, can be propagated in a tree in
every direction. We are not aware, however, that there is any example
on record of a variegated holly having communicated its variegation to the
stock ; or in fact, of any other variegated plant having done so but the
jasmine, which, however, is a fact placed beyond doubt.
645. The uses of grafting, in addition to those of all the other modes of
increasing plants by extension, are —
1. The propagation of varieties or species, which are not increased freely
by any other mode ; such as pears and other fruit-trees, oaks and other
forest-trees, and several species of Daphne and other shrubs.
PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING, ETC. 285
2. The acceleration of the fructification of plants, more especially of trees
and shrubs, which are naturally a number of years before they come into
flower. For example, a seedling apple, if grafted the second year on the
extremities of the branches of a full-grown apple-tree, or even on a stock
or young tree of five or six years' growth, will show flowers the third or
fourth year ; whereas, had it remained on its own root, it would probably
not have come into flower for ten or even twenty years. To obtain the same
result with climbers that flower only at their extremities, the tips of the
shoots of seedlings are taken off and grafted near the root ; and when these
have extended an inconvenient length, the tips are again taken off and re-
grafted ; and after the operation has been performed several times, the plant
at last produces flowers in a much shorter time than it otherwise would
have done, and in a comparatively limited space.
3. To increase the vigour or the hardiness of delicate species or varieties,
by grafting them on robust stocks, such as the Mexican oaks on the com-
mon oak, the china roses on the common dog-rose, the double yellow rose
on the china or musk-rose, the Frontignan grape on the Syrian, &c.
4. To dwarf or diminish the bulk of robust species, such as grafting the
pear on the quince or medlar, the apple on the doucin or paradise stock, the
cherry on the perfumed cherry, &c.
5. To increase the fruitfulness and precocity of trees. The effects pro-
duced upon the growth and produce of a tree by grafting, Knight observes,
" are similar to those which occur when the descent of the sap is impeded
by a ligature, or by the destruction of a circle of bark. The disposition in
young trees to produce arid nourish blossom-buds and fruit is increased by
this apparent obstruction of the descending sap ; and the fruit of such young
trees ripens, I think, somewhat earlier than upon other young trees of the
same age, which grow upon stocks of their own species ; but the growth and
vigour of the tree, and its power to nourish a succession of heavy crops, are
diminished, apparently by the stagnation in the branches and stock of a
portion of that sap, which in a tree growing upon its own stem, or upon a
stock of its own species, would descend to nourish and promote the exten-
sion of the roots."
6. To preserve varieties from degenerating, which are found to do so
when propagated by cuttings or layers, such as certain kinds of roses and
camellias.
7- By choosing a stock suitable to the soil, to produce trees in situations
where they could not be grown if on their own roots ; for example, the
white beam-tree will grow in almost pure chalk, where no pear-tree would
live ; but grafted on the white beam-tree, the pear, on a chalky soil, will
thrive and produce fruit.
8. To introduce several kinds on one kind. Thus one apple or pear
tree may be made to produce many different kinds of apple or pear ; one
camellia a great many varieties; one British oak, all the American oaks; and
even one Dahlia, several varieties of that flower.
J). To render dioecious trees monoecious ; that is, when the tree consists
of only one sex, as in Negundo, some maples, the poplar, willow, Maclura,
Salisburia, £c., to graft on it the other sex, by which means fruit may be
matured ; a knowledge given of both forms of the species, both forms intro-
duced into small arboretums ; and in the case of fruit-trees, such as the
pistacia, the necessity of planting males rendered no longer requisite.
286 PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING, ETC.
10. The last use which we shall mention is that of renewing the heads of
trees. For example, if a forest or fruit tree is cut down to the ground, or
headed in to the height of ten or twelve feet, and left to itself, it will deve-
lop a great number of latent buds, each of which will be contending for the
mastery ; and the strength of the tree, and the most favourable part of the
season for growth, will be in some degree wasted, before a shoot is singled
out to take the lead ; but if a graft is inserted either in the collar or stool,
or in the amputated head, it will give an immediate direction to the sap,
the latent buds will not be excited, and the whole concentrated vigour of the
tree will be exerted in the production of one grand shoot.
646. The different kinds of grafting may be classed ; as, grafting by de-
tached scions or cuttings, which is the most common mode ; grafting by
attached scions, or, as it is commonly termed, by approach or inarching, in
which the scion, when put on the stock, is not at all, or is only partially,
separated from the parent plant ; and grafting by buds, in which the scion
consists of a plate of bark, containing one or more buds. The stock on
which the scion is placed, is, in every case, a rooted plant, generally standing
in its place in the garden or nursery ; but sometimes, in the case of grafting
by detached scions, taken up and kept under cover, while the operation is
being performed. The two first modes of grafting are performed when the
sap is rising in spring ; and budding chiefly when it is descending, in July
and August. Under particular circumstances, however, and with care,
grafting in every form may be performed at any period of the year.
647. The materials used in grafting are the common knife (fig. 40a in
p. 137) for heading down stocks; the grafting knife and budding knife (fig.
40a and c in p. 137 and fig. 195) ; ligatures of different kinds for tying on the
Fig.195. Grafting-knife, with thcportion of the back of the blade from + to + ground to a cutting
edge, so as to make it serve also for a budding knife.
*
scions, and grafting clay or grafting wax for covering them. The ligatures in
common use are strands of bast matting, or of other flexible bark ; but some-
times coarse worsted thread is used, or occasionally shreds of coarse paper, or
cotton cloth, covered with grafting wax. When bast mat is used, it may be
rendered water-proof, by passing it first through a solution of white soap,
and next through one of alum ; by which a neutral compound is formed
insoluble in water. These prepared shreds, before being put on, are soft-
ened, by holding them over a small vessel of burning charcoal, which the
grafter carries with him ; and when grafting wax is employed, instead of
grafting clay, it is kept in an earthen pot, also placed over live charcoal,
and the composition taken out and laid on with a brush. There are com-
positions, however, which become soft by the heat of the hand, or by breath-
ing on them.
648. Grafting clay is prepared by mixing clay of any kind, or clayey
loam, fresh horse or cow -dung, free from litter, in the proportion of three
parts in bulk of clay to one of dung ; and adding a small portion of hay, not,
however, cut into too short lengths, its use being analogous to that of hair in
plaster. The whole is thoroughly mixed together, and beaten up with water,
so as to be of a suitable consistency and ductility for putting on with the
GRAFTING BY DETACHED SCIONS. 287
hands, and for remaining on in wet weather, and dry weather, without
cracking. The beating is performed with a beetle or rammer (fig. 37 in
p. 136), on a smooth hard floor under cover, turning over the mass, and adding
water, and then beating afresh, till it becomes sufficiently softened and duc-
tile. The process of beating must be repeated two or three times a day for
several days • and it should be completed from three weeks to a month be-
fore the clay is wanted ; care being taken to preserve it in a moist state, by
covering it with mats or straw. The grafting-clay used by the French
gardeners is composed of equal parts of cow-dung, free from litter, and
fresh loam, thoroughly beaten up and incorporated.
649. Grafting-wax is very generally used on the Continent, instead of
grafting-clay. There are various recipes for composing it, but they may
all be reduced to two kinds : — 1. Those which being melted, are laid on
the graft in a fluid and hot state with a brush ; and 2, those which are pre-
viously spread on pieces of coarse cotton, or brown paper, and afterwards
wrapped round the graft in the same manner as strands of matting. The
common composition for the first kind is one pound of cow-dung, half a
pound of pitch, and half a pound of yellow wax, boiled up together, and
heated when wanted in a small earthen pot. For the second kind, equal
parts of turpentine, bees- wax, and rosin are melted together.
§ VII. — Grafting by Detached Scions.
650. Grafting by detached scions is the most common mode, and it is
that generally used for kern el- fruits, and the hardier forest- trees. It
is performed in a great many different ways, as may easily be con-
ceived, when we consider that the only essential condition is the close
connexion of the alburnum of the scion with that of the stock. Upwards
of forty modes of grafting by detached ligneous scions have been described
by Thouin ; but we shall confine ourselves to a few which we consider
best adapted for general use. The time for grafting hardy trees and
shrubs by detached scions in England is generally in spring, when the sap
is rising ; but the vine, if grafted before it is in leaf, suffers from bleeding.
In Germany and North America, grafting is frequently performed in
the winter time on roots or stocks which have been preserved in sheds or
cellars ; and the scion being put on and tied and clayed over, the grafted
stock is kept till the spring, and then taken out and planted. Where
scions are grafted on roots, this practice is sometimes followed in British
nurseries, as in the case of pears and roses. Plants under glass may be
grafted at almost any period ; and herbaceous grafting, when and wherever
performed, can, of course, only succeed when the shoots of the scion and
stock are in a succulent or herbaceous state. In all the different modes of
grafting by detached scions, success is rendered more certain, when the sap
of the stock is in a more advanced and vigorous state than that of the scion ;
for which purpose the scions are generally taken off in autumn, and their
vegetation retarded, by keeping them in a shady place till spring ; and the
stock is cut over a little above the part where the scion is to be put on, a
week or two before grafting takes place. The manual precautions necessary
to success are : to fit the scion to the stock in such a manner that the union
of their inner barks, and consequently of their alburnums, may be as close
as possible ; to cut the scion in such a manner, as that there shall be a bud
or joint at its lower extremity, and the stock so that there shall be a bud
u 2
288
GRAFTING BY DETACHED SCIONS.
or joint at its upper extremity ; to maintain the scion and the stock in the
proper position for growth, and in close contact, by a bandage of narrow
shreds of matting or cloth ; to exclude the air by a covering of clay or
grafting- wax ; and, in addition, when the graft is close to the surface of the
ground, by earthing it up with soil ; and w hen the scion is making its shoot,
to tie it to a prop if necessary ; to remove the clay or grafting- wax, when
the scion has made several leaves ; to remove the bandage by degrees, when
it appears to be no longer necessary ; and to cut off the heel on the upper
part of the stock at the proper time, so as that it may, if possible, be healed
over the same season. The modes of grafting detached scions adapted for
general use, are : splice or whip- grafting, cleft-grafting, rind-grafting,
saddle- grafting, side-grafting, root -grafting, and herbaceous grafting.
651. Splice- grafting^ tongue-grafting, or whip-grafting, is the mode most
commonly adopted in all gardens where the stocks are not much larger in
diameter than the scion ; and it has the advantage of being more expedi-
tiously performed than any of the other modes described in this section.
The stock is first cut over at the height at which the scion is to be put on
(fig. 1UG «), and a thin slice of the bark and wood is then cut off with a
Fig. 196 Splice-grafting in its different stages.
very sharp knife, so as to leave a perfectly smooth, even surface (&) ; the
scion, which should at least have three buds, and need never have more than
five (the top one for a leading shoot, the next two for side shoots, in the case
of fruit-trees, and the lower two to aid in uniting the scion to the stock),
is next cut, so as to fit the prepared part of the stock as accurately as
possible, at least on one side; then a slit or tongue, as it is technically
termed, is made on the scion, and a corresponding one in the stock (c).
All being thus prepared, the scion is applied to the stock, inserting the
tongue of the one into the slit of the other (c) ; then the scion is tied
on with matting (d) ; and, lastly, it is clayed over (e) ; and some-
times, in addition, it is earthed up, or covered with moss, to serve as a
non-conductor of heat and moisture. In earthing up the graft, the loose
surface soil should be used at the grafting season, as being drier and
warmer than that which is less under the immediate influence of the sun.
When the scion is placed on the stock with the right hand, the ribbon of
bass by which it is tied, is brought round the graft from right to left ; but
when the scion is put on by the left hand, the bast is brought round from
left to right ; the object in both cases being to make sure of the exact coin-
cidence of the inner bark of one side of the scion, with the inner bark of
fi RAFTING BY DETACHED SCIONS.
289
one side of the stock. The ball of clay which envelopes the graft should be
about an inch thick on every side, and should extend for nearly an inch below
the bottom of the graft, to more than an inch over the top of the stock,
compressing and finishing the whole into a kind of oval or egg-shape form,
closing it in every part, so as completely to exclude air, light, wet, or cold.
The ball of clay will not be so apt to drop off, if the matting over which
it is placed is rendered a fitting nucleus for solid clay, by previously
smearing it over in a comparatively liquid state. This envelope of
clay, with the earthing up, preserves the graft in a uniform temperature,
and prevents the rising of the sap from being checked by cold days or
nights ; and, therefore, earthing up ought always to be adopted, in the
case of grafts in the open garden, which are difficult to succeed. The
next best resource is a ball of moss over the clay, or of some dry material,
such as hay, tied on from within an inch of the top of the scion to the sur-
face of the ground, so as to act as thatch in excluding rain and wind, and
retaining heat and moisture. When the scion and the stock are both of
the same thickness, or when they are of kinds that do not unite freely, the
tongue is sometimes omitted ; but in that case,
more care is required in tying. In this, and also
in other cases, the stock is not shortened down to
the graft ; but an inch or two with a bud at its
upper extremity is left to insure the rising of the
sap to the scion, as in fig. 194 ; and after the lat-
ter is firmly established, the part of the stock left
is cut off close above the scion, as shown in fig.
197. When the stock is not headed down till the
scion is about to be put on, it is essentially neces-
sary to leave it longer than usual, in order to give
vent to the rising sap, which might otherwise ex-
ude about the scion, and occasion its decay. In
the case of shoots having much pith, such as those
of the rose, the scion is often put on the stock
Fig. 197. The scion with its young without being tongued into it, as in fig. 198, in
shoots on, and the heel of the which the scion in the one case, 6, is without
a bud on its lower extremity, and is therefore less
likely to succeed than c, which has a bud in that position. Sometimes a
notch is cut on the scion immediately under a bud, and this notch is made
to rest on the top of the stock, as in fig. 199;
and in such cases, when the scion and stock
are about the same diameter, the summit of
the latter is certain of being healed over the
first season.
652. Splice-grafting the peach, In splice-
grafting the shoots of peaches, nectarines,
and apricots, and other tender shoots with
^rge pith, it is found of advantage to have
a quarter of an inch of two-years old wood
Fig. 198. Splice-grafting at the lower extremity of the scion (fig. 200,
u-ithout a tovffue. a^ and to have fhe gtock cut ^ ft dove_
tail notch (b). In the case of the fruit-trees mentioned, the buds of the
scion on the back and front are removed, leaving two on each side, and a
290
GRAFTING BY DETACHED SCIONS.
Fig. 201 Cleft-
grafting.
leader; and when these have grown six or eight inches, their extremities are
pinched off with the finger and thumb ; by which means each shoot will
throw out two others, and thus produce in
autumn a finely-shaped tree, with ten
|| branches. Such trees will bear two or three
fruits the second year from the graft. — Gard.
Mag., vol. iii. p. 150.
a 653. Cleft-grafting, fig. 201, requires less
care than splice-grafting, and seems to have
been the mode in most general use in former
ages. It is now chiefly adopted when the
scion is a good deal larger than the stock, and
more especially when grafting stocks of con-
siderable height, or heading down old trees.
- The head of the stock being cut over hori-
zontally with a saw (fig. 202), a cleft is made
Fig. 200. .splice- in it, from two to three inches in length, with a stout knife
'ting the peach. QY ^.^ Qr with ^ splitting.knife (fig. £03). The cleft
being kept open by the knife or chisel, or the pick-end of the splitting-knife,
one or two scions are inserted,
according to the diameter of the
stock ; the scions being cut into
long wedge shapes, in a double
sense, and inserted into the slit
202. Bow saw for cutting off branches of trees, prepai.ed for thenij when the
knife or chisel being withdrawn, the stock closes firmly upon the scions, and
holds them
fast. The
graft is then \\1 —
tied and
clayed in the
usual man-
ner and the ' a^' ^' ^P^ting-Ttnife and opening pick for using in cleft-grafting.
whole is frequently covered with moss. When the stock is an inch or
more in diameter, three or more scions are frequently
put on at equal distances from each other round the cir-
cumference, and this is called crown-grafting. Cleft-
grafting with one scion is in general not a good mode,
because if the split has been made right through the
stock, it is in danger of being injured by the weather
before it is covered with wood by the scion. If the
cleft is made only on one side of the stock, the evil is
mitigated ; but there still remains the tendency of the
scion in its growth to protrude the wood all on one side.
In crown-grafting headed-down old trees, the scion is
generally chosen of two-years old wood, and it is some-
. 204. Rind-grafting, times inserted between the inner bark and the alburnum,
as in what is called rind-grafting (fig. 204). In rind-grafting, great care
must be taken to open the bark of the stock without bruising it, which is
done by the spatula end of the grafting-knife. The scion is prepared with-
out a tongue, and inserted so that its wood may be in contact with the albur-
GRAFTING BY DETAC1IED SCIONS.
291
num. of the stock. As in this case both edges of the alburnum of the scion
come in close contact with the alburnum of the stock, the chances of success,
other circumstances being alike, are increased. Incases of this kind also, a longi-
tudinal notch is sometimes cut out, instead of a slit, and the scion cut to corre-
spond. Sometimes also the scion is prepared with a shoulder, more especially
when it consists of two-years old wood, and this mode is called shoulder-grafting.
654. Cleft-grafting the vine is shown in fig. 205, in which a is a bud on
the scion, and b one on the stock, both in the most favourable
positions for success. The graft is tied and clayed in the usual
manner, excepting that only a small hole is left in the clay
opposite the eye of the scion, for its developement. In graft-
ing the vine in this manner, when the bud b on the stock is
developed, it is allowed to grow for ten or fourteen days,
after which it is cut off; leaving only one bud and one leaf
near its base to draw up sap to the scion till it be fairly united
to the stock. The time of grafting is when the stock is about
to break into leaf, or when they have made shoots with four
or five leaves. By this time the sap has begun to flow freely,
Fig. 205. Cleft- so that there is no danger of the stock suffering from bleeding ;
grafting the vine, though if vines are in good health and their wood thoroughly
ripened, all the bleeding that usually takes place does little injury. In
Flanders the rose is frequently grafted in the cleft manner, the scion, if
possible, being of the same diameter as the
stock (fig. 206, a) ; or the cleft in the stock is
made so near one side of the cross section as
that the bark of the wedge part of the scion
may fit the bark of the stock on both sides-
(b). Sometimes a shoulder is made to the
scion (c), in order that it may rest with greater
firmness on the stock ; and the wedge part of
the scion, instead of being part of an internode,
as at d, is, when practicable, selected with a bud
on it, as at e. The camellia is sometimes cleft-
grafted, with only a single bud on the scion (fig.
207, a), which is inserted in the stock &, just
when the sap is beginning to rise, and being tied,
it is found to take freely without claying. Epiphyllum truncatum is fre-
quently cleft-grafted on Pereskia aculeata, as shown in fig. 208.
655. Saddle-grafting (fig. 209) is
only applicable to stocks of moderate
size, but it is well adapted for standard
fruit-trees. The top of the stock is
cut into a wedge shape, and the scion
is split up the middle, and placed
astride on it, the inner barks being
made to join on one side of the stock
as in cleft-grafting. The tying, clay-
ing, &c., are of course performed
the usual manner. Fisr. 210 represents
-, t> n . •, . TT
a mode or grafting practised in Here- pereskia
. fordshire after the usual season for acuiedta.
Fig 90y. Cleft-grafting ike camellia.
g. 206. Cleft-grafting the rose.
Fig>2o8
grafted on
292
GRAFTING BY DETACHED SCIONS.
grafting is over, and when the bark may be easily separated from the stock.
The scion, which must be smaller than the stock, is split up between two and
fe three inches from its lower end, so as to have one
side stronger than the other. This strong side is
then prepared and introduced between the bark
and wood, as ill rind-grafting ; while the thinner
division is fitted to the opposite side of the stock.
Mr. Knight, \vhodescribesthismodeofgrafting,
says, that grafts of the apple and pear rarely ever
fail by it, and that it may be practised with suc-
cess either in spring, or with young wood in July,
as soon as that has become moderately firm and
mature (see Hort. Trans. , and Encyclo. of Gard.,
ed. 1835, p. 653). Saddle-grafting, in whichever
Saddle- way performed, has the advantage over all others
grafting, in presenting the largest surface of the alburnum Fig. 210. Herefordshire
of the scion to receive the ascending sap of the stock, and saddle grafting.
at the same time without causing it to deviate from its natural course ; which
it is made to do to a certain extent, when the scion is put on one side of the
stock only, as in splice-grafting and side-grafting.
656. Side-grafting is nothing more than splice-grafting performed on
the side of a stock, the head of which is not cut off. It is sometimes
practised on fruit-trees to supply a branch in a vacancy, or for the sake
of having different kinds of fruits upon the same tree ; but it is better
for the latter purpose to graft on the side branches, because, in consequence
of the flow of the sap not being interrupted by being headed down, the
success of this kind of grafting is more uncertain than almost any other
mode. In grafting the lateral branches of fruit-trees, it is always desirable,
in order to ensure success, to have corresponding buds in the scion and the
stock, as in fig. 211. What the French call veneer-grafting, fig. 212, is
a variety of side-grafting, in which the scion
e is prepared to fit into the stock /, which
has a notch at the lower extremity of the
incision, for the scion to rest on. This mode
of grafting is practised with orange-trees,
camellias, &c., in pots ; and after the opera-
tion is completed, the grafted plant is plunged
.in heat, and closely covered with a bell-
Fig. 211. Graflinr/ the lateral branches * •, TT ni <•> • ' T ^ e -j
of fruit-trees. " Slass- Fl£- 213 1S a Peculiar mode of side-
grafting the vine, which is performed in
November, when both scion and stock are in a dormant state, in which the
scions a and 6, being prepared as in the figure, and inserted and bandaged,
instead of being clayed, they are surrounded with a mass of mould. About
a month afterwards the plant is plunged in a mild heat, and in about three
weeks the buds from the scions will be seen emerging from the mould with
which they are surrounded. (See Gard. Mag.., vol. xii., p. 172.)
657. Wedge-grafting (fig. 214), which is a modification of side-grafting,
has been very successful in grafting Cedrus Deodara, on the cedar of
Lebanon. The scions, c, are chosen of the preceding year's wood, from three
to five inches in length, and they are inserted in either one or two-years old
wood, as may be convenient, and as near the top of the stock as is practicable,
GRAFTING BY DETACHED SCIONS,
293
in order to gain height. The slit in the stock is cut through the pith, and
from 1 to 1 inches in length ; and the graft being tied, is coated over with
grafting-wax, as being lighter than clay, and not so
liable to bend down the shoot. Entire cedars of
Lebanon at Elvaston Castle have had the extremities
of their shoots grafted in this manner with Cedrus
Deoddra, by Mr. Barren, the inventor of this mode.
(See Gard. Mag.^ vol. xiv., p. 80.)
658. Grafting the mistletoe has been successfully
performed in the wedge manner by Mr. Pit, farmer
and grafter, near Hatfield, in Herefordshire. To be
attended with success, there must be a joint let into
the soft wood of the stock, or a scion taken off with a
heel, and the heel of the preceding year's wood in-
serted. (See Gard. Mag., vol. xiii., p. 207.)
659. Root-grafting is merely the union of a scion
to a root, instead of to a stem. It is sometimes
practised in nurseries, by grafting the apple and the
pear on the roots of thorns, tree peonies on herba-
ceous peonies (see herbaceous grafting, 862), stove
passion-flowers, Japan clematises, &c., on the common
sorts, and with various other stove and greenhouse
plants, especially climbers. The greatest care is re-
\\ quisite to prevent any particles of soil from getting in
Fig. 212. Side-grafting the the UPPel* Part °f the latter
between the scion and the stock, for which purpose
is sometimes washed
orange. with water before the operation is performed. The
roots of thorns, peas, and crabs, as already observed, are frequently grafted
in-doors, and taken out and planted so deep, that only the upper part of the
scion appears above ground. An- A
other mode where a thorn hedge \\
is taken up, or a row of seedling \\ «
pear orcrab stocks is transplanted, \\ /
and a portion of the roots left in \ y
the soil, is to graft on them where \ \
they stand, and afterwards to C\\
earth-up the graft — a mode which \l
would doubtless be very success- «
ful. \
660. Herbaceous-grafting is
applicable either to the solid parts
of herbaceous plants, or to the
branches of ligneous plants when
they are in a herbaceous state. p.g 214
Baron de Tschoudy, of Metz, the grafting.
inventor of this method, and AI. Soulange Bodin,
of Fromont, have grafted the melon on the cu-
cumber, the tomata on the common potatoe, the
Fig. 213. Side grafting the vine, cauliflower on the broccoli and the borecole ; and
on the tender-growing shoots of various forest-trees, and of azaleas and
other shrubs, I hardy and tender, they have grafted successfully allied
species. This mode has been extensively employed for the last fifteen
294
GRAFTING BY DETACHED SCIONS.
\\ "
ft/
years in the forest of Fontainebleau, in grafting the P'mus Z/aricio on the
P. sylvestris ; and many hundreds of plants of pines and firs of different
kinds, and of Indian azaleas, have been so propagated at Fromont. The
trees thus grafted by Baron Tschoudy may still be seen in the botanic
garden at Metz, and on his own estate in the neighbourhood ; and these and
the pines at Fontainebleau prove this mode of grafting to be particularly
applicable to the Jbietinae. The following mode of grafting the pines at
Fontainebleau is extracted from the second volume of the Gardener 's Maga-
zine, and some further observations on the practice will be found in the
Arboretum Britannicum, vol. iv., p. 2129, and in the Gardener's Magazine
for 1841, p. 402.
C61. Grafting the Pine and Fir tribe. — The proper time for grafting pines
is when the young shoots have made about three quarters of their length,
and are still so herbaceous as to break like a shoot of asparagus. The shoot
of the stock is then broken off about two inches under its terminating bud,
the leaves are cut or lipped off from twenty to twenty-four lines down
from the extremity, leaving, however, two pairs of leaves opposite and close
to the section of fracture, which leaves are of great importance to the success
of the graft. The shoot is then split with a very thin knife between the
two pairs of leaves (fig. 215), and to the depth of two inches; the scion is
then prepared (6), the lower part being
stripped of its leaves to the length of two
inches is cut and inserted in the usual
manner of cleft-grafting. They may also
be grafted in the lateral manner (c). The
graft is tied with a coarse thread of wool-
len, and a cap of paper is put over the
whole to protect it from the sun and rain.
At the end of fifteen days this cap is re-
moved, and the ligature at the end of a
month ; at that time also the two pairs
of leaves (a) which have served as nurses
are removed. The scions of those sorts of
pines which make two growths in a sea-
son, or, as the technical phrase is, have a
second sap, produce a shoot of five or six
inches the first year ; but those of only
Fig 215. Herbaceous grating the pine «n<*0ne Sap5 as the Corsican pine, Weymouth
pine, &c., merely ripen the wood grown
before grafting, and form a strong terminating bud, which in the following
year produces a shoot of fifteen inches or two feet.
We have described this mode of grafting at greater length than we other-
wise should have done, because it is little known in this country, and
because we think it ought to be adopted in a great many cases for the mul-
tiplication of plants now propagated with difficulty by cuttings, or reared,
after being so propagated, so slowly as to exhaust the patience of the propa-
gator or amateur. For example, the pine and fir tribe, though they may
all be increased by cuttings, yet these cuttings grow very slowly, and though
they ultimately become good plants, many kinds as much so as if they had
been raised from seeds, yet if the kinds to be propagated had been grafted
on the points of the budding shoots of pines, or firs of five or six years'
growth, they would have grown with incomparably greater rapidity and
GRAFTING BY DETACHED SCIONS.
295
vigour, and would have become trees of twenty feet in length, before cuttings
had attained the height of three feet.
662. Grafting the tree Peony 011 the roots of the herbaceous species is
performed from the middle of July to the middle of August, and will be
easily understood from fig. 216, in which a represents a triangular space in
the tuber or stock ; 6. the scion,
the lower end of which is cut
\ ^i fl so as to fit the cavity in tlle stock ;
Jv Mjo\ \ UL and c, the scion fitted to the
^**K ^ stock. It is not necessary that
there should be more than one
bud on the scion, for which rea-
son the upper part of 6 might
have been inserted in a, in the
cleft manner. The graft being
tied with bast, and covered with
grafting- wax, the whole is in-
serted into a bed of tan, leaving
only about half an inch of the
scion above the surface. The
tubers throw out roots by the
end of September or the begin-
ing of October, and are then
taken up and potted, and placed
in a cold frame, where they re-
main through the winter.
The following kinds of herbaceous grafting are in use in France and
Belgium : —
663. Grafting on fleshy roots, as in the dahlia and peony, may be per-
formed either with a growing shoot (fig. 217), or with a dormant eye,
as in fig. 218. The former mode requires no explanation ; by the latter,
on the neck of a bar-
ren tubercle a small
hole is made, in which
the bud is inserted, but
in such a manner as
that its base shall be
perfectly on a level
with the surface of the
tubercle, and the
edges are covered with Fig 2i8. Peg-grafting
grafting- wax. The tu- the dahlia on itt
bercle is then planted own tulers'
in a pot, care being taken not to cover
the bud, and the pot is plunged in heat
under glass. When the plant has taken,
Fig. 2J6. Grafting the tree peony, on the tubers of the
herbaceous peony.
the open border.
664. Herbaceous wedge-grafting (fig. 219) is effected by paring the scion
into a wedge shape, and inserting it into a corresponding slit in the stock.
It succeeds well both with trees and herbaceous plants, more especially
296
GRAFTING BY DETACHED SCIONS.
ing with st»ns
opposite leaves.
when the plants are in pots so as to be plunged in heat and covered with a
bell-glass.
665. Herbaceous- grafting for shoots with opposite leaves (fig. 220). In
the middle of the shoots, be-
tween two opposite eyes, an
angular and longitudinal inci-
sion is made, and a small por-
tion of the stem cut out from
one side to the other. The scion
is cut to fit this opening, and it
is inserted as in the figure, and
bandaged in the usual manner.
Fig. 219. Herbaceous wedge- 666. Herbaceous-grafting —
grafting. Annual or Perennial plants (fig.
221). The period chosen for this mode of grafting is
that of the greatest vigour of the plant, that is, some
days before its going into flower. The stem of the stock is cut through
above a leaf, as near as possible to its petiole, and a slit
downwards is made in the section. A shoot is then taken
off near the root of the plant to be increased, the end of
which is cut into a wedge shape, and is inserted in the slit
made in the stock, taking great care of the leaf on the
latter ; for it is that which must nourish the scion until
it has taken thoroughly, by keeping up the circulation of
the sap. A bandage is applied at the juncture, covered
with grafting wax as before. When the graft has taken,
F' 2-^1 Herb u wn*ca *s ascertained by its growth, the ligature is removed,
grafting annuals and also the old leaf, and the shoots from the stock belo\v
or perennials. the graft.
667. Grafting herbaceous shoots of succulents (fig. 222). Take a young
shoot, and cutting its base to a point or wedge, insert it in a hole or slit made
in the stem or leaf of the stock.
668. Grafting the melon (fig. 223). On the stem of a cucumber, or any
other plant of the family of
Cucurbit ace SB, but having some
analogy with the melon, choose
a vigorous part of a shoot having
a well-developed leaf. In the
axil of this leaf an oblique cut
is made, of half its thickness.
The point of a melon shoot, so
far developed as to have its fruit
quite formed, is then cut off, and
ig.222. Herbaceous- p0jnte(j at fa en(J two inches Fig. 223. Herbaceous-grafting the
grafting tsucculents. * > . . .
below the fruit. It is in-
serted in the cleft made in the stock, always taking care to spare the leaf
until the scion has taken. The remaining part of the operation is per-
formed in the usual manner, with ligatures and grafting- wax. This mode
of grafting succeeds pretty well ; but it has not hitherto been applied to any
useful end. Tomatoes may be grafted in this manner on potatoes; and it is
said that potato plants thus treated, produce good crops, both of potatoes
and tomatoes.
GRAFTING BY APPROACH OR INARCHING. 297
669. The grtffe ttouffee, or stifled graft, is so named, not from any par-
ticular mode of performing the operation, but because the plants so grafted
are closely covered with a bell-glass, so as completely to exclude the sur-
rounding air, and placed in moist heat, while the union between the scion
and the stock is going on. It is only applicable to plants of small size, and
in pots ; but for these, whether hardy, as in the case of pines, firs, and oaks,
or tender, as in the case of orange-trees, camellias, rhododendrons, &c., it is
the most expeditious of all modes of grafting. The operation is very com-
monly performed in the cleft mode, the stock being in a growing state with
the leaves on, and being cut over close to a leaf which has a bud in its axil,
and so as to slope away from it. Great care is taken not to injure the leaf
and bud on the stock, as on these, in a great measure, depends the success of
the operation. The stock is split to a depth equal to two- thirds of its thick-
ness, and the scion prepared is inserted, made fast with a shred of mat, or
with worsted threads ; and the upper part of the stock not covered by the
scion is coated over with grafting- wax. The pot containing the plant is then
plunged in heat, and closely covered with a bell-glass, which must be taken
off and wiped every second day, and left off an hour or two, if at any time
the plants appear too moist. Side-grafting and inarching are also employed
by those who practise the greffe etouffee, more especially in autumn. After
the scion is inserted, and bound close to the stock, the pot containing the
stock is half buried in a horizontal position, on a bed of dry tan, or dry
moss ; and the grafted part covered with a bell-glass, stuffed round the
bottom with tan or moss, so as to prevent any change of air taking place
within the bell-glass. The graft is kept thus closely covered for from two
to four weeks, according to the season, when the scion will, in general, be
found perfectly united to the stock. Air is now admitted by degrees ; and
after a week or two more, the glass is removed altogether, the pot set up-
right in a gentle heat, and the upper part of the stock neatly cut off close
above the scion.
§ VIII. — Grafting by approach or inarching.
670. Grafting by approach differs from grafting by detached scions, in the
scion or shoot not being separated from the plant to which it belongs, and
by which it is nourished, till a union takes place. For this purpose, it is
necessary that the two plants which are to form the scion and the stock be
planted, or, if in pots, placed adjoining each other, so that a branch of the one
may be easily brought into close contact with the stem, or with a branch of
the other. A disk of bark and alburnum is then removed from each
at the intended point of union, and the parts being properly fitted to
each other, so as the inner barks of the respective subjects may coincide,
as in the case of grafting by detached scions, they are bandaged and covered
with clay or grafting wax. This being done, in a short time, in conse-
quence of the developement of cambium, the alburnum of the scion and that
of the stock become united, and the scion may be cut off below the point
where it is united with the stock, leaving the former to be nourished only
by the latter. This kind of grafting is the only sort that takes place in
nature, from the crossing of the branches of 'trees (more especially where
they are crowded together in hedges), when, by the friction between them,
the alburnum is laid bare, and if a season of repose takes place when the sap
is rising, the parts adhere and grow together. This is not uncommon in
298
GRAFTING BY APPROACH OR INARCHING.
beech trees, and in beech and hornbeam hedges ; and it is even occasionally
imitated by art in young hedges of these, and of several other kinds of trees
or shrubs, in order to make a very strong hedge. The principal use, how-
ever, of grafting by approach, is to propagate plants of rarity and value,
which it is found difficult to increase by any other means, and of which it is
not desirable to risk the loss of any part, by attempting an increase by means
of detached scions or cuttings. Inarching may be per-
formed with various organs of plants ; but in horticulture
V i II it is chiefly confined to stems, branches, and roots ; and all
the different forms may be included under side-inarching,
terminal inarching, and inarching by partially nourished
scions. The season for performing the operation is princi-
pally in spring when the sap is rising ; but it may be
effected at every season, except during severe frost or
extreme heat. No other instrument is necessary than the
grafting knife, and the graft may often be secured from the
sun and air by bandages, without the aid of moss, clay, or
grafting wax.
Fig. 224. A scion and 671 • Side inarching may be effected either with or with-
stock prepared for out tongueing. In the latter case, the incisions in the
scion and the stock are of the simplest description
(as shown in fig. 224, and in fig. 225, a), and the parts being bound
together with matting, as at &, and covered by clay or moss, are left to form a
union. Side-inarching with a tongue is represented in fig. 226, in which a is
the stock pre-
pared with an
under tongue,
and &, the scion,
with an upper
tongue for insert-
ing into a ; c is
the scion and the
stock united.
One of the pur-
poses, though
perhaps more cu-
rious than use-
. fill, to which De Fig. 226. Inarching with the scion
^MrSfiS£S££ and %££»%« "—«"•
Batting. Thouin say that
this kind of grafting may be applied, is to increase the number of roots to a
tree. Thus, if a tree be planted in the centre of a circle, and three or
more of the same, or of allied species, be planted in the circumference,
so that their tops may be at a suitable distance for inarching to the
centre tree ; then, after the union has been effected, if the parts of the
side trees be cut off above the graft, all the sap sent up by their roots will
go to the nourishment of the tree in the centre. When the root of one tree
is to be inarched into that of another, with a view of strengthening the tree to
which the latter belongs, this mode of inarching is the one generally adopted.
072. Terminal inarching consists in heading down the stock, and joining
the scion to it, either in the manner of splice-grafting, cleft-grafting, or by
GRAFTING BY APPROACH OR INARCHING.
299
saddle-grafting, as exemplified in figs. 221 to 223. The stock is cut off in
the form of a wedge, as in fig. 227, and the scion is cut upwards, half-way
through, for a sufficient length, as in fig. 228 ; then the scion is placed upon
the stock as in fig. 229, and bound on with bast and clay as usual, a ring of
Fig. 228. A scion prepared
for saddle-inarching.
Fig. 229. A scion and stock united in
the manner of saddle-inarching.
Fig. 227. A stock pre-
pared for saddle -
inarching.
bark being taken off between the graft and the root, as in fig. 229, m, which
causes the returning sap to flow through the graft into the
stock n instead of into its own root, o. This mode is
recommended for grafting whenever the stock and the scion
are of the same size, or very nearly so ; but when the
stock is twice the size of the scion, the following modifica-
^ ~ ^& tion of it is preferable : — the top of the stock is cut off
slanting from one side only, as in fig. 230 ; then a long
tongue is made to the scion, about one-third of its thick-
ness, as in fig. 231, and as much of the bark and wood
is cut from the back and front of the stock as will corre-
spond with the width of the tongue on the scion ; when the
when it is twice the stock is ready to receive the graft, it will appear like fig.
size of the scion. £32, q : there is also a piece cut off the bark of the stock
at r, fig. 232, but it is not seen in the figure. Then the scion is placed
across the middle of the stock,
as in fig. 233, and bound with
bast-mat and clay as usual ;
after which a ring of bark is
taken off at s, in fig. 233, in
the same manner as directed
for fig. 229.
673. Inarching with partially-
nourished scions appears, at
first sight, to belong to the pre-
ceding section, but it is placed
here because the scion has an
auxiliary support from moist
soil or water, till it adheres to
the stock. This mode is appli-
. cable either to the side or crown Fig" *32' / stock Pre'
Fig. 231. A scion prepared for pared for inarching
inarching when it is only half manner ot inarching, and it Ollly when it is twice the size
the size of the stock. differs from them in the in- of the scion,
ferior end of the scion being inserted in a vessel of water, as in figs. 234
300
BUDDING OR GRAFTING BY DETACHED BUDS.
Fig. ?33. A large stock and a small
scion united by inarching.
and 235, or in a pot of moist earth. The vessel of water must be removed
from time to time, ..
and the base of the 'I
submerged scion
renewed by paring
a slice off its extre-
mity, and repla-
cing it again in the
water. If the stock
be headed down, a
bud must be left in
it at its upper ex-
tremity, in order
to attract the sap
to the graft. The
finer sorts of ca-
mellias are some-
times grafted in Fig. 234. Inarching with
this manner, as in- a scion nourished by its
j' i j • c. on- lower extremity being
dicated in ng. 23o. inserted in a vessel of
In some cases, when it is desired to prevent evapora- water.
tion, instead of claying or mossing, the graft is covered with a piece of paper
tied on below and above the parts operated on, so as com-
pletely to enclose them. Some persons, instead of a vessel
of water, insert the lower part of the scion into a pot of soil
kept moist, or into a potato or a turnip.
A great many different kinds of inarching have been
described by M. Thouin, which, if not useful, are at least
curious: such, for example, as uniting a number of different
stems of different species of the same genus, and afterwards
allowing only one shoot to expend all the sap drawn up by
the different stocks ; the object being to ascertain whether
the different saps supplied would make any difference in
that of the scion, which, however, was found not to be the
case. Another mode that used to be practised in Continental
nurseries, and sometimes formerly in England, was to raise
a plant in a pot, on a platform, between two trees of allied
species, as of a thorn between two pear trees, and, after
inarching a branch of each tree into the thorn, when the
union was complete, to remove the scaffolding, shake the
roots of the thorn out of the flower-pot, and leave the plant
suspended with its roots in the air.
Fig. 235. The camel- § IX. — Budding or Grafting by Detached Buds.
laV<fonCpartiai!y ^74. Budding consists in transferring a portion of bark
nourished by a containing one or more buds, and forming the scion, to
phial of water. tne WQO(j of anotlier plant forming the stock, a portion
of the bark of the stock being raised up or taken off to receive
the scion. The buds of trees are originated in the young shoots
in the axils of the leaves ; and when the bud begins to grow, its
connexion with the medullary sheath ceases ; or, at all events, the bud
if detached and properly placed on the alburnum of another plant, will
BUDDING OR GRAFTING BY DETACHED BUDS. 301
become vitally united to it. On these facts the art of budding is founded.
This mode of grafting is chiefly applicable to woody plants, and the scion
may, in general, be secured to the stock, and sufficiently protected there, by
bandages of bast-mat or thread, without the use of grafting clay or
wax. The union between the scion and the stock takes place, in the
first instance, in consequence of the exudation of organisable matter from
the soft wood of the stock ; and it is rendered permanent by the returning
sap from the leaves of the stock, or from those of the shoot made by the bud.
All the different modes of budding may be reduced to two : — shield-budding,
in which the scion is a piece of bark commonly in the shape of a shield, con-
taining a single bud ; and flute-budding, in which the scion consists of a ring
or tube of bark containing several buds. In both modes the bark of one year
is chosen in preference ; and the operation is more certain of success when
the bud of the scion is placed exactly over the situation of a bud on the stock.
The shield may, however, be placed on the internodes, or a piece of bark
without buds may be put on as a scion, and yet a vital union may take place
between the parts, because the medullary rays exist everywhere in the wood,
and it is by them, during the process of organisation, that the layer of wood
of one year in a growing state is joined to that of the year before. A disk or
shield from which the visible bud has been removed will also suceeed, and the
latent buds may remain dormant for years, and yet be developed afterwards.
In the year 1824 we placed several buds on the branches of a fig-tree, and,
from some accidental cause, though the shield adhered in every case, yet
most of the visible buds were destroyed, and only one of the latent buds was
developed. Twelve years afterwards, when the fig-tree received a severe
check, in the winter of 1837- 8, the development of a second latent bud from
one of the shields took place. When the bud is placed on the stock, its
point is almost always made to turn upwards, as being its natural position ;
but in budding the olive, and other trees which are liable to gum, the bud is
made to point downwards, and the success is said to be greater than when the
common mode is adopted. There are two seasons at which budding is prac-
tised, viz. : — when the sap rises in spring ; when the bud inserted is deve-
loped immediately, in the same manner as in detached ligneous scions ; and
in the end of summer, when the sap is descending, the operation being then
performed with a bud formed during the preceding summer, which does not
develop itself till the following spring. The former mode is called by the
French, budding with a growing eye; and the latter, budding with a dormant
eye. In budding, the stock is not generally cut over in the first instance, as
in grafting by detached ligneous scions ; but a tight ligature is frequently
placed above the graft, with the intention of forcing a part of the ascending
sap to nourish the graft.
675. The uses of budding, in addition to those of the other modes of graft-
ing, are, to propagate some kinds with which the other modes of grafting are
not so successful, as, for example, the rose. To perform the operation of
grafting with greater rapidity than with detached scions, or inarching, as in
the case of most fruit-trees; to unite early vegetating trees with late vege-
tating ones, as the apricot with the plum, they being both in the same state
of vegetation during the budding season ; to graft without the risk of
injuring" the stock in case of want of success, as in side-budding, and in
flute-budding without heading down ; to introduce a number of species or
varieties on the same stem, which could not be done by any other mode of
302 BUDDING OR GRAFTING BY DETACHED BUDS.
grafting without disfiguring the stock, in the event of the want of success ;
to prove the blossoms or fruits of any tree, in which case blossom-huds are
chosen instead of leaf-buds ; and, finally, as the easiest mode of distributing
a great many kinds on the branches of a tree, as in the case of roses, camel-
lias, and fruit-trees.
676. In performing the operation, mild, cloudy weather should be chosen,
because during hot, dry, windy weather, the viscous surfaces exposed to the
air are speedily dried by evaporation, by which the healing process is
retarded ; besides, the bark never rises so well in very dry, windy weather as
it does in weather which is still, warm, and cloudy, but without rain. The
first step is to ascertain that the bark of the scion and that of the stock
will separate freely from the wood beneath them ; then procure the cutting
from which the shields or tubes of bark are to be taken. If the budding
is to be performed in spring, the cuttings from which the buds are to be
taken should be cut from the tree the preceding autumn, and kept through
the winter by burying their lower ends in the ground, in a cool, shady
situation, as in the case of grafting by detached scions. When these cut-
tings are to be used, their lower ends should be placed in water, to keep them
fresh, while the operation of cutting shields or rings from them is going on.
If, on the other hand, the budding is to be performed in summer, which is
almost always the case in Britain, then the cutting from which the buds
are to be taken is not cut off the parent tree till just before the operation is
to be performed. The cutting should be a shoot of the current year's wood,
which has done growing, or nearly so, and its leaves should be cut off, to
prevent the waste of sap by evaporation, as soon as it is taken from the tree;
the end of the cutting should then be put in water to keep it fresh, and the
buds taken off as wanted. When the leaves are cut off, care should be
taken to leave part of the petiole of each, to handle the shield or ring by
when putting it on the stock. A slit is next made in the stock, or a ring of
bark taken off; and the shield or ring from the cutting, containing a bud
or buds which are ripe or nearly so, is introduced in the manner which will
be described in treating of the different modes of performing the operation.
Tying the bud on the stock generally completes the operation, though
sometimes grafting-wax is employed to cover the junction of the shield or
ring. In British gardens the grafting -knife is commonly used for budding,
but its sharp point is found in delicate cases to injure the soft wood ; for
which reason, on the Continent, a knife is preferred which has a rounded
extremity ; and these knives, which are manufactured by Preist, Oxford-
street, and other cutlers, are now coming into use in England. An
improvement on these knives is shown in fig. 236, in which the point of
Fig. 236. GodsalVs budding knife improved.
the blade is curvilinear and is two-edged, and the handle has a neck or
narrow part, which may be firmly grasped by the little finger when tying
on the ligature, instead of the usual butcher-like practice of putting the
knife in the mouth. Instead of having a separate knife for budding,
BUDDIiNG OR GRAFTING BY DETACHED BIDS.
303
a portion of the back of the common grafting-knife, viz. from + to + in
fig. 195, p. 286, may be sharpened by the cutler, so as to be used as a blade
for making the downward slit, while the cross slit can be made with the
common edge. Scions for budding may be sent a considerable distance by
letter, if the leaves are cut off and the scion closely wrapped up in oiled
paper, or coated over with mastic. Scions may also be immersed in honey,
in which they will keep for two or three weeks. When bulk is not an
objection,, they may be packed up in long grass, or in moist moss, or in
several folds of moistened brown paper, and covered with drawn wheat-
straw, to serve as a non-conductor of heat and moisture.
677. Prepared wax for budding may be composed of turpentine, bees' wax,
resin, and a little tallow melted together. It may be put on in the same
manner as grafting-clay, but should not be more than a quarter of an ineh
in thickness ; or it may be very thinly spread upon cotton cloth, and used
in shreds, like sticking-plaster. In this last state it serves both as a ligature
for retaining the escutcheon or scion in its place, and as a covering for
excluding the air. In very delicate budding and grafting, fine moss or cotton
wool are frequently used as substitutes for grafting-clay or grafting- wax,
the moss or cotton being tied firmly on with coarse thread or fine strands of
bast -matting.
678. Plastic wax, or grafting- wax, which the heat of the hand, or breath-
ing on, will render sufficiently soft for use, is thus prepared : — Take common
sealing-wax, of any colour, except green, one part ; mutton fat, one part ;
white wax, one part ; and honey, one-eighth of a part. The white wax and
the fat are to be first melted, and then the sealing-wax is to be added gra-
dually in small pieces, the mixture being kept constantly stirred ; and lastly,
the honey must be put in just before taking it off the fire. It should be
poured hot into paper or tin moulds, and kept slightly agitated till it begins
to congeal.
679. Shield-budding in the end of summer is almost the only mode in
use in British nurseries, where it is generally performed in July or August.
A cross cut and slit are made in the stock, in the form of the letter T, and
if possible through a bud (fig. 237, a). From a shoot of the present year
Fig. 237. The different steps in the process of shield-budding.
deprived of its leaves, a slice of bark and wood, containing a bud, &, is then
cut out, and the wood is removed from the slice by the point of the knife.
This is done by holding the shield by the remains of the leaf with one
304 BUDDING OR GRAFTING BY DETACHED BUDS.
hand, and entering the point of the knife at the under extremity of the
shield, and between it and the thumb ; and then raising and drawing out
the wood by a double motion outwards from the bark, and downwards from
the upper to the lower extremity of the shield. The bud being now pre-
pared, as at c, the bark on each side of the slit in the stock is raised up by
the spatula end of the budding-knife, and the shield inserted beneath it ; its
upper part being cut straight across, as at d, so as to admit of its joining
accurately with the inner bark of the stock, as at £, so as to receive its
descending sap. A bandage of soft matting is now applied, so as to exclude
the air from the wounded parts, and to show only the bud and the petiole,
as at /", and the operation is complete. At f^ the bud is shown developing
its leaves, and at g it has produced a shoot of some length, which is tied for
a short time to the upper part of the stock ; but that part of the latter
which is shown by dotted lines is cut off in July.
The portion of wood left attached to the base of the bud should
generally be about a third of the length of the shield ; the latter being
from an inch to an inch and a half in length, and the eye should be
situated about a third from the top. Spines, prickles, and leaves should
be carefully cut off or shortened. Sometimes in taking out the splinter of
wood from the scion, which is done with a quick, jerking motion, the base
of the bud which is woody is torn out also, leaving a small cavity, instead
of an even surface ; the surface, when the bud is in a proper state, being
either quite even, or only gently raised above the surrounding bark, in
consequence of the woody base of the bud being left in. When the woody base
of the bud has been torn out, so as to leave a cavity, it is safest not to use the
bud, but to prepare another ; though when the cavity left is not very deep,
and a small portion of wood is seen in it, the bud will sometimes grow.
Only those buds must be taken from the scion that are nearly mature ;
which is readily known both by the size of the bud and by the full expan-
sion and lirm texture of the disk of the leaf, in the axil of which it grows.
680. Shield-budding in June. — Roses of some kinds may be budded at
almost any period from June to October. In budding in June, Dr. Van
Mons first deprives the young shoots, from which he proposes to take buds,
of their leaves, and fifteen days afterwards he finds the buds sufficiently
swelled to allow of their being taken off and inserted. The shoots from
such buds frequently flower the same year ; but this may be rendered certain
by pruning off all the branches of the stock. A rose scion is, he says,
seldom too dry to take, if the woody base of the bud be left about a third
of the length of the shield, as there is then a portion of the alburnum of the
scion, as well as a portion of its inner bark, brought into close contact with
the alburnum of the stock. Dr. Van Mons has budded successfully from
rose-cuttings that had remained in a drawer fourteen days.
681. Shield-budding in spring may be exemplified by the Belgian prac-
tice with the rose. For this purpose, scions are cut before winter, and
stuck into the ground till the moment in spring when the bark of the stock
will rise, or, technically speaking, run. To prepare the bud, a transverse
cut should be first made into the wood, a little below an eye (fig. 238, a),
which incision is met by a longer cut downwards, commencing at a short
distance above thp eye (6), care being taken that a portion of wood is
removed with the bark (c). The bud is then inserted into the bark of the
stock which is cut like an inverted T (ef), and the horizontal edges of the
BUDDING OR GRAFTING BY DETACHED BUDS.
305
cut in the stock and of the bud must be brought into the most perfect con-
tact with each other (e), and then bound with waterproof bast (/), without,
however, applying grafting- clay.
Eight days after the insertion of
the bud, the stock is pruned down
to the branch above on the opposite
side, and this branch is stopped by
being cut down to two or three
eyes ; all the side-wood is destroyed
as it appears ; and when the bud
has pushed its fifth leaf, the shoot
it has made is compelled to branch-
by pinching off its extremity; it
will then flower in September of
the same year. The rose may also
be budded in spring, without waiting
Fig. 238. Shield-budding the rose in spring. till the bark separates, by placing
the bud with some wood on it in a niche made in the stock as at (g\ similar
to what would be formed by taking an eye off it, for budding in the manner
above described; the bud is fitted exactly in the niche, with a slight pres-
sure, and then tied on as usual. The camellia may also be budded in this
manner in spring by taking a bud with the wood in from the scion, and
substituting it for a corresponding piece cut out of the stock, as in fig. 239.
682. Shield-budding without a bud or eye
(fig. 240) is used simply to cover a wound
or blemish in one tree by a portion of the
live bark of another.
683. Budding with a circular shield, with
a portion of wood attached, (fig. 241,) is em-
ployed to equalise the flower-buds over a tree,
removing some from places where there
Fig. 239. Shield-bud- are too many to other places in which there Fig 24Q
ding the camellia in are too few. With the point of a penknife, grafting with-
in spring, cut a small cone of bark and wood ™« « bud.
containing a bud, and insert it in an orifice made in the same manner, secur-
ing the edges with grafting -wax.
684. Budding with a shield stamped out by a
punch (fig.242) is considered excellent for budding
old trees, the thick and rugged bark of which is not
suitable for being taken off with the budding-
knife. With a mallet the punch (fig. 243) is driven
through the bark of the scion, and then through
that of the stock, and the piece which comes out
of the former is inserted in the cavity formed by
F, 241 Bud_ the piece taken out of the latter.
dingwithadr- 685. Budding w ith the sh ield reversed (fig. 244) by the
cuiar shield. js almost the only manner of budding used in the punch.
south of Europe, particularly at Genoa and Hieres, to propagate orange-
trees. It is said also to be suitable for trees having abundant and gummy
sap.
686. Budding with the eye turned downwards. — By this method the buds
Fig.242. Budding
Of a
306
BUDDING OR GRAFTING BY DETACHED BUDS.
Fig. 243.
are forced to grow in a direction opposite to that which they would have
taken naturally ; but they soon resume their usual position ; and the desired
end, viz., that of increasing the
size of the fruit by stagnating
the returning sap, is thus by
no means attained. De Can-
dolle says, that this mode of
budding is used advantageously
in the case of the olive, and of
trees which produce a great
deal of gum ; but that he sees
no reason for its superiority i[_
over the ordinary mode. — Fig 244t Budd ing Flg, 2^ Buddinff
(Phys. Veg. vol. ii. p. 800.) with the shield with a pointed
687. Shield-budding for re- re™™<*> shield for resin-
ftL m*\ • -j z ous trees.
sinous trees (fig. 245) is said to
Punch used for succeed with the ^bietinese, and with all trees that have a
^hMd-buds"* gummv and verv abundant sap.
688. Budding with the shield covered (fig. 246). — The shield
being inserted in the usual manner, another with an orifice in it, to admit
the bud of the first, is laid over it,
and is bandaged in the usual man-
ner, or covered with grafting-wax.
The object of the double shield is to
lessen the effect of drying winds.
689. Budding with a square shield
(fig. 247) is an old practice which
has lately been revived with some
Bud modifications (Gard. Mag. for 1839, --
withU a P- 165), in which the bark, raised Fl's- 247
double shield, up on the stock to make room for
the shield, is tied over it ; the shield being previously shortened, so as to
reach only to the under side of the bud ; and between the two barks, the
petiole of a leaf is
inserted, the disk of
which is intended
to protect the bud
from the sun. The
strip of bark being
peeled down from
the stock, instead
of being raised up
from it by the spa-
tula of the bud-
Fig. 248. Budding with a terminal eye. ding-knife, is found
to lessen the risk of injuring the soft wood ; and this appears to be the chief
recommendation of this mode of budding.
690. Shield-budding with a terminal bud (fig. 248) is supposed to produce
a more vigorous shoot than when a lateral eye is used ; and it is, therefore,
recommended for supplying a leader to a shoot that has lost one. The stock
is cut as at a, and the bud is prepared as at &, inserted as at c, and tied in the
usual manner, as at d.
Budding with a square
shield.
BUDDING OR GRAFTING BY DETACHED BUDS. 307
691. Flute-budding, or tube-budding. — There are several modifications of
this mode of budding, which is a good deal used on the Continent for trees
which are difficult to take, such as the walnut and the
chestnut ; and for several oaks, as well as for the white
mulberry. It is generally performed in spring ; but it
will also succeed in autumn. The shoot from which the
buds are to be taken, and that on which they are to be
placed, must be of the same diameter, or nearly so ; and
a ring being removed from each, that from the stock is
thrown away, and the one from the scion put on in its
stead. Sometimes this is done without shortening the
stock or branch, when it is called annular, or ring-bud-
ding ; and sometimes the stock is shortened, and the ring
put on its upper extremity, when it is called flute-bud-
ding, or terminal tube-budding.
692. Flute-budding in spring. — The scions are taken
off in autumn, or early in winter, and preserved through
the winter in a cool shady situation, in the same manner
as is done in grafting by detached scions, and in spring
shield-budding. Fig. 249, which requires no description,
shows the mode of spring terminal flute-budding the
white mulberry, as it is practised in the Royal nurseries
at Munich. When the ring of the scion is too large, a
portion is cut out of it longitudinally, so as to admit
of its being pressed closely and firmly to the stock ;
and when it is too small, it is slit up so as to admit of its
being put round the stock. The tube is tied on with
matting, and the summit of the stock is covered with
grafting-wax.
693. Terminal flute-budding in the South of France (fig. 250). — The
head of the stock being cut off, a ring of bark, two inches or three inches
long, is removed. A shoot is then
taken from the tree to be in-
creased, of exactly the same thick-
ness as the stock, and a ring or
tube of bark is taken off the thick
end (without being split longi-
tudinally), not quite so long as
the piece of bark taken off the
stock, but provided with several
Fig.250.T<;r»mmzgood eyes. The tube thus
flute budding in formed ig placed upon the Stock, FiS- 251' Fhttc-buMing with strips of
spnny or sum- . r bark.
mcr. m the room of the one removed,
and care is taken to make the two edges of bark join below. The part of the
stock which projects over the ring of the bark is next split into shreds, and
brought down over it all round, in the same manner as when secured by
grafting-wax or clay. This mode of budding is chiefly employed in the
South of France for propagating walnuts, chestnuts, figs, mulberries, and
other trees with thick bark and abundant pith.
694. Flute-budding with strips of bark (fig. 251). — The head of the stock
is cut off, but instead of removing a ring of bark, as in the preceding mode, it
308 REARING.
is cut longitudinally into four or five strips, each two inches or three inches
long, and turned down as in the figure, being left still attached to the tree.
From a shoot of the tree to be propagated, a tube of bark is taken, furnished
with four or five eyes, rather shorter than the strips, though longer than in
tube-budding. When the tube of the scion is slipped on the stock, the
strips of bark are raised over it, and fastened at the top by a ligature. Some-
times the end of the stock is cut obliquely, and the straps are brought up as
at a, in which case the top of the stock is not cut into shreds, and turned
down over the tube of bark, as in flute-budding in the South of France
(692). A curious experiment by this mode of budding, consists in placing
rings of the bark of different allied species, one above another, without
allowing any of the buds to develop themselves. On cutting down the stem
of a tree so treated, some years afterwards, it will be found that under each
kind of bark is a portion of its proper wood, proving that the wood is depo-
sited by the inner bark from the returning sap, and that the bark has the
power of so modifying this sap, as to produce the particular kind of wood of
the species to which it belongs, without the aid of any leaves of that species.
095. Annular budding (fig. 252) is performed either at the principal
movement of the sap in spring, or at the end of its principal
movement in August. In either case the top of the stock is
kept on ; and if the ring of bark containing a bud or buds taken
from the scion is larger than the space prepared for it on the
stock, a piece must be taken from it longitudinally, so as to
make it fit exactly. In Belgium this mode is considered par-
ticularly suitable for hard-wooded trees, which are difficult to
increase by any other mode.
Fig. 252. Anmt- 696. The after-care of grafts by budding consists, in all cases, in
lar budding, removing the bandages or plasters as soon as it is ascertained that
the buds or scions have adhered to the stock. This may generally be known
in two or three weeks, by the healthy appearance of the bark and its bud or
buds, and by the dropping off of the petiole, which in the case of the death of the
bud withers and adheres. The next operation is to head-down the stock to
within an inch or two of the bud, the stump being left for a week or two as
a prop, to which the shoot produced by the bud of the scion may be tied, till
it acquires vigour enough to support itself. The stump is then cut off in a
sloping direction, close above the bud. In general, any buds which develop
themselves on this stump should be rubbed off; but in the case of very weak
scions, one or more buds may be left on the stump to draw up the sap till
the graft has taken. When budding is performed in spring, the stock should
have been headed down before the ascent of the sap; but in autumn-budding,
as no shoot is produced till the spring following, heading down is deferred
till that season, and takes place just before the sap is in motion. Where a
number of grafts by buds are introduced on one stem or on one branch,
heading down can, of course, only take place above the uppermost bud ;
and in terminal flute-budding, it is performed as a necessary part of the
operation.
SUBSECT. II. — Rearing.
697. The operations of rearing in horticulture are those which are
required to bring plants to that particular state of bulk, succulence,
colour, or flavour, for which they are cultivated in gardens and garden
scenery. These operations may be included under transplanting, planting,
TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING. 309
potting, pruning, training, thinning, weeding, watering, stirring the soil,
blanching, shading, sheltering, and protecting.
§ I. — Transplanting and Planting.
698. To transplant is to take up a plant with its roots, and to replant it
again in such a manner that it shall continue to grow. In some cases the
roots are taken up enveloped in soil and entire, as in transplanting plants in
pots ; and in others they are divested of soil, and more or less mutilated, as
is the case in all other modes. In whatever manner a plant has been origi-
nated, whether by seeds or by some modification of division, the first step in
carrying on its cultivation is most commonly transplanting.
699. The uses of transplanting are: — 1. To afford more room for [the
growth of the top, and for stirring and manuring the soil about the roots.
2. To produce immediate effect in scenery, by placing trees or shrubs in
particular situations. 3. To supply deficiencies in plantations already made.
4. By repeatedly transplanting, to limit, the extent of the main roots, and to
increase the number of fibrous roots, within a limited distance of the stem
of the plant, and thus to fit it for being removed, with all its roots, when of a
large size. 5. To retard the growth and flowering of certain plants, and by
that means to increase the bulk and succulency of their foliage ; and, 6. To
inure plants to particular soils and situations.
700. The theory of transplanting is founded on the functions common to
all plants, of growing when placed under favourable circumstances, whether
by accident or design ; of renewing within certain limits the parts of which
they have been prematurely deprived, and of having annually a season of
repose. Thus, annual plants, and others of small size, and of only a few
months' growth, may be taken up without injuring their fibres or spongioles,
and if replanted immediately their growth suffers no interruption ; while
trees, shrubs, and other large plants, which when taken up have their roots
mutilated and the functions of their spongioles interrupted, have a power of
protruding new spongioles, so as to renew the growth of their leaves and
branches, provided this mutilation take place during the period when the plant
is in a state of repose. When plants are in a state of active growth, a constant
perspiration is taking place from their leaves, which is supplied by the absorp-
tion of the moisture in the soil by the spongioles of the roots ; and when this
supply through the roots is cut off by the destruction of the spongioles, the
leaves wither, and the plant dies or becomes greatly injured : but there is a
period in the growth of every plant, in which the leaves either drop off, as
in deciduous plants, or cease to be in a state of activity, as in evergreens ;
and it is only in this state that the operation of transplanting can be success-
fully undertaken with large plants. Even when trees are without their
leaves, perspiration is going on to a certain extent through the bark, and
absorption to supply this waste must necessarily be taking place at the
same time through the spongioles ; for though the functions of all plants are
annually in a dormant state, yet they are never wholly inactive; and,
hence, even in transplanting trees without their leaves, the effects of more
perspiration by the bark than the roots can supply must be guarded against.
This is more especially the case in transplanting evergreens, in which the
functions of the leaves, and, consequently, of the spongioles, are carried on
to a limited extent, even through the winter. As the perspiration both of
the leaves and bark is greatly dependent on the moisture or dryness of the
310 TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING.
atmosphere, it follows that on the state of the weather at and after trans-
planting, a good deal of the success of the operation must depend ; and as the
kind of weather bears close relation to the season of the year, that also
requires to be taken into consideration. All plants, considered with reference
to transplanting, may be divided into three classes, viz., those which can be
transplanted in a state of active growth, and with their leaves on, which are
chiefly seedlings, and other small plants, and plants in pots ; those which can
only be transplanted with success when without their leaves, as deciduous
trees, and herbaceous perennials of more than a year's growth ; and those
which are transplanted when their leaves are on, but in a comparatively
dormant state, as evergreens.
701. Seedlings and such small plants as can be taken up with all their
fibres and spongioles uninjured, and planted immediately, may be removed
at any season which admits of the progress of vegetation; though their
success will be most certain when the atmosphere is warm and cloudy,
and the soil moist rather than dry; as under such circumstances the
absorption carried on by the spongioles will be very slightly interrupted,
and the perspiration of the leaves not checked. In performing the
operation, the plants are raised out of the soil by a flat-pointed stick, or
trowel, or a spade ; or when the soil is moist, stout seedlings, such as those
of the hardier varieties of the cabbage tribe, may be drawn out by the hand ;
and they are replanted in holes made for them by the same implements ; and
after the insertion of the plant, the hole is filled up with soil gently pressed to
the roots, and, if necessary, water is given. Tender plants, when thus
transplanted, are covered with a hand-glass or frame, to preserve a moist
atmosphere around them ; or if in pots, they are plunged into a hotbed for
the same purpose, and also to stimulate their roots. The hardier annuals, on
the other hand, such as seedlings of the cabbage tribe, may be transplanted
with less care, since when they flag or fade, their leaves soon recover again,
in consequence of fresh spongioles being emitted by the main or tap root. It
is even asserted by experienced gardeners, both in Britain and on the Conti-
nent, that plants of the cabbage tribe grow fasteT, when in transplanting they
have been kept sufficiently long out of the soil to cause their leaves to fade ;
the plants, in this case, De Candolle observes, pumping up moisture rapidly
in proportion to the degree in which their interior tissue has been deprived
of it. During moist weather, or where there is an opportunity, by means of
coverings, of preserving a moist atmosphere round plants, and excluding the
direct rays of the sun, herbaceous plants of considerable size, with the leaves
on, may be transplanted ; but in ordinary weather, and without the aid of
protection, this is difficult in proportion to the number and size of the leaves,
the thinness of their texture, and the number of their stomata. The evapora-
tion, in cases of this kind, being greater than the absorption by the spongioles,
it requires to be lessened by cutting off a portion of the disks of the leaves,
by thinning them out, or by cutting them off altogether. In general, this
latter treatment can only be practised with impunity in transplanting young
plants that have fleshy roots, such as the Swedish turnip, the rhubarb, &c.
In transplanting seedlings, the top or main perpendicular root is generally
shortened to increase the number of lateral spongioles, more especially in the
case of vigorous- growing plants. The object of this shortening is, in some
cases, to cause the roots to derive their chief nourishment from the upper and
richest part of the soil; and in others, that the plant by having abundance of
TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING. 311
roots in a limited space may be the better adapted for being again trans-
planted. In the operation of transplanting tap-rooted seedlings, it is found
of use either to cause the soil to press equally against every part of the root;
or if it presses more upon one part than another, that that part shall be the
lower extremity. The reason of this is, that the pressure, wherever applied,
stops the returning sap ; and when it is not applied at the lower extremity,
the part of the root below where it takes place ceases to increase in thick-
ness, or to protrude fibres. Transplanting in pots will form the subject of
a separate section.
702. Deciduous trees and shrubs, and perennial herbaceous plants., can only
be safely transplanted when in a dormant state. This dormant state is
indicated by the fall of the leaf, at which period the roots, stem, and
branches contain a greater accumulation of nutritive matter than they do at
any other season of the year, and not being in a state of activity, they can
exist in a great measure without the assistance of the spongioles. They are,
therefore, in a fitter state for being transplanted than they can be at any other
period, and the success will in general be in proportion to the number of
roots that are taken up entire. In the case of herbaceous plants, and of trees
and shrubs under five or six feet in height, this can be accomplished without
difficulty ; but with larger plants the roots are unavoidably more or less mu-
tilated, and the growth of the transplanted plant for the first year, or
probably for some years afterwards, is much less vigorous than if the roots
had been taken up entire.
703. Whether deciduous trees and shrubs ought to be transplanted in autumn
or spring, is a question respecting which gardeners and foresters are of dif-
ferent opinions. That of Miller and of most gardeners is, that immediately
after the fall of the leaf in autum is the best season, provided the soil be dry ;
but that for a very wet soil it is better to wait till the end of February, or
till the period immediately preceding the rise of the sap. Some gardeners
recommend transplanting " early in autumn, soon after the leaves begin to
fall, but while a considerable quantity yet remain in a mature and efficient
state." In this case it is alleged that " by the action of the mature leaves
which remain, the injuries which the roots may have sustained will be
speedily repaired ; new roots will be immediately produced, and the plant will
then become established before winter, and prepared to grow with nearly if not
quite its usual vigour in the following spring." — (Gard. Chron. vol. i. p. 811.)
In the neighbourhood of London, wall-fruit trees are frequently transplanted
in this manner. Early in autumn is undoubtedly the best time, considered
physiologically; because then, whether the plants are with or without some of
their leaves, the wounds made in the roots begin to cicatrise, and to protrude
granulous matter, and in many cases even spongioles, immediately ; and by
the time spring arrives, the plant, if it has been taken up with most of its
roots, will grow with as much vigour as if it had not been transplanted.
For obvious reasons, the next best season to that immediately following the
fall of the leaf, is the remainder of the autumn, and the winter months during
open weather. There may be local reasons why the beginning of spring may
be preferable to autumn ; but such reasons can never apply generally. A
second argument in favour of autumn-planting, is the dampness of the atmo-
sphere which prevails at that season, and during winter ; by which the
perspiration through the bark is lessened, and the demand made on the
roots to supply the waste is consequently diminished. In spring, not only
312 TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING.
is the sun more powerful, but drying winds generally prevail, which have a
constant tendency to drain the young branches of a tree of their moisture.
These drying winds are much more injurious to newly transplanted ever-
greens than to deciduous trees, as will afterwards appear.
704. Different modes of transplanting large trees and shrubs. — To lessen
the injuries which every large tree must receive in transplanting, from
the mutilation of its roots, six different modes of performing the opera-
tion have been adopted : viz., 1. by retaining large balls of earth attached
to the roots ; 2. by previously preparing the roots, so as to famish them
with new fibres and spongioles ; 3. by previously shortening the roots, and
treating them so as to heal over and granulate the wounds made in their
extremities ; 4. by simply thinning and pruning the roots and the branches
at the time of transplanting ; 5. by removal without previous preparation ;
and 6. by shortening the roots and heading in the branches.
705. Transplantiny with large balls of earth. — In this case the head of the
tree is generally preserved entire, and the ball of solid soil is made so large
as to include as many of the roots as possible. When carefully planted in
fresh rich soil, consolidated by watering, and secured by stakes, by guy
ropes, or by any other means, if the tree survives the first summer, the
quantity of foliage which it will produce will return a large quantity of sap
to the roots, and thus occasion the production of numerous fibres and
spongioles, and the tree will continue to live and grow ; but whether with
the same vigour as it did before being transplanted, will depend on the
quantity of roots, in proportion to the head, taken up in the ball — on the kind
of tree, on the moisture or dryness of the climate and of the season, and on
the state of the soil and the nature of the situation. In general, more
depends on the climate and on the soil than on the situation. No large tree
taken up from a moist soil will thrive if transferred to a dry one ; and, on
the contrary, a tree taken up from a dry soil, that would do little good
when transferred to another dry soil, will yet thrive if planted in a soil
that is moist. No tree taken up and transplanted with all its branches in
the manner described could exist through the ensuing summer in the dry
climate of the South of France; but in the moist, warm atmosphere of
Devonshire, and the humid region of the west of Scotland, trees taken up
with all their roots and branches, as far as practicable, and transplanted with
ordinary care, seldom fail to grow, and in a few years to acquire the same
vigour as they had before transplanting. (See Nash in Gard. Mag. for
1838, p. 507.)
706. Transplanting by shortening the roots, so as to induce them to throw
out fibres. — This is effected by digging a circular trench round the tree, one
or two, or even three or four years before transplanting, cutting off all the
roots which extend as far as the trench, and filling it up with prepared soil,
or with the surface soil and subsoil mixed. The distance of the trench from
the stem of the tree may vary with its size, the kind of tree, and other cir-
cumstances ; but a good general rule would be, where the tree is to stand from
two to fouryears,to make the diameter of the circle included within the trench
of as many feet, as the diameter of the trunk of the tree at the surface of
the ground is in inches. Thus, for a tree with a stem six inches in diameter,
the trench should be made at the distance of three feet from it on every side ;
and for one of eighteen inches in diameter, the distance of the trench from
the stem should be nine feet. The width and depth of the trench should
TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING. 313
also be proportionate to the size of the tree, and to the period which is to
intervene between its preparation and removal. It is evident that where the
tree is to stand three or four years after its roots are cut, more room should
be left for the extension of the fibres, than when it is to stand only one year ;
unless, indeed, the roots could be confined, as if in a pot, by the hardness of
the outer side of the trench ; in which case they might after removal be
spread out at length. It is evident also that when a tree is to stand only
one year after making the trench, the trench should not only be made
narrower, but at a greater distance from the stem, in order that a greater
length of old root may be taken up to serve in lieu of the new roots, made
when the tree stands three or four years before removal. The width of the
trench can never conveniently be made less than eighteen inches, and its
depth should not be less than two feet, in order to cut through the lower
roots ; since it is chiefly by the fibres that will be produced by these, that
the tree will be supplied by fluid nutriment to support the perspiration of
its leaves the first year after transplanting. In making the trench, it is not,
in general, desirable to undermine the ball of earth, so far as to cut through
the tap-root, because this main root is necessary as a source of nourishment,
in the absence of so many lateral roots.
707. Sir Henry Steuart's practice in transplanting large trees belongs to
this division of the subject; and as it has. been attended with success at
Allanton, where the trees, which had been transplanted from ten to twenty
years (which we examined in August 1841), are still continuing to thrive,
we shall give a short outline of Sir Henry's process. In selecting the
trees to be transplanted, he endeavours, if possible, to take only those,
the stems and branches of which have been exposed to the free air and
weather on every side ; but as he cannot always get such trees, his next
resource is trees which stand in the margins of plantations. Supposing one
of these to be 25 feet high, a trench 30 inches wide is opened round it
at a distance of three and a half feet, if it is meant to stand for four years or
upwards after the operation ; and at the distance of six feet or seven feet, if it
is meant to stand only two years. If the tree is to stand four or more years,
the trench is cut to the full depth of the subsoil, in order to get somewhat
underneath the roots. If the subsoil be wet, a drain is made from the trench,
after which the soil and subsoil are returned, well broken and mixed toge-
ther. If the tree is to stand only two years, the same method may be fol-
lowed, but with this difference, — that on the sides most exposed to the wind,
which in this island are generally the south-west, two or perhaps three of
the strongest roots should be left uncut, and allowed to pass entire through
the trench, so that when taken up at length, they may act as stays against the
winds. — (Planter's Guide, 2d ed. p. 219.) In taking up the tree for removal,
the greatest care is used to preserve the minutest fibres and the spongioles
entire ; and to accomplish this, a new trench is made exterior to the old one,
so as not to injure any of the new fibres which have been protruded into the
prepared soil. A pointed instrument or a pick is employed for picking out
the soil from among the young roots ; and care is taken that the operator
never strikes across the roots, but as much as possible in the line of their
elongation, always standing in the right line of divergence from the tree as a
centre. The picking away the soil from the roots may reach within three,
four, or five feet of the stem, according to the size of the tree ; and a ball of
earth, with two or three feet broad of the sward adhering to it, should be
314 TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING.
left undisturbed round the collar. The tree may now be pulled over, and
raised out of the pit ; and the following is Sir Henry's Steuart's mode of
effecting these two operations.
708. Pulling down the tree and raising it out of the pit. — " A strong but
soft rope, of perhaps four inches in girth, is fixed as near to the top of the
tree as a man can safely climb, so as to furnish the longest possible lever to
bear upon the roots ; taking care, at the same time, to interpose two or three,
folds of mat, in order to prevent the chafing of the bark. Eight or nine
workmen are then set to draw the tree down on one side. Or it is a good
way, if you have an old and steady -pulling horse, to employ him in this
business. For it is plain, that one stout horse, acting forcibly on the rope,
will do more than twenty men, even if so great a number could get about
it ; and moreover, he will save some manual labour in excavating, by giving
an effectual pull, at a much earlier period of the work. Next to an old
and steady horse, for a high-mettled one is not at all adapted for such an
operation, heavy oxen are to be preferred ; for these have been known to
drag timber out of plantations where horses were defeated, in consequence
of the rugged nature of the surface. Horses make one very spirited pull,
but rarely a second, if they have been checked by the first. Oxen, on the
other hand, appear less sensitive, and bear steadily and slowly onward by the
mere force of gravity, and without recoiling like horses. The tree being
drawn down, it is next forcibly held in that position, until earth be raised to
the height of a foot or more, on the opposite side of the pit, so that, as soon
as it is liberated, it springs up, and stops against the bank thus formed.
On this, the workmen proceed to lighten the mass of earth with the picker,
laying bare the roots as little as possible, but still necessarily reducing the
mass to manageable dimensions. The tree is then pulled down on the oppo-
site side, and a foot of earth forced up, in a similar manner ; and the same
thing being repeated once or twice, it is gradually raised to even a higher
level than that of the adjoining surface. In this manner, by a method ex-
tremely simple, and not less expeditious, whatever it may appear in the nar-
rative, it becomes quite an easy, instead of a formidable undertaking, to draw
the tree from the pit."— (Planters Guide, 2d ed. p. 243.)
709. Transporting and replanting the tree. — The machine used by Sir
Henry consists of a strong pole and two wheels, with a smaller wheel occa-
sionally used, which is fixed at the extremity of the pole, and turns on a
pivot. The pole operates both as a powerful lever to bring down the tree
to a horizontal position, and in conjunction with the wheels as a still more
powerful conveyance to remove it to its new situation. The wheels of the
machine are brought close up to the body of the tree, and the stem laid along
the pole, with the largest branches uppermost, in order that no branch or
root of considerable length should be suffered to sweep the ground during
the time of transportation. The tree thus attached to the pole is drawn to
its destination by a horse or horses, and placed upright in a shallow pit,
which is, if possible, opened and prepared a twelvemonth beforehand by
trenching and mixing manure, and exposing the soil in the bottom of the pit
to the influence of the weather. The tree is so placed that the largest
boughs are presented to the most stormy quarter of the wind, even though
this should require it to be placed in a reversed position relatively to the sun
than it was before, which Sir Henry Steuart as well as Decandolle think
of no consequence. After upwards of thirty-five years' experience, Sir Henry
TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING. 3J^>
found no disadvantage from this change of position ; but, on the contrary,
as the tree presents the side containing the longest and most vigorous branches
to the storm, it ultimately, he says, produces a better balanced head. The
transplanted tree, after being set upright, and the soil carefully rammed into
all the cavities about the roots, is held in its position, not by posts or stakes
above ground, or by horizontal poles under it, but by forming a circular
bank of earth on the extremities of the main roots. This bank, Sir Henry
says, if properly executed, will by its weight furnish such resistance to the
action of the top of the tree, that a stout man, on applying himself to a rope
tied to the upper part of the stem, will generally be unable to displace the
root, notwithstanding the length of the lever by which he operates. For
more minute details we must refer to Sir Henry's work. The great success
which attended his operations at Allanton may, we conceive, be chiefly
owing to the care with which they were performed, to the circumstance that
the trees were always prepared for three or four or more years beforehand,
and the extraordinary moistness of the climate in that part of Scotland. It
is a common practice in England to prepare the trees only one year before
removal ; in which case, as Sir Henry very justly observes, " the fresh fibres
being nearly as tender as the roots of an onion or a cabbage, can neither be
extricated nor handled without sensible injury." In the case of shrubs,
however, one year will be found sufficient for many kinds that rapidly
emit a great number of roots.
710. Transplanting by shortening the roots, without permitting them to
throw out fibres at their extremities. — This mode is the invention of Mr.
Munro, a scientific forester of great experience, and is described in the Quar-
terly Journal of Agriculture, vol. v. p. 183, and in the Gardeners Magazine
for 1841-42. Mr. Munro had been in the habit of transplanting from three
hundred to five hundred trees annually by cutting a trench round the roots,
and filling it with prepared soil, allowing the tree to remain for one or two
years to form fibrous roots. The young roots were protruded in clusters
round the ends of the amputated roots, but they were so tender as to be
much injured by the spade in the process of lifting, and by the atmosphere
when removing. A pit of large dimensions was also required, which added
much to the labour ; a tree, the roots of which formed a ball only about
four feet in diameter, requiring a pit eight feet in diameter to allow of the
fibres being laid out at full length, besides a foot of moved soil beyond them
all round to encourage their growth. A much more economical and equally
efficient mode is suggested by the following experiment :— Mr. Munro
selected a handsome oak, about twenty-five years old, and having dug out a
circular trench round it, leaving a ball of earth four feet in diameter, he cut
off every root which projected into the trench with a saw, and smoothed it
over with a pruning knife. The object was, in place of encouraging the
growth of fibres at the extremities of the amputated roots, to have the fibres
formed within the ball of earth all along the old root. To accomplish this
end, he left the trench empty and roofed it in with boards, covering up any
opening between them with withered grass, and then putting over the whole
an inch of soil, so as completely to exclude light and change of air. In this
situation the tree remained for one year, having no lateral communication
with the surrounding soil. The operation was performed in the winter of
1824, and in that following the roofing was taken from the trench, and the
ball of earth reduced to a proper dimension for removing the tree, when the
316 TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING.
old roots were found not only furnished with fibres in the interior of the
ball, but the fibres were matted sufficiently to retain enough of soil to pro-
tect the roots at the time of removal ; and, what was of nearly equal import-
ance, callosities were formed at the ends of the amputated roots ready to
throw out spongioles as soon as they were surrounded by moist soil. This
mode, we believe, has not been much practised, excepting by Mr. Munro,
but we consider it excellent in theory; and by using branches and litter, or
branches and turf, as a covering, or leaving the trenches quite open, as has
been done in subsequent trials, it will be found greatly more economical than
Sir Henry Steuart's method. It is obvious that the growth of the tree must
be greatly checked by this mode of preparation, which will consequently
have the effect of rendering it capable of living on a limited quantity of
food, and therefore much better adapted for removal. The only objection
that occurs to us is, that in the case of previous preparation for two or
three years, too many fibrous roots will be protruded into the ball, more,
perhaps, than can be nourished in that limited bulk of soil, even after the
tree is transplanted. If, however, the tree is prepared only one year previous
to removal, the objection will not apply to the same extent, if at all.
71.1 • Transplanting by thinning and pruning the roots and branches is the
most common mode, and in a moist soil and climate it is generally attended
with success. The trees are taken up by cutting a trench round the roots
about the same distance as in preparing trees by the first mode (695) ; the
ends of the roots are sawn off and cut smooth, and the top is thinned of its
branches, and pruned more or less, according to the size of the tree, and the
soil, situation, and climate in which it is to be planted. When the tree is
of considerable size, say nine inches or a foot in diameter, it must necessarily
be deprived of the greater number of its effective roots ; and in this case,
unless in a very moist climate and soil, the safest mode is to cut off at least
half of the branches of the head, covering the sections left by amputation with
grafting-clay or grafting-wax. If trees are transplanted in this manner
immediately after the fall of the leaf, the wounds of the roots very soon
begin to heal over, and by the time spring arrives they are ready to throw
out fibres and to support the leaves protruded by the branches left, which in
their turn nourish the fibres of the roots by the returning sap. The second
year the roots will be more vigorous, and the buds on the branches will
probably elongate into shoots of an inch or two in length. In this way the
tree will gradually recover a certain degree of vigour, and it will ultimately
become either a stunted tree or a vigorous healthy one, according to the
quantity of nourishment afforded by the soil (see Pruning}. In some cases
large trees can be removed without preparing the roots, and without cutting
off any, or at least very few, of the branches : but in such cases it will be
found that, from some cause or other, the roots are mostly near the surface
and the soil moist, and that a great proportion of the roots can be taken up
along with the tree. A great many trees, such as spruce, firs, alders, limes,
elm, and beech, from fifteen to forty feet high, were transplanted at Chalfont
House, in 1799, by Mr. Main. They grew on a thin stratum of rich bog
earth, reposing on a bed of moist gravel. When a tree had a trench dug
round it at the distance of three or four feet, the whole mass of roots rose
together, leaving the gravel clean and bare ; and the consequence was, that
with very little lopping, the trees, being planted in a similar soil and subsoil
all lived, and soon began to grow vigorously (Gard. Mag. vol. iv. p. 118)
TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING. 317
When this mode of transplanting large trees with the branches on is adopted
in a dry soil, the success will be very different, even though the ground
should be mulched round the transplanted trees, and the stem and main
branches closely wrapped round with straw ropes to lessen evaporation.
The most suitable trees for planting out with no other preparation than
thinning or pruning the branches, are those whose roots and heads have been
properly thinned and pruned by cultivation in a nursery. Such trees may
be planted out at greater ages and sizes than trees taken from plantations of
a few years' growth, and will both strike fresh roots more certainly and grow
faster ; but these last may be taken up, when from ten to twenty or twenty-
five feet high, and planted out with full success, provided the two following
particulars are observed : first, to get up as much root as possible ; next, to
reduce the branches down to due proportion with the root which has been
got up. A great part of the root is unavoidably lost in the taking up of the
tree, and it is the most efficient part, being the extreme fibres. The root
has thus lost its natural proportion to the head, and is now insufficient to
supply it with moisture. Trees planted out in this state often, after having
put forth their leaves, die suddenly, and others which continue to live will
fall into a languid state and die off gradually, or recover their vigour very
slowly. (Sir Chas. Monk in Hort. Trans, and Gard. Mag. vol. v. p. 148.)
712. The removal of large tiees and shrubs without previous preparation
has been carried to a greater extent at Arlington Court, in Devonshire, than
it has been anywhere else that we have heard of; and a detailed account of
the manner in which the operation is performed by Mr. Nash, the gardener,
will be found in the Gardener s Magazine for 1838, p. 507. The trenches
at Arlington are dug round the tree at ten or twelve feet from the stem, or
farther if necessary, so as to take up as far as practicable the whole of the
roots and fibres ; and none of these or of the branches are cut off', excepting
such as have been injured by the operation of moving. Isolating the roots
of a large tree in its ball of earth, and rendering this ball portable by soaking
it with water during frost, and moving it when it is a frozen mass, is some-
times resorted to with good effect; and encasing small balls with plaster
of Paris, where that substance is abundant, has been occasionally practised
by amateurs.
713. Transplanting by "heading in" that ?'s, cutting in the branches. —
This is the general practice throughout the Continent ; for there, such is the
heat and dryness of the air in early spring and summer, that the roots of
newly transplanted trees are far from being able to support the perspiration
which takes place from the leaves. The practice is of the most remote
antiquity, and Professors De Candolle and Thouin both allude to it, as in
general use, and attended with success ; though they both allege that it is
carried too far when the main stems of pyramidal trees, such as pines and
firs, are shortened ; the consequence of which is a branching head instead of
a conical one, as may be seen in those remarkable rows of spruce-firs which
line some of the avenues at Meudon. The mode of treating headed-in
trees practised in Belgium is described in an early volume of the Gar-
deners Magazine, and again in that work for 1841. The trees, whether
oak, ash, elm, poplar, or other leafy kinds, are taken from the nursery
when they are fifteen feet or more in height, and about the thickness
of a man's arm ; the lateral branches are all cut off close to the stem, to the
height of six or seven feet from the collar ; the top is also cut off in a slant-
Y
318
TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING.
ing direction, at about ten feet from the roots ; and the remaining branches
are shortened to from three to six inches, the cut being made close above a
bud. The trees are taken up in March and April, (in England, immediately
after the fall of the leaf would be a better time,) without balls of earth, and
not remarkably carefully, but precisely after the ordinary manner practised
in our nurseries, and they are planted in holes about three or four feet
square. The first year they grow but little ; the second year they may
be said to commence their growth, when the uppermost shoot is trained
for the leader. As the tree progresses, it is pruned every year, if
necessary, in winter or early in spring, cutting out all the cross and
unequal branches, and thinning those that are or may become crowded.
It may be thought that trees treated in this manner would all become
round-headed, and that they would only have about ten feet of straight
timber; but this does not necessarily follow, unless that form be really de-
sired. On the contrary, the straightest and most beautifully attenuated
timber is obtained by timely training the upper shoot to a stick tied to the
stem ; or if the uppermost shoot is emitted a few inches below the summit,
which is sometimes the case, it may be tied to the dying point, till it is fixed
in an unchangeable erect position. By attending to this, and by thinning
the branches, without shortening them, for a few years, they will become
completely subordinate to the trunk (Card. Gaz. for 1841, p. 791). This
we consider to be the safest mode of transplanting trees in exposed, bleak
situations in Britain ; more especially on the sea-coast, and in mountainous
districts.
714. The staking or supporting of newly-transplanted trees, and the pro-
tection of their stems from cattle, require to be carefully attended to ; and
we shall therefore shortly notice the different modes of doing both. Fig.
253 shows the common modes of protecting trees which are to have clear
stems to the height of eight or ten feet, from
deer, horses, or cattle ; the main posts being
made of oak or of larch, or of any other
wood charred on the part which is buried in
the soil, and for nine inches or a foot above
the ground's surface. For trees which are
intended to have their branches sweeping on
_ the ground, such as cedars, pines, silver firs,
&c , circles of iron hurdles fastened together
Tig. 253. The most fleneral mode* of pro- Whh b°ltS and nuts sh°llld be employed;
tecting recently-planted single trees enlarging the circle as the branches extend
from cattle and deer. themselves, by introducing additional hur-
dles. These hurdles being always only a few feet from the branches, are
scarcely perceptible at a very short distance, and therefore are no deformity
in the landscape : as may be seen at Goodwood, Bicton, and many other places.
Trees which have had all the branches cut off in the Belgian manner, require
no staking, because the wind has no branches on which to act ; and their stems
may be protected from cattle by tying thorns or other branches round them ;
or laths or straight rods, or even pieces of old bark ; using as a tie, wire or
tarred thread. Small trees, with the branches on, may be tied to stakes with
bands of hay, and their stems protected in the manner just mentioned. Trees
of thirty or forty feet in height may be supported by guy ropes ; or if the
roots are strong and of some length, they may be kept in their places by
TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING. 319
horizontal poles placed over them, and tied to them, concealed under, or
level with, or immediately above the surface of the ground ; the ends of
those poles being made fust to stakes, so as to cross over the roots and hold
them tightly down. Fig. 254 shows a plan and elevation of a newly-
removed tree, the roots of which are fastened
down in this manner by means of the rods «,
and stakes b ; the latter being securely nailed
to the former, and the whole covered with soil,
as shown by the dotted line c. Trees of mode-
rate size may also be secured against high
winds, by inserting a stout stake in the soil in
the bottom of the pit in which the tree is to be
planted, of sufficient length to reach four or five
feet above the surface; securing it firmly
there before planting the tree, and afterwards
placing the stem of the tree close to it, and
fastening it by some soft tie. Three larch
poles fixed in this manner, so as to form a
triangle, converging at top to the thickness
of the stem of the tree, the tree being planted
in the centre, would serve at once as a firm
prop, and as a protection from cattle. Another
Fig. 254. Plan and elevation of a mode is tp cover the surface of the ground for
newly-moved tree, secured from high four or more feet round the tree with a mulch-
^der9round fastenings. .
was first used by Sir Charles Monk, in Northumberland, and has been adopted
in various parts of Scotland, is one of the best that can be adopted in a country
where stone is abundant ; because it not only renders stakes and bandages
unnecessary, but retains the moisture in the soil, and acts as a fence in
keeping horses and cattle at a distance from the tree (Gard. Mag. vol. v.
p. 148). The stones are in large lumps, not built up high, but packed close
to each other, and set on edge, so as to make a tabular, but very rugged
surface, round the foot of the tree. This mulching is extended in ordinary
cases to the distance of four feet, which is sufficient for cattle and common
horses ; but against high-bred horses, which are disposed to attack every-
thing of wood, the stones are not a sufficient fence unless they are packed
with a surface very rugged, and extended six feet round the tree. Horses
and cattle are also kept at a distance from the trees by a series of horizontal
rails, forming a tabular polygon round the tree fifteen or eighteen inches in
height, and ten feet in diameter (see Gard. Mag. vol. vi. p. 47). Fig. 255
shows the general appearance of a tree fenced round in this manner. Fig.
256 is a vertical profile of the horizontal frame- work ; and fig. 257 is a cross
section. In this section the posts are shown, inclined a little outwards, the
better to resist pressure from cattle or sheep in that direction. These short
posts, or stumps, as they may be called, are formed of pieces of young larch-
trees or oak branches, from which the bark has been taken, and they are
driven in so as to be from fifteen to eighteen inches above the ground. The
rails which are fastened to the posts are of the thinnings of young plantations,
or of any other suitable material. The advantage of this fence is its economy,
requiring only short pieces of not very stout timber, and its inconspicuous-
ness when seen at a distance. Other modes of staking and protecting
Y 2
220
TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING.
trees will be found in the Suburban Architect and Landscape Gardener,
Isted. p. 555.
715. The machinery for moving large trees has been noticed (443 and 709),
towhich it may
be added that
trucks or sledg-
es, poles and
ropes, require
to be abundant-
ly provided ;
though for or-
dinary purpos-
es, a pair of
high wheels
and an axle for
Fig. 256. Vertical profile of the
tabular tree-guard.
large trees without balls, and a sledge with
Fig. 255. isometHcaiview of the tabular an iron bottom, to be afterwards described,
for shrubs with balls, is all that is essential.
716. Transplanting Evergreens. — There is scarcely any residence in the
country in which it is not frequently necessary to transplant evergreen
shrubs, sometimes from changes or new arrangements, and sometimes on
account of the plants crowding each other. Evergreen trees, such as those
of the pine and fir tribe, are also occasionally transplanted, though much less
requently than shrubs. The most readily transplanted evergreen trees of
arge size, are the spruce fir and the yew ; the former having numerous
fibrous roots near the surface, and the latter
having also numerous fibrous roots growing
together, and consolidating the soil immediately
round the tree into a compact mass. Spruce
firs, yews, and hollies of large size have, for
some years past, been transplanted at Elvaston
Castle by Mr. Barron, \vith scarcely a single
failure, though the spruce firs were from sixty to
eighty feet in height, and many of the yews
wrere above a hundred years old. Evergreen
shrubs of all sizes have also been transplanted
Fig. 257. Cross section of the tabular with the greatest success in the New Botanic
tree-guard. Garden of Edinburgh, by Mr. Me Nab, of whom
Mr. Barron is a pupil, and from whose excellent pamphlet on the subject we
shall chiefly compile the remainder of this article.
717. The best season for transplanting evergreens is still a debated point
among gardeners, though it is now generally agreed that autumn and winter
are preferable to spring or summer. On the Continent, spring appears to
be preferred, just before the rising of the sap, when the leaves of the past year
are ready to drop off; but it must be recollected that there are comparatively
very few evergreens cultivated on the Continent, which are sufficiently hardy
to endure the open air, with the exception of pines and firs, the narrow
leaves of which suffer much less from drying winds than those of broad-
leaved evergreens, such as the holly, the laurel, the arbutus, &c. Miller
(during whose time there were comparatively but few evergreens, to what
there are at present) recommends planting the common and Portugal laurels
TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING.
32]
in October, as the best season ; the arbutus in September ; the holly in
autumn, in dry land, but in wet land in spring ; and the laurustinus at
Michaelmas — but also in spring, with balls of earth, or at the end of July,
or beginning of August, if rain should happen at that season. In general,
Miller recommends autumn and spring, or summer, for transplanting ever-
greens, but disapproves of winter. At Cheshunt, in Hertfordshire, a great
many evergreens were moved every year for a number of years, in conse-
quence of additions and alterations in the grounds ; and Mr. Pratt, the gar-
dener, in an account of his practice given in the Gardeners Magazine, states
that "the best period for the operation is the middle of summer; that is to
say, in July and August, after the growth of the spring shoots. The plants
may then require a little shading with mats, if the sun is powerful ; and they
should have plenty of water ; but they will make roots during the remain-
ing part of the year, and will grow the next spring as if they had never been
transplanted. Those removed in the winter often remain without making
new shoots the whole of the following year." — (Gard. Mag. vol. xi. p. 135.)
Mr. McNab, on the other hand, "in opposition to the opinion of a great
proportion of the practical horticulturists in the country," asserts, u that the
seasons usually recommended for planting evergreens, viz., spring or autumn,
are far from being the best, and are, in fact, under most circumstances, the
very worst seasons which can be selected." Mr. McNab recommends ulate
in autumn, winter, or very early in spring ; that is, any time from the mid-
dle of October till the middle of February ; and, in general, the beginning
of this period as the best ; that is, from the middle of October till the middle
of December ; always providing that the weather and the ground are favour-
able ; that is, supposing there is no frost, no drying wind, nor much sun-
shine, and that the ground is not too much saturated with wet, either from
continued rain, or from the nature of the soil. One of the principal things
to be attended to in planting evergreens, is to fix on a dull day for winter-
planting, and a moist day for spring and autumn- planting." The reason
why dull or moist weather is so essential a condition is, that the process of
perspiration continues to go on in evergreens throughout the winter, except-
ing, perhaps, in the most severe weather ; and that when the atmosphere is
saturated with moisture, the perspiration is reduced to its minimum.
Evaporation also proceeds in an increasing ratio with the temperature,
all other circumstances being the same. Thus, when the temperature
is 80°, the quantity evaporated from a given surface will be three times
greater than when the temperature is only 40°, the degree of dryness
in the air being the same in both cases. So long as the leaves remain
on a plant in a healthy state, their functions are performed in a greater
or less degree, and they draw upon the roots accordingly ; so that ever-
greens, as they never lose their leaves, may be said to be in a growing
state all the year ; and were the growth not much slower in autumn
and winter than it is in summer, it would be as difficult to trans-
plant evergreen trees, even at that season, as it is to transplant deciduous
trees in summer with the leaves on. The first effect of separating a plant
from the soil, is to cut off the supply of sap to the leaves ; and as, notwith-
standing this, perspiration and evaporation will still continue, it follows that
these leaves must fade, unless the perspiration is either checked by a moist
atmosphere, or supplied by watering the roots. That the atmosphere in
Britain is nearly saturated with moisture from October to Februarv inclu-
322 TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING.
sive, is satisfactorily proved by the tables drawn up by Mr. Robert Thomp-
son, of the Horticultural Society's Garden, and published in their Transac-
tions; of one of which an abstract will be found in our Appendix.
718. The drying of the roots of evergreens Mr. McNab considers to be one
of the greatest injuries which they can suffer. If they are allowed to dry
when out of the ground in spring, he says, it is scarcely possible to prevent
their suffering considerably, and showing this injury for a long period after
they are planted. u Half a day's sun in spring or autumn will do more
harm immediately after planting, than a whole week's sun, from morning
to night, in the middle of winter. At that season we can always plant (ex-
cept during severe frosts, or in a very drying wind) with perfect certainty
of success ; whereas, in spring or autumn, there is a great risk of failure, ex-
cept we can get a few dull days, or moist days after planting ; and this is
quite uncertain." (Hints, &JG., p. 18.) It is commonly thought that ever-
greens planted in winter can push out no roots till spring ; but Mr. McNab
finds the contrary to be the case. " During the winter we often have inter-
vals of a week or a fortnight, and even sometimes three weeks, of mild
weather ; and in such weather the roots of many evergreens do grow. Let
any person that has a few duplicates of different kinds of evergreens to spare,
plant or lay them in by the heels, and soak them well with water, any
time during the period I have recommended as the best for planting ; let
him take these same plants up again in the end of March, April, or begin-
ning of May following, and he will find they will have made a considerable
number of fresh roots between the time he put them in, and the time he
took them up. Every nurseryman knows, that of the cuttings of some
sorts of evergreens put into the ground, as is usual, in September or Octo-
ber, many will have made roots during the winter, as will easily be seen by
taking some of them up in March, April, or May." — (Hints, c<yc., p. 19.)
7li). In planting evergreens, " whether in a dull day, a wet day, or a
dry day, it is very necessary to keep in view the expediency of keeping
the plants for as short a time out of the ground as possible ; if only a few
minutes, so much the better. In all seasons, situations, and soils, the
plants should be well soaked with water, as soon as the earth is put about
the roots. As soon as the plant has been put into its place, the earth
should be filled in, leaving a sufficient hollow round the stem, and as far
out as the roots extend, to hold water, which should then be poured in,
in sufficient quantity to soak the ground dowrn to the lowest part of the
roots ; in short, the whole should be made like a kind of puddle. By this
practice, which is particularly necessary in spring and autumn-planting,
the earth is carried down by the water, and every crevice among the roots
is filled. Care must always be taken to have as much earth above the roots
of the plants as will prevent them from being exposed when the water has
subsided." Mr. McNab finds " the best plan is to take an old birch broom,
or anything similar, and laying it down near to the root, to cause the water
to be poured upon it ; this breaks the fall of the water, and prevents the
roots from being washed bare of such earth as may adhere to them ; in this
way time is saved, for the water may be poured out in a full stream from a
pail, a water-pot, or even from a spout or pipe, in the water-cart, or barrel,
where the situation is such that this can be brought up to the plant. After
the first watering has dried up, the earth should be levelled round the stem
of the plant, and as far out as the water has been put on, but not trodden ;
TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING.
323
if the plants are large, a second watering is sometimes necessary ; but in
ordinary-sized plants, one watering is quite sufficient ; and after remaining
twenty-four hours, more or less, according to the nature of the soil, the
earth about the stem, and over the roots, should be trodden as firm as pos-
sible ; and, after treading, should be dressed with a rake. Where this is
practised, and the planting done in winter, in cloudy weather, there is
scarcely a chance of any dry weather afterwards injuring them; but if this
method, or something similar, is not practised, there will be a great risk of
failure every year, in planting evergreens, particularly when they are
planted at the usual times recommended ; that is, in spring or autumn."
Mr. McNab recommends " always to water evergreens when planted, whe-
ther the work be done in wet weather, dull weather, or dry ; or whether
the situation in which they are planted is wet or dry, sheltered or exposed ;
because the watering, in the manner recommended, fills up the holes that
may be in the earth about the roots, and consolidates the whole mass much
better than treading could do." In tenacious soils, treading is positively
injurious ; and in no case should the soil be rendered more compact than
it is found to be in ground that has been a few weeks trenched.
720. Transplanting Evergreens with balls. — In transplanting evergreens it
is desirable to leave as much earth about the roots as possible ; but when
treated in the way recommended, the greater part of the earth that may be
about the roots is of importance, rather in preserving them from injury dur-
ing the operation, than for any value it may have after the plant has been
put into the ground. This is, however, speaking of ordinary-sized plants,
that is, from one to two and a half, or three feet high ; if much larger than
this, Mr. McNab " never could move them with success, without keeping a
large ball of earth about their roots, and keeping it as entire as possible." —
(Hints, 4r., p. 26.)
721. The machines and implements for transplanting large shrubs with balls
need not be on such a large scale as those for transplanting large trees. Those
used by Mr. Pratt, already mentioned, are, a hand-barrow formed of sheet-
iron, of which fig. 258, a, represents the upper side, &, the under side, and c,
Fig. 258. Machine for transplanting large shrubs with balls.
a longitudinal section ; a pick, rf, like that used by Sir Henry Steuart ; a truck
with low wheels ; and a common hand-barrow, with wooden levers and
planks. There are three sizes of the sheet-iron hand-barrow, viz., four feet,
by two feet six inches ; three feet, by one foot nine inches ; and two feet two
inches, by one foot three inches ; they are all rounded at the corners, a little
324 TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING.
turned up at the ends, and are strengthened by flat-iron bars underneath,
carried round near the edges. These iron bars are welded into handles at
each end, and the handles are kept above the ground by the ends of the irons
being turned up. The ground is opened at a distance from the stem, regu-
lated by the size and nature of the plant intended to be removed, and the
fibres are carefully tied up, as they are met with, to the stem of the plant.
By the use of the pick, d, the plant is completely undermined on three sides,
leaving the remaining side undisturbed till the iron, a, is put under the roots,
when that side is cut down, and the plant falls upon the iron ; and if not
sufficiently in the middle, it is easily slipped into the centre. If the plant
be large and heavy, an inclined plane is dug on the most convenient side of
the hole, and a rope being put into the iron handles, the plant is hauled out.
A short strong board is in some states of the ground used for this purpose,
instead of the inclined plane. The plant may then, if not too heavy, be car-
ried on a hand-barrow, which admits of the application of the strength of six
men, two between the handles, and the other four on the outside. Heavier
plants, which are to be carried any distance, are lifted on a truck with low
wheels, made strong for the purpose ; and if too heavy for this mode, as
many boards as are wanted are laid down in succession, and the plant is
hauled by the iron upon these boards to the place where it is to be planted.
The plant is invariably hauled into the new hole on the iron, which is not
removed till its proper position is ascertained ; this prevents the disturb-
ance of the ball of earth or roots. The plant is then lifted a little on one
side and the iron drawn out, earth is then filled into the level of the fibres,
which are untied and laid out straight, and the plant is earthed up. The
heaviest plants, Portugal and other laurels, eight feet and nine feet high, and
six feet or seven feet in diameter, which cannot be lifted by any strength
that can be applied without injury to the ball of earth and roots, are thus
moved with great ease and expedition, with large balls of earth, and without
any disturbance of the roots; and, consequently, the plants invariably pro-
ceed in their growth, often without experiencing the slightest check." —
(Gard. Mag. vol. ii. p. 134.)
722. Packing Evergreens. — In removing evergreens, even of small size,
and whether of the pine and fir tribe, or shrubs, the same care is requisite
not to expose their roots to the air, and to plant them as soon as possible after
they have been taken up. For this reason all evergreens, except the com-
moner kinds, such as the Scotch and one or two other pines, the commoner
spruce and silver firs, the common and Portugal laurel, the box, the juniper,
&c., should be kept by the nurseryman in pots ; and we would strongly re-
commend purchasers of evergreens to bear this in mind. When evergreen
shrubs are to be sent to a distance, they ought to be packed in such a way as
to prevent the roots from becoming dry, by surrounding their balls or pots
with moist sphagnum, and leaving their tops loose, and never tied together,
as is done in packing deciduous shrubs. Mr. McNab recommends them to be
" packed in hampers, with strong rods or stakes forming a cone round the
top, and this cone covered with a mat." The branches should never be tied
close together, because in this state, if they are long in the journey, there is
a great risk of the leaves dropping off soon after they are unpacked ; and when
this is the case, with the best management, it will be long before the plants
recover. But we refer the reader to Mr. McNab's pamphlet, which ought to
be in the hands of every gardener.
TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING. 325
723. Methods of planting small plants. — We have seen that in transplant-
ing all large plants, a pit is opened of dimensions proportionate to the size of
their roots, and this is also the case in planting single plants of small size ;
but when small plants are planted in numbers together, different modes are
adopted for the sake of expedition, and to save labour. Such of these modes
as are in general use, we shall shortly describe, premising that in almost
every case when plants are planted in considerable numbers in gardens, they
are placed in rows, but that in plantations and shrubberies they are generally
planted irregularly or in groups. The rows should in almost every case be
placed in the direction of north and south, for reasons easily understood,
when we consider the influence of the sun on the soil between the rows
and on the sides of the plants in this case, as compared with rows in the
direction of east and west. All small plants, as well as large ones, when
transplanted, are not inserted deeper in the soil than they were before
being taken up.
724. Planting with the dibber we have already (392) mentioned as suitable
for seedlings and very small plants. The soil ought to have been previously
dug, or stirred by some other means, so that the fibres of the young plant
may strike readily into it. In performing the operation, a hole is made with the
dibber with one hand, then the root of the plant is inserted to the proper depth,
and held there by the leaves, or stem, with the other hand, while, by a second
movement, the dibber is inserted by the side of the hole in such a manner as
to press in one of its sides to the root of the plant, taking care that the pres-
sure on the roots shall be greatest at its lowest extremity, and that it should
be such as to hold the plant so fast that when slightly pulled by one of its
leaves it does not come up. Large seeds, bulbs, and cuttings of tubers, or of
roots without leaves, as of the potato, Jerusalem artichoke, &c., are fre-
quently planted with the dibber, which, in these cases, is furnished with a
blunt point (fig. 18, in p. 131). Newly-rooted small cuttings, on the other
hand, are planted with small pointed sticks (fig. 1(5, n, in p. 131). All
common seedlings, such as those of the cabbage tribe, are planted with the
large dibber, and most small seedlings with the small one.
725. Planting with the trowel. — The trowel is entered in the soil perpendi-
cularly, so as to open a hole, against one side of which the plant is placed,
and the soil returned and firmly pressed against it if the soil be dry, or
gently if it be moist. Very succulent seedlings, or transplanted plants, such
as balsams or geranium cuttings, when turned out into the open border, are
planted by this mode.
726. Planting in drills. — The drill is drawn with a draw-hoe, fig. 20, in
p. 131, and large seeds such as beans, or sets such as cuttings of the potato,
are placed along the bottom at regular distances, pressing them against the
soil, and drawing the soil over them with the hoe. Root-stocks such as
those of the asparagus, and root-cuttings such as those of the sea-kale and
horse-radish, are sometimes planted in this manner.
727. Laying in by the heels is a temporary mode of planting, in which
a notch or trench is made in the soil, sufficiently deep to cover the roots of
the plants which are to be laid in it, but not their tops. An opening
or trench is made, as if the land were to be dug, and the roots of the
plants are laid in the furrow, with their tops standing out in a sloping
direction ; after which the digging is continued till the roots are covered,
and the soil is then pressed down with the foot, and another trench pre-
326 TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING.
pared. This mode of planting is employed wherever more plants are taken
out of the ground than can be immediately planted, and it is founded on
the necessity of avoiding the great injury which the fibres and spongioles
of plants sustain by exposure to the air.
728. Trench-planting is the most common mode, next to planting
with the dibber. It is used in transplanting most kinds of trees in the
nursery, and most kinds of edgings of single lines of plants. The spade is
inserted perpendicularly along the line, and a trench is opened of the
required depth, perpendicular on one side and sloping on the other ; and
the plants are placed against the perpendicular side with one hand, while,
with a spade in the other hand, or by the foot, some soil is drawn over
their roots ; after which the trench is filled up by the spade, the surface
levelled, and the line lifted and placed at a suitable distance, for a second
trench. In general, this mode of planting is carried on simultaneously with
digging or trenching ; trenching being used for plants having very large roots,
such as rhubarb, sea-kale, horse-radish, &c. In planting box and other
edgings to walks, by shallow trenches, the ground along the line of the
intended edging is first dug to a uniform depth and width, and the soil is
well broken, so as to be of an equal degree of fineness ; it is then com-
pressed by treading or beating, so as to be rendered uniformly firm along
the intended line of plants. The line being now stretched, a notch or
trench is made along it, generally on the side next the walk, perpendi-
cular to the surface, and of the depth of the roots of the box or other plants.
The box is now laid in against the perpendicular side of the trench, using
both hands, while the roots are covered with soil by drawing it up against
them, with a spade or the foot, so as to keep the plants in their place. The
remaining quantity of soil necessary to support the plants, and to earth
them up as high on the walk side as on the border side, is then brought
forward with the spade, and the work is completed by firmly treading the
soil to the plants with the foot.
729. Slit-planting is effected by inserting the trowel or the spade perpen-
dicularly, moving it backwards and forwards an inch or two, and then
withdrawing it. In the open slit thus left a plant is inserted, and the sides
brought together, when the slit is not deep, by treading with the foot; but,
when it is deep, by inserting the trowel or spade on one side, so as to press
one side of the slit against the other throughout its whole depth. Young
forest-trees are frequently planted in this manner on unprepared soil, and
sometimes seedlings with long taproots in gardens.
730. Hole-planting. — Two men, or a man and a boy, are required for this
operation. The ground being dug or trenched, and the width of the rows
and the distance between the plants in the rows fixed on, a hole is opened
by the man, and the soil thrown aside ; a plant is then placed in the hole
by the boy, and held there till its roots are covered by a spadeful of soil,
which is taken out, so as to form the second hole. The plant is held
upright, while the soil is being thrown in over the roots, and it is afterwards
fixed by pressure with the feet. A third hole is opened, and a second plant
inserted in the same manner till the work is completed.
731. Planting in pits. — A pit is dug somewhat larger than the estimated
swe of the roots which are to be placed in it ; and, if in garden or trenched
soil, it may be made immediately before planting ; but if in firm unculti-
vated soil, as is frequently the case in forest-planting, it should be made
TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING. 327
some months, or even a year or more before, in order that the soil in the
bottom or sides of the pit, and that which has been taken out, and is to be
returned to it, may receive the benefit of the weather (709). When the
pit is dry, the soil in the bottom is loosened ; and before planting, a portion
of the surface soil taken out is thrown in and mixed with it, and raised up
so as to form a slight long convex surface in the centre of the pit, the apex
of which shall be nearly level with the surface of the ground. On this
cone the plant is placed, with its roots spread out regularly on every side ;
the soil is then thrown in over them, and in doing this the soil should
be made to fall either perpendicularly, or spread so as not to reverse
the direction of the fibres, as is too frequently done when the soil is
thrown with a force from the circumference of the hole towards the
stem. The plant being gently shaken, if necessary, to settle the soil
among the fibres, the whole is finished in the form of a cone, rising
a few inches above the adjoining surface ; having been previously conso-
lidated by treading with the feet. This is the most general mode of
planting transplanted trees of from five feet to ten feet in height, whe-
ther in the garden, the orchard, the pleasure-ground, or a plantation of
forest- trees. In all these departments great care is requisite that the collar
of the plant, when the operation is finished, should stand somewhat above
the general surface of the ground ; because, otherwise, the sinking of the
soil, which must inevitably take place, would bury it underneath the sur-
face ; and the evils of this have already been shown (6).
732. Hole-planting and fixing with water. — Pits are prepared as in the
last mode ; and while one man holds the tree in the proper position, the
roots having been previously spread out, a second man throws in soil, and a
third pours in water from the spout of a watering-pot, held as high above
his head as his arms will reach, in order to add to its force in falling on the
soil, and settling in about the roots of the plant. This is an admirable mode
of planting those trees that have numerous fibrous roots ; particularly if the
trees be from ten feet to twenty feet, or twenty-five feet in height.
733. Planting in puddle. — The pit being dug in the usual manner, water
is poured into it, and soil stirred in till the pit is half full of mud, or pud-
dle. The roots of the tree are then inserted, and worked about, so as to
distribute them as equally as possible through the watery mass. More
puddle, previously prepared, is then thrown in, and the roots again shaken,
and the whole is finished with dry soil. This mode is well adapted for
trees of from ten feet to twenty feet in height, when planted in a dry sandy
soil ; but it is not suitable for a soil with a retentive bottom, as that would
retain the water, and rot the roots.
734. Planting out plants which have been grown in pots. — In preparing the
pit, regard should be had to the probable length of the roots coiled round
the inside of the pot ; and a sufficient surface of soil should be prepared on
which to stretch them out. Unless this is carefully done, the plant, if it
has numerous roots matted together, will make little more progress in the
free soil than what it did in the pot ; because the check given to the de-
scending sap by the numerous convolutions of the fibres, prevents them,
so long as they remain in that state, from requiring the strength of under-
ground branches, which they would otherwise do. This attention to spread-
ing out the roots of plants transplanted from pots is more especially neces-
sary in all those kinds which do not make vigorous tap-roots, such as the
328 TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING.
pine and fir tribe ; but it should not be neglected in any class of plants
whatever. It frequently happens, that the roots of pines and firs, which
have been three or four years in pots, when stretched out, are six or eight
feet in length ; and these ought to be planted in a shallow pit, not less
than from twelve to sixteen feet in diameter. On the other hand, in places
of limited extent, where it is desirable to keep trees and shrubs of diminu-
tive size, they may be planted in the pots, or with the balls undisturbed,
in order to keep them stunted or dwarfed.
735. Watering, mulching, and staking newly-planted plants should, in
general, never be neglected where the plants are of large size ; not so much
to supply moisture to the fibres, as to consolidate the soil about the roots ;
and in the case of evergreens, which are all the year in a growing state,
it should be copiously supplied (718) for both purposes. Where it is con-
sidered requisite to continue the watering after the plant has been planted,
a pan or basin should be formed round it, of somewhat larger diameter than
the pit in which the plant was placed, into which the water may be poured
so as to ensure its descent to the roots. To lessen evaporation from this
basin, or from the soil round newly-planted plants, it may be mulched ; that
is, covered with any loose open material, such as litter, leaves, or spent
tanners' bark ; or, in firm soil, with reversed turf, small stones, large
gravel, or tiles. The last three materials have the advantage of speedily
evaporating the water which falls on them in consequence of their smooth
surfaces ; and hence, they are used in the case of mulching geraniums, and
other tender succulent-stemmed plants, when planted out during summer,
to prevent their stems from rotting off between wind and water. All newly-
planted plants that are in danger of having their roots disturbed by the
wind, require to be tied to stakes, or otherwise securely fixed ; the different
modes of doing which have been already mentioned. The best description
of stake is that which, while it keeps the roots of the plant perfectly firm
and secure, allows the top and the upper part of the stem, supposing the
latter to be flexible, to be put in gentle motion by the wind.
736. Taking up previously to planting. — It must be constantly borne in
mind that the food of plants is taken up by the delicate extremities or spon-
gioles of their fibres, which the slightest tear or bruise will destroy ; that
these mouths will only act when the soil in which they are placed is in a
moist state, and that they are easily rendered useless to the plant by being
kept for any length of time exposed to dry air. Hence, in taking up trees,
and, particularly those of small size, such as are grown for sale in the nur-
series, the roots should be separated from the soil with the greatest care, by
previously loosening it at a distance from the stem, and never forcibly drawing
the roots out of the soil till this has been done, as is too commonly practised
in nurseries. It is true we cannot expect to remove all the fibres of a plant
of any size uninjured, but by great care we may save the principal part of
them. For this purpose a round-pronged blunt fork should generally be
used for taking up trees instead of a spade, and the roots, as soon as they are
out of the soil, should be covered with a mat, or some other protecting ma-
terial, to prevent them from being dried by the air. When a tree has
remained some years in the same situation, its main roots will have pene-
trated so deep into the soil, and its lateral roots have extended so far in a
horizontal direction, that both will require to be cut ; but this ought alwa.ys
to be done as far from the main stem of the plant as possible ; and in propor-
POTTING AND REPOTTING OR SHIFTING. 329
tion to the number of distant fibres cut off by this means, care should be
taken of those which are within reach, and which may be removed unin-
jured. Whenever trees of numerous roots are removed, some of them can
hardly fail to be broken or bruised, and they should be smoothly cut through
above the injured part, in order that they may be speedily healed over. Care
should be taken in spreading out the roots to allow none to cross one another;
and if this cannot be avoided by any other means, recourse must be had to
amputation. Cross roots do little harm when young, but, as in the case of
branches, they gall one another as they get large. All young and rapidly-
growing plants require a larger proportion of fibrous roots, compared with
their bulk, than large plants, and these roots are also nearer to the main
stem ; and, hence, a young tree can always be taken up with a greater mass
of fibres than an old one. When the tops of plants are secured from evapo-
ration, the roots may be kept comparatively dry ; but when the top is fully
exposed to drying winds, the roots should be kept moist ; and in the case of
newly- transplanted trees it is useful to sprinkle water on the tops to prevent
the bark from absorbing the returning sap. Where it is not convenient to
supply water, the steins and principal branches may be tied round with straw
ropes, or covered with moss.
737. As a summary of general rules for planting, it may be stated that
early in autumn, when the soil has not parted with its summer heat, is the
best season for trees and shrubs, and open-air plants generally, with the
exception of annuals ; that roots should be placed by art as much as possible
in the same position in which they would be by nature, that is, with the
collar at the surface, and the points of the roots and fibres more or less under
it, and in a descending, rather than in an ascending, direction ; that the hole
or pit in which plants are placed should always be made larger than the
roots which it is to contain; and in the case of large plants convex at bottom
and not concave, that the plant being placed on the centre of this convexity,
and the roots spread out in every direction, the soil, finely pulverised, ought
to be gently thrown over them, either by dropping it perpendicularly, or
throwing it in a direction from the centre to the circumference ; that the
plant should not be pulled from side to side or up and down, in order to
settle the earth about, the roots, as was formerly practised with that view,
but the effect of which was to break, bruise, or double the fibres; and,
finally, that the soil should be settled about the roots by one thorough
watering at the time of planting, and that this watering, in the case of de-
ciduous trees, at least, need not in general be repeated.
§ II. Potting and Repotting or Shifting.
738. To pot a plant is to sow or plant it in a pot, box, or tub ; and to re-
pot or shift it, is to turn it out of one pot or box, and replace it in the same
or in another, with the addition of fresh soil. The mass of soil and roots
which is to be shifted is termed a ball. If the object is to add fresh soil,
without using a larger pot, then a proportionate quantity must be removed
from the ball or mass containing the roots of the plant to be repotted ; but
if the object be to add fresh soil without disturbing the roots, the mass or
ball of soil and roots is simply placed in a pot a size larger than that from
which it was taken, and the vacant space between the ball and the pot filled
330 POTTING AND REPOTTING OB SHIFTING.
up with soil. If the object should be to grow the plant in a smaller pot than
that in which it was before, then the ball must be considerably reduced, so
as to be somewhat smaller than the pot in which it is to be placed, in order
to allow room for some fresh soil. The implements, utensils, &c., necessary
for potting are : a bench or table, either fixed or portable, and which must
be perfectly level ; pots, tubs, or boxes; broken pots, oyster- shells, or other
materials for drainage ; proper soils, a trowel, a small dibber, a spade, and a
watering-pot and water.
739. The main object of growing pfants in pots is to render them portable,
by which a greater command is obtained in the application to them of the
agents of growth and culture, and by which they can be transported at
pleasure from one place to another, whether for purposes of use or ornament.
A plant in a pot may be kept dry or moist, placed in heat or in cold, in the
shade or in the sun, in the open garden, the plant- house, or in the living
room, at pleasure. By limiting the size of the pot or box, and the quantity
of soil in it, the plants can be grown of much smaller size than when they
are planted in the free soil ; and hence the great number of exotic trees and
shrubs which can be maintained within a very limited space in plant-struc-
tures. In consequence of the roots of each plant being confined to its own
pot, the weakest-growing sorts can be grown side by side by the strongest,
without injury to either. Were there no means of growing hothouse and
greenhouse plants but by planting them in beds or borders under glass, a
very few plants would soon fill the largest house, and though they might be
pruned both at top and at root to keep them within bounds, yet this could
never be done so effectually as by placing each plant in a separate pot or
box, by which its growth is on the one hand limited by the quantity of soil
in the pot, and on the other not checked or suffocated by the interference of
the roots of any other plants which may adjoin it. There are various other
advantages which result from growing plants in pots, such as stunting the
entire plant by the limited supply of nourishment, and thus causing it to
produce flowers at an earlier age, and when of a smaller size, than it would
do in the free soil ; enabling us to transfer plants in pots to the free soil at
any season, and without interrupting their growth ; to pack and send them
to a distance, without injury to their roots ; to grow them in particular
kinds of soil, to subject them to experiments, and in the case of seedlings
grown in pots either singly or in quantities, to transplant them with the
whole of their fibres and spongioles.
740. The disadvantages of growing plants in pots are : the constant attend-
ance which is requisite to preserve the soil in a uniform state of moisture
and temperature, and to remove the plant from one pot to another when
additional space for the roots becomes requisite, or when the soil contained
in the pot becomes impoverished. We have seen (255 to 257, and again in
421) in what manner plants in pots, the sides of which are exposed to the
air, are deprived of heat and moisture, and of the former to such a degree as
to reduce the temperature of the soil of the pot considerably lower than that
of the atmosphere in which it is placed ; and there can be no difficulty in
conceiving how the soil in the pot is impoverished. The loss of heat and
moisture are to be counteracted by plunging the pot in soil or other earthy
matter, or by encasing it in any non-conducting material, or placing one pot
within another, and filling the interstices with moist moss or any other
POTTING AND REPOTTING OR SHIFTING. 331
material which will retain moisture, fig. 259. The exhaustion of the
soil is remedied by re-potting, or in some cases by the application of
a manure ; either solid on the surface of the soil,
in the pots, or in a liquid state poured on the soil,
or contained in a saucer in which the pot is placed.
Notwithstanding all these resources, plants in
pots, excepting those naturally of small size, never
grow so luxuriantly as those in the free soil, and
therefore this mode of growing plants is adopted for
convenience, or to make up for defects in climate,
or want of space in plant-tructures, and not in
general to bring plants to a higher degree of per-
Fig. 2.~>9. One pot placed within ^ ^ •
another, for the purpose of
retaining the soil in the inner 741. Potting. — Plants are either sown in pots,
pot in a moist state. planted in them when newly originated from seeds,
cuttings, or other modes of propagation; or removed to them from the free soil
when of considerable size. When a rooted plant placed in a pot has begun to
grow, its fibres extending in every direction, soon reach the sides of the pot,
where, being checked, they are compelled to follow its sides, till, after a short
time, they form a net-work between the pot and the earth which it contains ;
so firmly enveloping the latter, that when turned out, it remains entire as one
solid body, or, as it is technically called, ball. As the roots in young plants
are commonly few, and proceed in direct lines from the stem of the plant to
the sides of the pot, it happens when the ball is large, and the plant of rapid
growth, that the interior of the ball contains few roots, and, consequently,
that the soil there is, in a great measure, lost to the plants. To prevent this
from being the case, plants when first potted are planted in pots of the smallest
size, by which the full benefit of the whole of the soil in the first pot is certain
of being obtained ; while there is no danger of this being the case when the
plant is shifted into larger pots, because each time that this is done there is
only a thin stratum of soil introduced between the ball and the pot. An-
other reason why plants are first potted in the smallest sized pots in which
they can be planted, is, that the drainage is more perfect, and that the soil
is more readily penetrated by heat, whether of the atmosphere, or of the
material in which it may be plunged. When a large mass of rich, soft,
finely-sifted soil is brought together and compressed, as it ahvays is in a
pot, it parts with water so slowly as to become sodden for want of air ; and
in that case it rots the spongioles of the fibres, and even the fibres them-
selves. A small portion of soil, on the other hand, retains less moisture, is
readily pierced by the roots, and kept comparatively open by them ; and
hence the fibres and their spongioles are uninjured. If, instead of rich, soft,
soil, readily compressed, a comparatively poor, sandy soil were used, the
smallest plants might be planted in the largest pots, without any danger
of rotting the roots; though with great want of economy in regard to soil,
space, and future management. By beginning with small-sized pots,
and shifting into others, gradually increasing in size, the full benefit of all
the soil put in the pot will have been obtained, and the plant stimulated by
every fresh addition to its roots, to increase its leaves and shoots.
742. The same soil which is suitable for the open garden is not always
suitable for using in pots. — Every gardener must have observed that soil
that will remain sufficiently open for the roots of plants in the quarters of
332 POTTING AND REPOTTING OR SHIFTING.
a kitchen -garden, or even when placed in a hotbed, becomes too compact
when used in pots, even though it receives as much watering in the one case
as in the other. The fact is thus explained by a correspondent : — When
the nature of the soil is such as that the cohesion of its particles is greater
than that which is formed between the soil and sides of the pot, it loses hold
of the latter, and becomes concentrated by every withdrawal of moisture,
leaving an almost clear cavity between it and the sides of the pot, and this
cavity being readily filled with water, the soil is prevented from expanding
in a degree proportionate to the force that would be necessary to displace
the water. In addition to this, the fibres of the plant tend to bind it
together, and it ultimately becomes so much solidified that it either refuses
to take in sufficient moisture ; or, if it does, it retains it so as to prevent the
ingress of a fresh supply ; whilst at the same time the water so retained
becomes impure, and consequently injurious to the health of the plant.
A similar quantity of soil in the quarter from which the above soil is
supposed to be taken will be found in a very different state ; for there it is
kept from contracting on any central portion by its cohesion with the soil in
the circumference. Hence the necessity of using such soil for plants in
pots as is not too cohesive ; or at all events weakening its cohesive power
by mixture with sand, peat, turf, or other substances that may be found to
answer the purpose, and at the same time afford congenial nourishment to
the plants. And as glazed pots afford less hold for the soil than those with
a rougher surface, it is probable they are on that account objectionable.
743. Bottom Drainage. — Whether plants are put in small or large pots,
the first point which requires to be attended to is to cover the hole in the
bottom of the pot with some description of material which will readily allow
of the escape of water, and if possible prevent the entrance of earth-worms,
(296). The article commonly used is fragments of broken pots, which
being always, excepting in the case of pot-bottoms, portions of a curved
surface, never can cover the hole so closely as to prevent the escape of
water. One crock, somewhat larger than the hole, is placed over it, and over
that is placed a layer of smaller pieces, in depth more or less according to the
size of the pot and the degree of drainage wanted ; and to prevent the soil
which is to be placed above from being washed down into this drainage, it is
commonly covered with a layer of fibrous or turfy matter obtained from
turfy soil, or with live moss. In the case of small plants requiring nothing more
than ordinary care, a single crock, or in large pots a single oyster-shell, placed
over the hole in the bottom of the pot is generally found sufficient ; but in
very delicate plants, a fourth, a third, or even half the pot is filled with
drainage. This, as we have seen (584), is more particularly the case in
planting cuttings in pots.
744. The mode of sowing or planting in a pot has nothing peculiar in it. A
small dibber, fig. 16 n, in p. 131, is commonly used for planting seedlings of
the smallest size ; the pot being previously drained, and filled full of soil
gently pressed down. In planting larger seedlings, or rooted cuttings, the pot
is drained, filled one-third or one-half with soil, raised a little in the middle,
and while the plant is placed on this soil and held upright with one hand, the
fibres are spread over the somewhat conical surface of the soil with the other ;
and afterwards the same hand is employed in taking up soil with a trowel and
filling it in over the roots, shaking up the latter a little, till the pot is full.
The pot is now taken up with both hands, and set down with ajar once or twice
POTTING AND REPOTTING OR SHIFTING. 333
on the potting bench, so as to consolidate the soil in the pot. A little soil is
next added or taken off, so as to leave the pot filled to the rim ; and a little
water is then given, unless the soil is considered already sufficiently moist for
the state of the plants. The potted plants, if in leaf, are placed in a still
atmosphere, with or without heat and shade, as may be deemed necessary.
If they are without leaves very little extra care is necessary, farther than
setting the pots on a level surface, that the plants may grow erect and that
the pots may retain water ; the surface being composed of materials which
will not admit of worms rising through it, and ascending the pots through
the holes in their bottoms, which they are very apt to do. When pots are
plunged in the free soil, they are not nearly so liable to be penetrated by
worms as when they stand on its surface.
745. In transplanting from the free soil into a pot or box, the plant, if in
leaf, is commonly taken up with a ball adjusted to the size of the pot ; and
to fit such plants for removal, their main roots are frequently cut by the
spade, a week or two before taking up, at a short distance from the
stem, so as that the wounded parts may be within the limits of the ball.
This lessens the check to vegetation which would otherwise be given by
taking up the plant, and may be usefully applied in the case of many
plants which are removed from the open border to the green-house late in
autumn.
746. Care of newly potted or shifted plants. — As the absorption of moisture
by the spongioles is necessarily checked by the disturbance of the roots,
occasioned by taking up the plants and replanting them, so must also be the
perspiration of the leaves by the diminished supply of moisture. To lessen
this perspiration, therefore, where there is danger of it proving injurious, the
plants must be placed in a still humid atmosphere, by watering the surface
on which the pots are set, and then covering them with mats, or by placing
them in a close frame, and if necessary, shading them from the sun, and sup-
plying extra heat. The more delicate kinds may be placed for a short time
on a hot-bed, but the hardier plants will succeed very well if merely sheltered
by being hooped over and shaded by any slight covering for a day or two,
taking care to remove it at night, and during still, cloudy weather ; while
the hardiest merely require the shade of a hedge or a wall. The most
difficult plants to manage, after being potted, are large herbaceous plants, or
large-leaved free-growing greenhouse plants, which have been grown during
summer in the open garden, such as stocks, dahlias, brugmansias, &c.
These are very apt to lose their leaves after being taken up and potted,
whether kept in the open air or in a frame or pit. The only mode of
averting this evil is to begin early in the autumn to check their growth, by
(Jutting off all their main roots at a short distance from the stem, and repeat-
ing the operation once or twice before taking up ; by these means the
growth will be checked, and they will produce no more leaves before being
taken up than they are able to support after being potted.
747. Shifting or Re-potting. — In re-potting in the same pot, the ball or
mass of soil and roots being turned out of the pot, the soil is shaken away
from the roots either wholly or in part ; the greater part of the roots more or
less cut in, but leaving a few with their fibres and spongioles, to support the
plant till it produces new fibres, and the pot being properly drained, the
plant is potted much in the same way as it would be planted in the free
soil ; care being taken that the soil is properly introduced and settled among
I
334 POTTING AND REPOTTING OR SHIFTING.
all the roots. In shifting from a small pot into a larger one, the larger pot
being drained and prepared, the ball is turned out of the smaller pot by
turning it upside down, and while holding it in that position, with the ball
resting on the palm of the left hand, with the stem of the plant between two
of the fingers, striking it gently against the edge of the potting bench, so as
to cause the ball to separate from the pot. The ball being now in the left hand,
and turned upside down, remove the drainage from it with the right, then
reverse it, and place it in the larger pot, filling in the vacant space all round
with fresh soil, gently compressing it by working it in with the trowel or a
wooden spatula. In shifting from a large pot to a smaller, the ball being taken
out of the large pot must either be reduced equally on every side and on the
bottom, by paring off a portion of the roots and soil, including of course
almost all the spongioles, or the soil must be shaken off from the roots
entirely, the roots cut in, and the plants inserted in the smaller pot among
fresh soil. In shifting plants from one pot to another, care should in general
be taken not to place the collar of the stem deeper in the new pot than it was
before in the old one, excepting in the case of plants which root readily from
the stem, such as balsams and a few others ; but in general, in pots as in the
open ground, the stem should rise from a gentle eminence, and the ramifica-
tions of the upper roots, where they depart from the stem, be seen above the
soil. By this means the descent of the sap to the roots is not checked by the
pressure of the soil on the collar, and the ramifications of the roots become
much stronger, and covered with a thicker bark.
748. Seasons and times for potting and shifting. — Small plants may be
potted at any growing season; but the most favourable are spring and
autumn, and the least so mid- winter, even under glass, owing to the absence
of light. Shifting also may be performed in any season ; but the most suit-
able for established plants is just before they commence their annual growth ;
while young rapidly-growing plants may be shifted from time to time as
long as they continue growing. Slow-growing woody plants are seldom
shifted oftener than once a year, unless it is desired to accelerate their
growth; but rapid-growing plants, such as pelargoniums, and such annuals
as the balsam, cockscomb, &c., are shifted many times in a single season,
beginning, more especially in the case of the balsam, with a pot of the
smallest size, such as No. 1], which is li inches in diameter (420), and
gradually increasing the size as the plant advances in growth, till from being
2 inches high in a pot of the same height in April, it is 3 feet or 4 feet high
in a pot 1 foot in diameter in June or July. By heat and frequent shifting
for upwards of a year, pelargoniums are grown so as to form bushes 3 feet or
more in diameter in pots of not more than 8 inches or 10 inches across. Pine-
apples are grown to a large size in comparatively small pots, but the soil
employed is rich and frequently supplied with liquid manure.
749. The most difficult plants to manage in pots are the hair-rooted
kinds, such as all the Ericaceae, and many Cape and Australian shrubs, requir-
ing sandy peat soil, which must be well drained, and kept uniformly
moderately moist, but never either soaked with water, or very dry. The
drainage must be so perfect as to prevent the possibility of water stagnating in
the soil ; and while the nature of this soil, sand and peat, readily permits the
water to pass through it to the drainage below, the porous sides of the pot
incessantly carry off moisture by evaporation, and the more so as heaths
require to be kept in a rather dry atmosphere. The roots of heaths, and
PRUNING. 335
indeed all hair-like roots, are as readily destroyed by over-dryness as by
moisture, and hence the continual risk of danger to this description of plants
when grown in pots. To guard against the extremes of dryness and mois-
ture, the pots when small are sometimes plunged in sand or moss, or placed
in double pots ; or when the plants are large, shifted into wooden boxes (423),
which not being great conductors both of heat and moisture, are more
congenial to the roots of all plants. To guard against excess of moisture on
the one hand, and the want of it on the other, two very ingenious and use-
ful practices have been introduced into the culture of heaths and heath-like
plants in pots, by Mr. M'Nab. The first is, always to keep the collar of
the stem of the plant a few lines above the general surface of the pots, in
consequence of which it is always dry, and not liable to be chilled by evapo-
ration, or rotted off by the stagnation of moisture ; and the second consists
in mixing with the soil fragments of any coarse, porous stone, from one inch
to four or five inches in diameter, such as freestone, which retaining more
moisture than the soil, gives it out to the latter when it becomes too dry;
arid thus a temporary neglect of watering is not attended with the sudden
destruction of the plant, which without these reservoirs of moisture it often
is. To counteract the effects of evaporation from the sides of pots, and of
sudden changes of atmospheric temperature, the French gardeners very
generally employ wooden boxes, even for small plants. Glazed pots have
also been proposed to be employed in this country, as in China, by Mr.
Forsyth (Gard. Chron., 1841, p. 499); but they have not yet been suffi-
ciently tried to admit of our generally recommending them. Mr. Knight
is of opinion that, though some plants are injured by having the sides of
their pots fully exposed to the air, yet that the taste and flavour of the
peach and nectarine, and still more of the strawberry, are greatly improved
by it, as well as the period of the maturity of their fruit accelerated. (Hort.
Trans, vii., p. 258.)
750. Growing hardy plants in pots, and especially the more rare kinds
of trees and shrubs, for the purpose of transport, and to insure success when
they are finally planted out, is one of the most useful purposes to which the
potting of plants can be applied. We have already (722) recommended all
the more valuable evergreens, and especially those of the pine and fir tribe,
only to be purchased in pots ; and the same observations will apply to such
deciduous trees and shrubs as make few fibrous roots, such as the Magnolia,
and to most rare and valuable herbaceous plants. The care requisite to be
taken in transplanting into the open ground plants which have been some
years in pots, has also been enlarged on (734). Either the fibrous roots of
plants which have for some time been grown in pots should be stretched out
at full length, or, if they are too brittle for that purpose, a portion of them
should be left as they are to absorb nourishment, and a portion shortened or
pruned, in order to produce new fibres to become roots, branching out in
every direction. When this is neglected, more especially with trees or
shrubs which produce chiefly surface-roots, such as the pine and fir tribe,
or which produce few roots, such as the Magnolm, they will often, after
being transplanted into the free soil, remain in a stunted state for many
years.
§ III. Pruning.
751. Pruning consists in depriving a plant of a portion of its branches,
buds, leaves, bark, or roots, in order to produce particular effects on the
z 2
336 PRUNING.
part of the plant which remains. The different kinds of pruning may be
included under knife-pruning, which is applied to small branches ; lopping,
which is applied to large branches ; clipping, which is applied to small
shoots in masses; and disbudding, disleafing, and disbarking, which are
applied to buds, leaves, and bark. Girdling and felling may also be included
in this section. The instruments necessary for these operations are chiefly
the pruning-knife, the bill, the saw, the cutting- shears, and the clipping-
shears ; but there are some other instruments, such as the priming-chisel,
the averruncator, the girdling machine, &c., which are occasionally used for
peculiar purposes (see figs. 40 to 50, in pages 137 to 142).
752. The specific principles on which pruning is founded, and its general
effects, are these : — The nutriment of plants is absorbed from the soil by their
roots, and formed into leaves, branches, flowers, and fruit, by their buds ; by
operating on the buds and roots, therefore, we can regulate what is produced
by them. If the stem and branches of a plant contain a hundred buds, by
removing half of these the shoots or fruits produced by the remainder will be
supplied with double their former supply of nourishment ; and if all the buds
be removed but one, the whole of the sap sent up by the roots will be modi-
fied by that single bud, provided care be taken to remove other buds as
they appear. On the other hand, when the whole of the buds of a tree are
so abundantly supplied with sap from the roots as to produce chiefly leaves
or shoots without blossoms, then by cutting off a portion of the roots the
supply of sap is lessened, a moderate degree of vigour is produced, and
instead of barren shoots, blossom-buds appear. By these means the growth
of plants is controlled by pruning. Pruning has not the power to increase
the vigour of an entire plant, because it cannot increase the quantity of food
taken up by the roots; but it can diminish the vigour of the entire tree by
cutting off part of the roots, or it can increase the vigour of particular parts of
the tree, by amputating the branches, or taking off the buds at other parts.
Pruning can prevent trees from producing flowers, and hence increase their
general vigour and longevity. It can modify the general form of trees as
well as increase particular parts of them, and it can add to the vigour of
stunted or diseased trees by concentrating their sap, or directing it to a few
buds instead of a great many. One of the most useful effects of pruning is
to cause the development of dormant or adventitious buds, which is effected
by amputating the shoot, branch, or stem, close above any point where visible
buds are usually situated, though they may now be wanting there.
753. In forest-trees pruning is of the greatest use in modifying the
quantity of timber produced. Thus by commencing when the tree is
quite young, and shortening the side branches and encouraging the leading
shoot, the whole of the timber produced is thrown into a main stem ;
whereas had no pruning been employed, great part of the wood might have
been distributed in branches of little use, excepting as fuel. On the other
hand, should crooked timber be desired, pruning by destroying the leading
shoot, and encouraging those that have a suitable direction, tends to attain
the end in view ; and by the aid of training this end can be completely
effected. Trees which are stunted in their growth from being hide-bound
(a disease which is brought on by the sudden exposure of trees to the
weather after they have been drawn up by shelter, and in the case of
young trees by being planted of too large a size in proportion to their roots),
may in general be made to shoot vigorously by being cut down or headed-in.
PRUNIiNG. 337
On the other hand, trees which are in particular situations, where it is
feared they will grow too large, may be arrested in their growth, or stunted
by amputating the larger roots.
754. For ornamental trees pruning is chiefly employed to remove
diseased branches, because much of the effect of these trees depends on the
development of their natural form and character, which pruning with a view
to timber has in general a tendency to counteract ; but for all ornamental
trees, grown chiefly for their flowers or fruit, pruning can be as usefully
applied as in the case of fruit-trees ; and where ornamental hedges and
other verdant architectural structures are to be grown, pruning by the bill
or the shears is essential.
755. For ornamental shrubs pruning cannot be dispensed with, since
many of them are grown for their flowers, which are produced much
stronger and of brighter colours when the shoots are thinned out, or shortened,
or both ; and when the plants are prevented from exhausting themselves by
the removal of decaying blossoms, so as to prevent them from maturing their
seeds. Every one knows the value of pruning to the rose, and to all shrubs
with double blossoms, and shrubs with large blossoms, such as the Magnolia
or the passion-flower.
756. Fruit-trees and shrubs are above all other plants benefited by
pruning, which is indeed by far the most important part of their culture.
The most general object of pruning is to create an abundant supply of sap
during summer by the production of leaf-shoots, by which the general
strength of the tree is augmented, and to limit the distribution of this sap
when it ascends from the roots in the following spring, by diminishing the
number of buds. The effect of this is to increase the vigour of the shoots
or fruits produced by these buds ; and if this be done in such a manner as
to obtain also the greatest advantages from light and air, the pruning will
have answered its purpose. If a fruit-tree were not deprived every year
of a part of the wood or the buds which it produces, its shoots and fruits
would gradually diminish in size, and though the fruit would be more
numerous it would be deficient in succulence and flavour, as we find to be
the case in old neglected orchard trees. The application of pruning
to fruit-trees differs so much according to the species of tree that the subject
can only be properly treated by taking each class separately. Thus kernel
fruits which are produced on wood of two or more years' growth, require to
be pruned in a different manner from such fruits as the peach, which is
produced from the shoots of the preceding year ; or the grape, which is pro-
duced from the shoots of the current year. The production of blossoms, or
the enlargement of fruits and the acceleration of their maturity by ringing,
is a species of pruning peculiarly applicable to fruit-trees.
757. To herbaceous plants pruning is applicable, not only when they are
being transplanted, when both roots and top are frequently cut in, but also to
fruit-bearing kinds, such as the melon tribe, the tomato, &c. Pruning is
even useful to the cabbage tribe when it is wished that, after the head is cut
off, the stem should throw out sprouts, which is found to be accelerated
by splitting it down an inch or two. The topping of beans, and the picking
off of potato blossoms, are operations belonging to pruning ; as are the cutting
off of withered flowers for the sake of neatness, or to prevent the production
of seed, and even the mowing of grass lawns. Having noticed the uses of
pruning in culture, we shall next shortly describe the different kinds in use in
338 PRUNING.
British gardens and plantations. These may be included under close-pruning,
shortening-in, fore- shortening, spurring-in, heading-in, lopping, snag-
lopping, lopping-in, stopping, pinching out, disbarking, disbudding, disleaf-
ing, slitting, bruising or tearing, root pruning, girdling, and felling.
753. Close pruning consists in cutting off shoots close to the branch or stem
from whence they spring, leaving as small a section as possible in order that
it maybe speedily healed over. In performing the operation care should be
taken to make the wounded section no larger than the base of the shoot, in
order that it may be healed over as quickly as possible ; and at the same
time to make it no smaller, because this would leave latent buds which
would be liable to be developed, and thus occasion the operation to be per-
formed a second time. This mode of pruning is only adopted where the
object is to produce stems or trunks clear of branches or of any kind of pro-
tuberance, as in the case of standard trees in gardens, especially fruit-trees,
and in the case of forest-trees, grown for their timber. If the branch cut off
is under an inch in diameter, the wound will generally heal over in two
seasons, and in this case the timber sustains no practical injury ; but if it is
larger, it will probably begin to decay in the centre, and thus occasion a
blemish in the timber. Mr. Cree's mode of pruning forest-trees grown with
a view to the production of straight timber, which appears to us to be
decidedly the best, is an application of this mode. Mr. Cree commences his
operations before the tree has been taken from the nursery, and continues
them till he has obtained a clear trunk, of such a height as he thinks the
kind of tree will produce of a useful timber size, in the climate and soil
where it is planted. He cuts off no branches whatever till the tree has
attained the height of from sixteen to twenty feet,*with a stem of from fifteen
to eighteen inches in circumference at the surface of the ground ; but during
the growth of the tree to that height he shortens in the side branches when-
ever they extend farther than between three and four feet from the trunk.
In consequence of being thus shortened, these shoots do not, so long as they
are allowed to remain on the tree, attain a greater diameter at their depar-
ture from the trunk than about an inch. The tree having attained its six-
teenth, eighteenth, or twentieth year, its head forms a narrow cone, clothed
with branches from the ground to the summit. Its pruning is now com-
menced by taking off one tier of branches annually, commencing with the
lowest, cutting close to the stem, generally just before midsummer, that the
wound may be partially healed over the same season, and continuing to do
this annually till the stem has grown and been cleared to the required
height. While the process of clearing the stem is going on below, that of
shortening in the side branches is going on above, so as to preserve the
narrow conical shape, and prevent any of the branches which are to be cut
off from attaining a greater diameter than an inch. The trunk being at last
cleared to the proper height, the head over the cleared part is left in the form
of a cone, and no longer touched with the averruncator. The head now, by
degrees, takes its natural form, and continues growing in that form till the
tree is felled. The detail of this mode of pruning will be found given by
Mr. Cree in the Gardener s Magazine for 1841 ; and a mode nearly similar is
described by Mr. Main in the volume of the same work for 1 832. We have only
to repeat that we consider this system as by far the most efficient for pruning
forest trees, where the production of timber in a clean straight stem is the
object. The quantity of timber produced will not be so great as in the case of
PRUNING. 339
a tree standing alone, and throwing out its branches uncontrolled on every
side, because the quantity of foliage produced, and properly exposed to the
light, will not be nearly so great ; but it must be recollected, that the timber
produced will be in a more useful form, and besides, that Mr. Cree's tree is
supposed to form one of a close plantation. When we consider this last
circumstance, it must, we think, appear obvious, that by no other mode of
pruning could an equal quantity of foliage be exposed to the light in so
limited a space, and consequently so large a bulk of timber be produced in
that space.
759. Shortening-in is the term applied when side shoots are shortened at the
distance of from two to four or five feet from the stem, the cut being always
made to a bud (545). Exceeding that distance it is called fore-shortening,
and is chiefly applicable to timber-trees in hedge rows ; and under that
distance it is called spurring-in. We have seen the use of shortening-in, in
connexion with close pruning, in the case of forest- trees, in the preceding
paragraph. In the culture of fruit-trees, it is applied in connexion with
spurring-in, to produce trees of conical forms with branches which, never
being allowed to attain a timber size, are prolific in fruit-bearing spurs.
Whenever the branches exceed two inches in diameter, they are cut off
within an inch of the stem, and one of the young shoots which are produced
there is trained to take its place. See § V. Training.
760. Fore-shortening. — When the lateral branches of a standard tree extend
further than is desirable, a portion of their extremities is cut off; the cut
being always made close above a branch of sufficient thickness to form a
leader of sufficient strength to keep the branch alive and healthy, but not so
strong as to cause it to produce much timber, or in any way to come into
competition with the trunk of the tree. The object is to prevent the
lateral branches of the trees from injuriously shading the plants under them ;
and hence it is chiefly used in the case of trees in hedge-rows.
761. Spurring-in. — The apple, the pear, the cherry, the plum, and other
fruit trees, or fruit shrubs, produce what are called spurs, or very short
shoots or knobs, covered with blossom-buds, naturally, and the object of
spurring in pruning is to produce these knobs artificially. This can only be
done with lateral shoots, to which the sap is not impelled with the same
vigour as to the growing point, because the great object in producing spurs
is to obtain blossom-buds, and these are never produced on the most vigorous
shoots. A lateral shoot of the present year being produced may be shortened
to two or three visible buds, either in the beginning of summer after that
shoot has grown a few inches in length, or in the following winter ; but the
former is in general the better season, because it is not desirable to encourage
the production of wood and consequently of sap, but rather to lessen their
production, so as to produce stunted branches, which are in fact the spurs.
The second and third years the shoots produced are shortened in the same
manner as they were the first, and it will generally be found that the leaf-
buds left on the lower ends of the shoots when cut down, will the year after
become blossom-buds. As by the process of continually shortening the
shoots, the spurs in a few years become inconveniently large, they are
from time to time cut out and new spurs formed by the same process as be-
fore ; and finally, after a certain time, the entire branch bearing the spurs
is cut out close to the main stem of the tree, and renewed, as spurs are, by a
young shoot produced from its base. It must be confessed, however, that
340 PRUNING.
pruning has but little to do with the production of spurs that are prolific in
blossoms : that depends far more on adjusting the nourishment supplied by
the root to the demands of the fruit-bearing branches, to the mode of train-
ing, the kind of tree, and other particulars, which, when attended to, spurs
are produced naturally. This subject, therefore, can only be properly
treated when giving the culture of particular trees.
762. Heading-in is cutting off all the branches which form the head of a
tree close to the top of the stem, leaving however their base to produce buds.
This is done with what are called polled or pollard trees periodically, for
the sake of the branches produced as fagot or fence wood, and with fruit
trees when they are to be re-grafted (653). It is also done with stunted
forest trees, for the sake of concentrating the sap into a few main shoots,
instead of distributing it over a great many ; and it is done in transplanting
trees of considerable size intended to form avenues, or single trees in parks
(713). The branches, if under two inches in diameter, are cut off clean
with a bill (410) at one stroke ; or if they are larger, they are first sawn off,
and afterwards the section is made smooth with the bill-axe or the knife,
but generally with what is called the bill-knife.
763. Lopping. — This term is very generally applied to heading-in, but it
is also as generally used to signify the cutting off large branches from the
sides of stems, and in this sense we shall here treat of it. Lopping is per-
formed by foresters in three manners, two of which are highly injurious to
the timber of the trunk of the tree, and the other not so. The first injurious
practice is that of
764. Close Lopping, by which a large wound is produced, the surface of
which not only never can unite with the new wood which is formed over it,
because, as we have seen (637), growing tissue can only unite to growing
tissue, but the wood in the centre of the wound will, in all probability, begin
to rot before it is covered over, and consequently the timber of the trunk
will be more or less injured. Even if, by covering the wound with compo-
sition to exclude the weather, the surface of the section should be prevented
from rotting, still there would be a blemish in the timber, in the form of a
distinct line of demarcation between the new wood and the old. The second
injurious mode of lopping is, that of cutting off side branches at from six
inches to a foot, or even two feet, from the trunk, which is called,
765. Snag Lopping. — By this mode there can be no efficient source of
returning sap, the wounds can never heal over, and are certain, in connexion
with the stumps on which they are made, to rot and disfigure and deteriorate
the timber much more than in the case of close lopping.
766. Lopping -in. — The only mode of lopping large branches from the
sides of the trunks of trees, without injuring the timber in these trunks, is
to shorten them to a branch of sufficient size to heal the wound at its base,
or at all events to maintain the growth of the whole of the part of the branch
left, and prevent any decay from reaching the trunk. Clean timber, that is
timber free from knots, will not be produced by this mode, but sound timber
will be the result, which is much more valuable than the apparently clean
and sound timber that would have been produced by close lopping, and
letting the tree stand till the wounds were covered with new wood and bark.
If the branch had not been lopped, it would have continued to increase in
diameter in as great a ratio as the stem ; but when lopped so as to produce
only as much foliage as keeps the part left alive, such part will increase very
PRUNING. 341
little; and as the stem increases, the proportion which the diverging sound
ki.ot bears to the straight timber of the stem will be less and less. If
trees, when planted together in masses, were pruned in Mr. Cree's manner,
there never could be any occasion for lopping ; but as this practice will pro-
bably always be more or less required for neglected trees, or for trees in par-
ticular circumstances, lopping-in should always be adopted where the value
of the timber is an object ; close lopping when the object desired is a clean
stem, without reference to timber ; and snag lopping when the object is, as
in snag lopping the English elm, to produce a thick growth of young shoots,
to be periodically cut off as faggot or fence wood, or for sticking peas.
767. Cutting down the stem or trunk of a tree to the ground is an import-
ant operation, because in some cases, such as that of resinous or needle- leaved
trees, it kills the tree, while in others, or what are called trees that stole,
which is a property of most broad-leaved trees, it affords the means of renew-
ing the tree. Thus coppice woods, which consist of trees and shrubs cut
down periodically, have their stems and branches repeatedly renewed from
the same root or collar. Thorn hedges are also frequently renewed by
cutting down to the ground; but perhaps the most valuable application of the
practice is to young stunted forest trees when finally planted out. The slow
growth of a tree which is stunted appears to depend on the thinness of the
alburnum, and consequent smallness of its sap channels, the result of which
is, that the sap rises slowly and in smaller quantities than it otherwise
would do ; and, hence, that a proportionately smaller quantity is returned
from the leaves through the bark. But by cutting over the stem just above
the collar, the whole force of the sap accumulated in the roots will be em-
ployed in the development of some latent buds in the collar, and one of the
shoots produced by these buds being selected and the others slipped off, an
erect stem will be produced of five or six feet the first season, and the sap
vessels in this shoot being large, and abundantly supplied from the root, the
plant will grow freely ever afterwards. The cut, which may be made with the
pruning knife, or with the large pruning shears, should be made close to the
surface of the ground and nearly horizontal, by which it will be more
speedily healed over than if made oblique; and in order to point out the
stools or stocks of the plants so cut over hi the beginning of summer, when the
ground is probably covered with weeds, the stem of every tree may be stuck
in within an inch or two of its root-stock. The oak, the ash, the elm, and
the sycamore, among timber trees, and the hawthorn among hedge-plants, are
greatly benefited by this mode of pruning after they have been three or four
years planted out where they are finally to remain. Fruit-trees cannot
generally be so treated, because the graft is for the most part only a few
inches above the surface of the soil ; but even with fruit-trees, when they
are stunted, there is no better mode of restoring them to vigour than by
cutting them down to the graft.
768. Stopping and pinching out. — When the point of a shoot is cut off, or
pinched out, while that shoot is in a growing state, it is said to be stopped ; that
is, the shoot is prevented from extending in length, and the sap which was
before impelled to its growing point is now expended in adding to the large-
ness or succulence of the leaves or fruits which may be on the shoot, or in
swelling or developing the buds, or in some cases changing them from leaf buds
into flower buds. In the case of the young shoots of the fig, stopping occasions
the development of fruit, and Mr. Knight in this way, his plant being kept in
342 PRUNING.
a stove, obtained three crops of figs from the same tree in the course of one
year. Three crops of grapes from the same vine have also been obtained by the
same means (Ann. Hort. Soc. Paris, tome ii. p. 361), a practice, it would ap-
pear, known to Pliny. The principal uses of stopping, however, are to promote
the setting and swelling of fruit, either on the shoot of the current year, as in
the case of the vine and the melon, or at its base, as in the case of the peach.
By stopping the stem of the tobacco -plant, and of the basil, above the third or
fourth leaf, the leaves acquire an extraordinary degree of magnitude and suc-
culence, and the same result is sometimes produced with common spinach and
the curled parsley. By stopping flower-bearing shoots after they have shown
their flower buds, and removing these, as in the case of annual flowers, the
strawberry, the raspberry, the rose, &c., the blossoming and fruit-bearing
seasons are retarded ; as they are accelerated by stopping all the shoots on a
plant that are not blossom-bearing. The growing point of monocotyledonous
plants, such as palms, Yucca, and even bulbs, is sometimes seared out with
a hot iron, (which by charring it prevents its putrefaction,) to occasion the pro-
duction of side suckers for propagation; and the same thing has been done with
the side suckers and crown of the Pine-apple plant, to throw the nourishment
which would have gone to the increase of these parts into the fruit. Much
of the winter pruning of trees might be prevented by stopping the shoots
early in summer, provided the state of the tree did not require that the
shoots should be allowed to grow their full length in order to send down
nutriment to the increase of the roots, in consequence of which greater
vigour is in turn imparted to the stem and branches. In this case of pruning,
as in every other, the state of the tree, and a variety of circumstances con-
nected with it, require to be taken into consideration.
769. Disbarking includes two distinct operations : the removal of coarse
loose outside bark to admit of the swelling of the inner bark and the alburnum
by the returning sap, and the removal of a ring of both outer and inner bark,
with a view to the interruption of the returning sap. The removal of old
bark is an operation chiefly performed with old fruit trees in orchards, for
the sake partly of getting rid of lichens and mosses, and partly to remove
crevices which might harbour insects. It is also practised on the stems of
old vines for the latter purpose ; one effect of removing the loose outer bark
of any stem, being to increase its susceptibility of suffering from changes of
temperature and moisture, it may therefore often be more injurious than
useful. Disbarking for the tanner consists in removing the whole of the
bark, and is best performed in spring, when in consequence of the abundance
of ascending sap, the bark separates easily from the wood.
770. Ringing. — This operation consists in taking off a narrow ring of bark
from a stem or branch, or even from a root, the object of which is to check
the returning sap and force it to expand itself among the leaves, flowers, or
fruit, which are situated above the incision. The ring of bark taken off
varies in width from a sixteenth to half an inch or an inch, and its depth is
always equal to that of both outer and inner bark. In general the width of
the ring taken off should not be greater than the tree has the power of
recovering with bark, during the same or the following year. The operation
may be performed at any season, but its effects will only be rendered obvious
when the plant is in leaf; because at other seasons there is little or no sap
elaborated to be returned. Compressing the bark by a ligature of wire or
cord, or by a mass of Roman cement put on like the clay of a graft, produces
PRUNING. 343
the same effect as ringing. In the case of fruit trees it is frequently executed
on the branches to produce blossom buds, and by the same means seedling
plants are sooner thrown into blossom than they otherwise would be. On
some trees and shrubs it has been found much more efficient than on others ;
it has little effect on stone fruits ; and while it succeeds on the gooseberry, it
is said not to do so on the currant. Knight, Ward (777), and Pollini (Dec.
Phys. I. p. 151) found that it increased the specific gravity of the wood
above the incision, as compared with that below it, at the rate of one to nine
in some cases, and more in others. We have seen (617) that ringing is
favourable to the production of roots from cuttings, and it seldom fails to effect
the setting of fruits when performed on branches just before they are coming
into blossom. Judiciously applied, it may often serve as a substitute both for
root pruning and top pruning.
771. Disbudding is the removal of buds early in spring, just when they
are beginning to develop their leaves, and is commonly performed with the
finger and thumb ; the object being to lessen the number of shoots or of
blossom buds to be produced. By lessening the number of blossom buds, it
will add to the strength and probability of setting of those which remain,
and the same increase of strength will take place in respect to the shoots,
whilst, at the same time, the number of these is reduced to an approximation
of that which can ultimately be retained for training. By applying this
mode of pruning judiciously on such trees as the peach, apricot, and plum,
especially when trained against walls, the use of the knife may be in a great
measure dispensed with, excepting for cutting out diseased or decaying shoots.
Disbudding is one of the most important summer operations in the manage-
ment of wall-trees. " It is necessary to bear in mind that on the quantity of
foliage with which a tree is furnished, depends the increase in diameter of
the stem and branches, the extension and increase of roots, and the produc-
tion of fruit ; and, yet, that no more leaves should be retained than can be
fully exposed to light. In the case of a healthy tree, not one-half of the
shoots and foliage it naturally produces could be thus exposed when trained
against a wall. If all the branches of a round-headed standard tree were
disposed in a flattened or fan-like manner against a wall, they would be
greatly over-crowded ; for, instead of a surface equal to that of a sphere, the
foliage would be reduced within a diametrical section of the same, affording
a surface of only one quarter of that which they formerly had. Hence, it is
evident that a considerable reduction of shoots produced by wall-trees must
be effected in some way or other. This is partly done by shortening and
thinning at the winter pruning, and partly by the process of disbudding in
summer. In removing the buds care should be taken not to injure the bark
of the shoot. The buds ought not to be all disbudded at the same time ;
the fore- right ones should be first removed, and the others successively, at
intervals of several days, in order not to check the circulation of sap by a too
great privation of foliage at once." — (Gard. Chron. for 1841, p. (380.)
772. Disleqfing. — By taking the leaves off a growing shoot as fast as they
are unfolded, no buds are matured in their axils ; and thus while the super-
fluous vigour of the tree is expended, no sap is returned to the root. Dis-
leafing in this manner the summer's shoots of a tree as they proceed in
growth, Mr. Beaton, by whom the system is detailed, (Gard. Mag. for 1837,
p. 204,) found the simplest mode of reducing the strength of an over-
luxuriant tree. By this method, in three years, he reduced healthy, vigorous
344 PRUNING.
young pear-trees to the point of starvation. When a tree fills the space
allotted to it against a wall, and shows a disposition to still further growth,
by throwing up strong vertical shoots above the wall, and luxuriant breast-
wood on the main boughs; instead of checking this disposition by any of the
ordinary modes of pruning, Mr. Beaton assists the tree to throw off the super-
abundant sap, by disleafing the breast- wood and vertical shoots ; and in the
winter pruning he displaces all the buds on such shoots, even those on the
points, after which they die off by degrees and are cut out. If trees are not
very luxuriant indeed, one year of this treatment will reduce them to a
moderate degree of strength. As buds are only formed in the axils of leaves,
probably much disbudding and pruning might be saved by disleafing as soon
as the leaves are developed ; but it must always be borne in mind that every
leaf has not only the particular office to perform of nourishing the bud in its
axil, but the general one of contributing to the nourishment of all that part
of the tree which is between it and the farthest extremities of the roots.
Hence, in particular cases, where it is desirable to give additional vigour to
the roots, instead of disleafing or disbudding a weak tree, all the leaves and
shoots which it produces ; even the breast- wood and upright shoots, which
the French call gourmands ; ought to be encouraged within certain limits.
Disleafing is frequently practised with fruit-bearing plants, both ligneous and
herbaceous, with a view to admit the sun and air to the fruit, and sometimes
also to assist in ripening wood by stopping growth. It may be applied in
various instances to killing perennial weeds, both on the ground and in water,
by cutting their leaves off the moment they appear, and before they are even
partially developed. Docks, thistles, rushes, horse-tail, and such weeds in
pastures, might be destroyed in this mode at less expense than by any other.
Even couch-grass, that pest of gardeners in a superlative degree, may be so
destroyed, notwithstanding its creeping underground stems, if no green leaves
are allowed to be formed ; as might the bulrushes, bur reeds, common reeds,
and other weeds which rise up from the bottom of ponds ; care being taken
to repeat the operation as long as the weeds continue to grow, and never to
let them exceed an inch or two in height. The scythe proper for this pur-
pose has been mentioned (548). Grass lawns are sometimes for the sake
of economy only mown three or four times a year, in consequence of which
the grasses always throw up a vigorous foliage ; but a much greater economy
of labour, at least, would be to mow double that number of times, in conse-
quence of which the plants would be so reduced that in the course of a year
or two there would be comparatively little to mow.
773. Slitting and splitting may be classed under modes of pruning, the
first being occasionally employed to relieve hide-bound trees, a practice of
doubtful utility, and the second to stimulate stems to the production of roots
or shoots. Hide-bound trees are relieved by slitting the bark longitudinally
from the collar as high up the stem and along the branches as may be con-
sidered necessary. The lower extremities of cuttings are sometimes slit up
(581) ; and shoots are split or fractured to excite buds (622). The stocks
or stumps of cabbages and pine-apples are occasionally split, experience
having proved that the operation excites them to the production of sprouts
or suckers, as it does also in bulbs (634).
774. Bruising and tearing off the stems of plants from their roots are in
some cases found to be more effective than cutting them off with a smooth
section. This is the case with ferns, docks, and perennial thistles in pas-
PRUNING. 345
ture -lands. When these are cut smoothly over with the scythe, they are
said to spring up again, at least after the first cutting ; but the stems being
bruised or torn off, are said to die down to the root, and not to reappear ;
probably from exposing a much greater surface of the sap-vessels to the
action of the air, and thus diminishing their contractile power. Bruising the
leaves of melons by beating them is a Dutch practice, said to increase the
fruitfulness of the plants, which it may probably do by checking their
luxuriance; but the effect of the old practice of beating the heads of
walnut-trees when the fruit is ripe is of much more doubtful efficacy. A
very full crop of pears was obtained by the Rev. John Fisher, of Wavendon,
in Buckinghamshire, from trees which before had not borne at all, by
twisting and breaking down the young shoots (fig. 260) late in the
Fig. 260. A pear-tree with the young shoots twisted, broken, and fastened down, to stagnate
the sap, and cause them to produce blossom-buds.
autumn, when the wood had become tough, and after the sap had retreated.
Mr. Fisher found this practice succeed with branches on which ringing had
been tried without success, and he states that the pendent branches con-
tinued perfectly healthy. — (Garcl. Mag , vol. iii. p. 175.)
775. Clipping is a species of pruning that was formerly much more general
in gardening than it is at present, though as the ancient architectural style
of hedges and avenues is gradually coming into vogue, the practice will again
become frequent. At present clipping is chiefly confined to common hedges
and box-edgings, the modes of dressing which by the shears have been
already described (546, 547).
776. Root-pruning. — As the nourishment of a plant is absorbed from
the soil by the roots, it is evident that the supply will be diminished by
partially cutting off its source. The effect of cutting through the stronger
roots of trees is analogous in its first effects to that of ringing ; with this
difference, that the returning sap is stagnated throughout the whole tree,
instead of being stagnated only in the parts above the ring. The amputated
root, however, having the power of throwing out fibres, soon finds a vent
for the descending sap, and the analogy between root -pruning and ringing in
a short time ceases. The operation may be performed so as to effect a two-
fold result. Its immediate effect is to check the luxuriancy of wood shoots,
346 PRUNING.
and induce the formation of fruit buds. If judiciously performed, the opera-
tion will not be carried so far as to reduce too much the vigour of the tree,
and prevent the second result, that of pushing a number of fibrous roots from
those amputated ; for in defect of these, the health of the tree must decline
under the load of, in that case, imperfectly nourished fruit. With a view
to the production of a greater number of fibrous roots, old trees may be sub-
jected to a cautious root pruning ; but it must not be performed on subjects
unable to bear the shock, or on those in which the power of throwing out
fresh roots is very weak. If, however, it is found that fresh roots have been
emitted from one amputation, others may be performed as the roots resulting
from each preceding operation come into action. Root-pruning is generally
performed with a sharp spade, and generally only on the main roots, at the
distance of several feet from the stem, according to the magnitude of the
tree. Mr. Grace (Gard. Chron. 1841), to check the luxuriant growth of
dwarf pear trees, and retain them of a fit size for his small garden, prunes
the roots annually, leaving them each time about an inch longer than before.
" He does not leave the roots with their ends wounded as they would be if
chopped through with a spade ; but he cuts all the larger roots obliquely
with a sharp 'knife, so as to leave a clean slanting wound, three inches or four
inches long, with its face downwards. The effect of this, he says, is to cause
the wound to send forth a fan of fine fibres from its whole circumference.
The young fibrous roots of a plant proceed in all cases from the surface of
the wood, and not from the bark ; they only pierce the bark when they seem
to grow from it. When the root is crushed by the blow of a blunt tool, all
the part exposed to the blow is killed, and soon decays. That decay may
either proceed no further than the vicinity of the injury, or, as will happen
more frequently than we suppose, it will spread and infect the sound parts
in contact with it. In either case, the production of young fibrous roots can
only take place by forcing them through the bark which lies over the wood
from which they have to spring. But when the wound at the end of a root
is clean, decay will not take place ; and the surface of the wood will produce
fibres from that part which is in contact with the earth. No resistance is
offered to this process ; on the contrary, from the moment that the fibre
begins to form, it finds itself in contact with the earth, where its food resides,
and there, imbibing vigour from the soil, it immediately contributes to the
general system something of that organizable matter out of which more
fibres are to be produced."— (Gard. Chron. 1841, p. 763.)
Though root -pruning is chiefly employed to check the luxuriance of
young fruit-trees and throw them into blossom ; yet it may be employed for
these purposes with all trees and shrubs whatever, and even with some
kinds of herbaceous plants. The dahlia may be rendered more pro-
ductive in blossoms, either by ringing the stem just above the root
stock, or by cutting through the main roots just beneath it. The Chinese,
it is well known, are celebrated for their dwarf or miniature trees, and these
are formed of the extremities of the branches of very old trees rooted by the
process shown in fig. 190, page 270, and afterwards planted in shallow pots,
in very poor soil ; and as the roots are produced, they are cut or burnt, so as
to cramp the growth to any degree required.
777. Girdling and Felling. — From the following account of the effects of
this operation, it would appear to deserve being generally adopted before
trees are felled. It is very general in America, not for the sake of improv-
PRUNING. 347
ing the timber, but to destroy life and facilitate the destruction of the tree.
We give the account of the process in the words of the author, W. Ward,
Esq. of Chester. " Mr. Monteath, in his Foresters Guide, strongly recom-
mends the disbarking of trees in the spring, before they are to be felled ; and
the effect in hardening the timber is certainly very great ; but, in a hot
summer, the exposed alburnum is apt to split more or less. A better mode
has been found to be that of merely cutting out clean, a rim, about four
inches in width, of the bark, close to the ground ; which, in larches, seems
to cause the turpentine to be wholly incorporated in the wood, instead of
passing down to the roots ; and, in fact, it so totally alters the condition of
the trees, that the workmen complain of their being much more difficult to
saw. Another result appears also very interesting. On February 9, 1831,
a section was cut from a larch that had been girdled, as above mentioned, in
the spring of 18-30, and which then weighed 6540 grains. On March 21 it
weighed 4990 grains, having lost 1550 grains. A similar section, cut at the
same time, from an ungirdled larch, weighed, on February 9, 5610 grains,
and, if it had lost by evaporation only in the same proportion as the other,
should have ehown, when weighed on March 21, a loss not greater than
1330 grains; instead of which, it then weighed only 3330 grains; thus
showing a loss of 2280 grains, nearly double the proportion of the former.
The effect of this process in establishing the straightness of the wood
is, moreover, very beneficial. A ladder made from a larch so treated
will be useful; whilst one not so seasoned will twist so as to be quite
worthless."
778. The girdling machine. — " I have adopted a simple contrivance by which
the girdling is effected readily, and with precision, of which fig. 261 will give
some idea. In this figure,
a is a piece of wood, two
feet long, four inches wide,
and two inches thick, hav-
ing two saws screwed on
it, one on the top and the
other at the bottom, so as
to be perfectly parallel at
the distance of six inches
s=) from each other, and pro-
jecting about three quar-
Fig. 261. Side view off he girdling machine. terg of aQ mch . & gh()wg
the uppermost saw ; c is another piece of wood of the same dimensions, hav-
ing four small rollers projecting opposite to the saws ; d d show the upper-
most two of these rollers ; e is a slip of tempered steel fixed to a, at one
end, and set to c, at any requisite point, by a screw nut, /, passing through
different holes made in e, at about one inch distance ; g is a leather strap
fixed at one end to c, and fastened to «, by a button, /*, by suitable holes.
Fig. 262 is a perspective view of this machine. The bark, after being girdled
by the saws, may be taken off with any chisel, about three or four inches
broad in the mouth. Allow me to add, that even with the common pine,
(Pinus sylvestris), I find the process of girdling extremely beneficial. About
ten years since 1 had a pine-tree, which had been so treated, sawn into
boards, and made into a large door, which, though in a very exposed place,
has stood as well as any foreign deal. I conceive that by girdling, the whole
a o (f o o
/l/MxlxJxVtxl.-VV-VI'a.^'V'IXLxi-i^
b
348
PRUNING.
of what would otherwise be mere alburnum, becomes similar to the heart
wood ; and this may be one reason why the boards made from such trees
are found not
to warp. Be-
fore I girdled,
I never could
have a ladder
made of larch
that would
continue
straight for a
month ; but
now I have
them made
durably per-
fect. —Gard.
Fig. 262. Perspective view of the girdling machine. ,.-. .. ^^.Q
779. The seasons for pruning vary according to the object in view. Where
wood is to be cut out or buds removed, so as to throw strength into the
remaining parts of the tree, the sooner the operation is performed after the
fall of the leaf the better ; because as the sap is more or less in motion, and
consequently impelled to all the buds throughout the whole of the winter,
that which would have been employed on the shoots and buds cut off is
saved, and those which remain are invigorated by it. Next to autumn,
winter is to be preferred for the same reason ; but in this season mild
weather should always be chosen, because the frost, if severe, will seize on
the moisture of newly-made wounds, and rupture their surface. In pruning
forest-trees, large branches should never be cut off in autumn, because as
they cannot heal over till the following summer, decay will commence on
the surface of the wound. Spring, just before the rising of the sap, is a better
season ; but better still, a fortnight before midsummer, at which period the
returning sap will commence to deposit a coat of alburnum on the lips of the
wound. The worst season in which any description of wood-pruning can be per-
formed is the spring just before the expansion of the leaves, when the sap is
rising with the greatest vigour. The slightest wound made in many plants both
ligneous and herbaceous at this season, especially young vigorous ones where
the sap-vessels are large, occasions a great loss of sap, which must necessarily
weaken the plant, unless speedily cheeked by the only effectual mode in
which this can be done, the expansion of the leaves. For disbudding and
ringing, spring is the most suitable season, at least for the latter practice,
because, as we have before observed, nothing is gained by ringing before the
leaves begin to expand. Buds which are to be removed should remain as
short a time after they are formed by the leaves as possible ; but as the
labour is much greater in taking them off in autumn and winter when they
are small, than in spring when all their parts are more or less expanded,
the operation is generally deferred till the latter season. For disleafing,
it is necessary to commence as soon as the leaves begin to expand, and
continue it as long as they are produced. The advantages of pruning just
before midsummer are, that the wounds may be partially healed over the
same season, and that the sap which would have been employed in maturing
the shoots cut off is thrown into those which remain. The disadvantages
THINNING. 349
are, that the sap which would have been elaborated by the leaves cut off,
and which would have added to the strength of the tree and its roots, is lost.
In the case of trees already sufficiently strong this is no disadvantage, but
in the case of those which are too weak it is a positive loss. The summer
season is found better than any other for pruning trees which gum, such as
the cherry and the plum, provided too much foliage is not thereby taken
away ; and it is also considered favourable for resinous trees. The autumn,
on the other hand, is considered the best for trees that are apt to suffer from
bleeding, such as the vine, the birch, and some species of maple. Evergreens
may be pruned just before Midsummer, or in spring, before they have begun
to develop their buds.
§ IV. Thinning.
780. Thinning is an operation founded on a general knowledge of the laws
of vegetation and on the habits and bulk of particular plants. Its object is
to allow sufficient space to entire plants, or to the parts of plants, to attain
certain required dimensions and particular properties. When plants stand
too close together for attaining these purposes, whether from want of nou-
rishment at the root, or light and air at the top, they are thinned out ; and
when branches, leaves, flowers, and fruit are too numerous on an individual
plant to be properly nourished, and exposed to the sun and air, they also are
thinned out. As this last operation is effected by pruning, it requires no
farther notice in this article, which is confined to the thinning out of entire
plants by uprooting them. Thinning by uprooting is performed by the
hand alone, when the plants are small ; and when they are larger, by the aid
of the trowel, spade, pick, or other implements (393, 397, and 400). The
subject may be considered with reference to seedling crops in gardens, and
transplanted crops in plantations. Transplanted crops in gardens, being
generally of short duration, are placed at such distances at first as mostly to
render future thinning unnecessary. One general rule in thinning is that
the plants to be removed, when they cannot be taken away all round the
plant to be left, should be taken from the east and west sides of it, in conse-
quence of which it will receive the sun and air on two sides instead of on
one, which would be the case if thinning took place only on the south side ;
while if it were limited to the north side, air would be admitted, but no sun.
781. Seedling crops in gardens. — To make sure of a sufficient number of
plants, and of their distribution over every part of the surface in broadcast
crops (569), or along every part of the row in crops sown in drills, much
more seed is sown than is required for the number of plants requisite for a
crop. As soon as the plants from these seeds make their appearance, and
are considered safe from accidents or insects, all or the greater part of those
which are not judged necessary for producing a crop are pulled and thrown
away, hoed up and left to die on the spot, or in some cases taken up by the
trowel or spade and transplanted elsewhere. The distance at which the
remaining plants are left depends on their nature and habit, on the richness
or poverty of the soil, and on the kind of crop required. For example, in
thinning out an autumnal crop of turnips, the distances between the plants
left will be much less than in thinning out a spring crop ; because in the
latter case, the plants being destined to benefit by the warmth and light of
summer, their roots will attain a much larger size than those of the autumn-
sown crop. On the other hand, an autumnal crop of spinach will be thinned
A A
350 THINNING.
so as to leave the plants wider apart than in a spring crop ; because in the
latter case the plants, from their nature, run very speedily to seed, producing
much smaller radical leaves than they do during the slow vegetation of
autumn. Again, a turnip crop, whether of spring or autumn, will be left
thicker on a poor soil than on a rich one ; because the latter will raise the
plants individually to a larger size, and thinner in the shade, and late in
autumn, than at midsummer, in order to admit of the wider spreading of the
leaves, to compensate, by breadth of surface exposed to the light, for what
the season is deficient in solar brilliancy. It will readily be conceived that
crops that have few or narrow leaves and perpendicular roots, such as the
onion, require less thinning than such as have broad-spreading leaves, such
as the turnip ; and that those which have tap-roots, like the carrot, do not
require so much surface soil as those which have spreading roots, and creep-
ing or trailing shoots, such as the New Zealand spinach. Thinning seedling
herbaceous plants may take place at any season ; but when they are to be
cut out with the hoe and left to die on the spot, dry weather and a dry state
of the soil should be chosen ; and when they are to be pulled up by hand,
or taken up by the roots with a tool for transplanting, a moist state of the
soil and cloudy or rainy weather are essential, in order that the fibres may
receive as little injury as possible in parting from the soil.
782. Thinning plantations. — Timber trees when planted in masses are
placed much closer together than they are intended to be finally, partly to
shelter one another, and partly to profit by the trees which are to be from
time to time thinned out. By planting moderately thick, the nutriment con-
tained in the soil is much sooner turned into wood than it would be if only
the few trees were planted which are finally to remain ; and by these trees
standing near together they are drawn up with straight stems, so that the
timber produced, even by young trees so treated, is of some use. By increas-
ing the distance between these trees by thinning, the source of nourishment
to the roots of the trees which remain is increased, and the space round the
branches for light and air enlarged, so that by degrees, with every successive
thinnng, larger timber is produced. At what time the thinning of a planta-
tion ought to commence, how long it ought to be continued, and at what
distances the trees ought finally to stand, will depend on the kind of tree, the
kind of plantation, the soil and situation, and the climate. In the case of a
plantation where the object is to produce straight timber, the first point to
determine is the probable height to which the kind of tree to be planted will
attain in the given locality ; and then to obtain from the experience of others,
or from observation of natural woods in similar localities, the distance
required to enable a tree to attain that height. A tree in a sheltered valley
and on deep rich soil not much above the level of the sea will attain double
or triple the height which it will on a hill at a distance from the sea ; the
temperature in the latter situation being much lower, the soil generally
poorer, and the wind greatly stronger. The subject of timber plantations
not forming a prominent feature in this volume, we shall only add that
experienced planters have laid down certain rules for thinning timber planta-
tions, and that the best of these we consider to be those of Mr. Cree, published
in the Gardeners Magazine for 1841, and applicable to every situation from
the level of the sea to an altitude of 1800 feet. Supposing the height which
the trees in a plantation of round-headed kinds are supposed to attain is
eighty -five feet, and that they have been planted at the distance of about
TRAINING. 351
four feet, tree from tree, and pruned in Mr. Cree's manner (758) ; then
the first thinning should commence when the trees are thirteen feet six
inches high, and the trees thinned so as those that remain may stand at
twice the former distance from each other, or 8 feet apart each way. The
second thinning should take place when they are between 24 and 25 feet
high, when the trees should be left so as to be 16 feet apart each way, thus
leaving 170 to the acre. The third thinning should take place when the
trees are between 47 and 48 feet high, when only 42 trees should be left to
the acre to attain the height of 85 feet ; and these must accordingly stand at
the distance of 32 fret apart each way. It is not pretended that these rules
should in all cases be exactly followed; on the contrary, they are only given
as approximations, the result of extensive experience and scientific reasoning
for round-headed trees ; for poplars and coniferous trees, the final distance is
too great. See Mr. Cree's table in the Gardeners Magazine for 1841,
p. 553, and also some excellent observations on the subject in the Gardeners
Chronic fe for 1842, p. 19, and in various other parts of that journal and in
the Gardener's Magazine. A forester should be well impressed with the
importance of light, air, moisture, and shelter as regards vegetation ; and he
should closely observe the density which the various trees will bear that are
under his charge. In all extensive plantations some trees will be seen suf-
fering from being too close : he should learn from cases of the kind how to
proceed to thin others that he can easily foresee are approaching a similar
condition. As a beau-ideal guide when to commence thinning, we should
say, Always about to touch, but never touching.
783. Thinning ornamental plantations. — As the object of these is to dis-
play the natural character of the trees, either of their heads at a distance, as
in masses or groves of trees only, or singly, or in groups of trees among
under growths, or on smooth turf, it is obvious that thinning is of as much
importance to the desired result as in timber plantations. It is equally so in
plantations of shrubs, especially flowering shrubs, where the object is to show
the individual character of the shrub, and also the beauty of its blossoms
and fruit. Every tree and shrub has two characters, both of which are
natural to it ; the one when it grows up in a mass of other trees or shrubs of
the same kind, or of other kinds, and the other when it grows up singly.
In the former case the stem or stems are always straight and comparatively
free from branches to some height, while in the latter it is generally clothed
with branches from the ground, or a short distance above it, upwards. The
thinning, therefore, of an ornamental plantation will depend on the natural
character to be imitated. An open grove where the trees have clear trunks
to half or two thirds of their height, affords a delightful retreat for walking
in, in the hottest weather of summer ; and this is also the case with an
avenue where the trees have been properly thinned and pruned to the
height of fifteen feet or twenty feet ; while a lawn studded with trees and
shrubs singly or in small groups, and with their lower branches resting on
the ground, affords views from a gravel walk or a drawing-room window
peculiarly characteristic of an English pleasure-ground.
§ V. Training.
784. To train a plant is to support or conduct its stem and branches in some
form or position, either natural or artificial, for purposes of use or ornament. It
is effected partly by pruning and thinning, but chiefly by pegging down to the
352 TRAINING.
ground, tying and fastening to rods, stakes, or trellises, or nailing to walls
(466). The articles more immediately required are hooked pegs, ties, nails,
and lists (452), with props of various kinds (451 and 452), and ladders (456).
785. The principles upon which training is founded vary according to the
object in view, but they all depend more or less on these facts : — that the sap
of a plant is always impelled with the greatest force to its highest point ;
that, in general, whatever promotes this tendency encourages the production
of leaves and shoots, and whatever represses it, promotes the formation of
blossom buds. When a plant is to be trained over the surface of the ground,
it must be borne in mind, that, as the tendency of the sap is always to the
highest bud, the shoots pegged down should be allowed to turn up at the
points, in order to promote their extension. When the object is to induce
blossoms or fruitfulness, a contrary practice should be followed, and the
points of the shoots kept down, or in the case of upright-grown plants,
trained horizontally, or even in a downward direction. This should also be
done when the object is to restrain over-luxuriance, and a contrary practice
when a weak or sickly plant or tree is to be invigorated. When the object is
to economise space, the plants are trained against a trellis, as occupying
length, but very little breadth ; and when it is to increase temperature, they
are trained or spread out against a wall, which prevents the conduction of
heat and moisture from the branches, by acting as a screen against winds ;
and increases heat by reflecting the rays of the sun during the day, and
giving out heat during the night, and whenever the atmosphere is at a lower
temperature than the wall.
786. Manual operations of training (454). — The tie or the list, by which
the shoots are fastened to the trellis or wall, should be placed in the inter-
node, and always immediately behind a bud or joint ; because when tying
or nailing takes place in the summer season, and near the points of the
growing shoots, the latter sometimes elongate after being fastened, and if
this elongation is prevented from taking place in a straight line by the
fastening being made immediately before a bud or leaf, instead of being
made immediately behind it, the shoot will be forced into a curved direction,
and the bud and its leaf injured. Ties, which in this country are commonly
of bast, are gently twisted before being tied into a knot, in order that it may
be the firmer, and the bast not liable to be torn during the operation of
tying. Osier ties, which are sometimes used for espalier trees, are fastened
by twisting together the two ends, and turning them down in a manner sooner
and easier done than described. In fastening shoots with nails and shreds,
when any restraint is required to retain the shoot in its position, the pressure
must always be against the shred and never against the nail, as the latter
would gall the shoot, and in stone fruits generate gum. The shred ought
never to be placed in the hollow of a bend in the branch to be attached ;
for there it is worse than useless. On the contrary, the shreds should be put
on so as to pull the external bends inwards towards the direct line, in which
it is desirable the branch should be trained. In fig. 263, the straight direc-
Fig. 263. Bringing a bent shoot into a straight direction by nails and shrejs.
TRAINING 353
tion in which it is desired to train the shoot is indicated by the dotted lines ;
a represents the shreds and nails put over the shoot to bring it to its place
over the dotted lines, and 6, dotted lines indicating the points which will be
covered by the shreds and nails when the shoot has been rendered straight,
by drawing both shoots from a to b. The nails used, whether of cast or
wrought iron, should have round shanks and small round heads, as being less
likely to injure the branches than sharp-angled nails. Nails an inch in
length are sufficient for ordinary branches, but twice that length is necessary
for very large ones. Cast-iron nails are most generally employed, and they
are so cheap, and, besides, not liable to bend in the points, that they are
generally preferred to nails of wrought iron. They seldom break when
being driven into mortar joints; and if they do so when drawing them out, it
is perhaps cheaper to buy new cast-iron nails than to point and straighten
wrought- iron ones. Boiling nails in linseed- oil prevents, or, at all events,
greatly lessens their rusting. Nails should in general be driven into the
joints, and not into the backs, because the joints are easily repaired. They
should never be driven far in, and in summer training a much slighter hold
of the wall will suffice than in winter training, because in the latter case
the shoots will not be moved for a year ; for if they hold at the time of
nailing, they become faster as they begin to rust ; the oxide requiring an
additional space to that required by the metal on which it is formed.
Before a nail which has been some time in a wall is attempted to be drawn
out, it should receive a tap with the hammer (407), by which it will be
loosened, and be more likely to separate without breaking. Shreds of
woollen are preferred to those of any other cloth or to leather, as being
softer and less influenced by the weather. Their length should be such as
to contain a shoot double the size of that for which they are intended, in
order that they may never compress the shoot so much as to impede the
returning sap, and their breadth may be from half an inch to three- quarters
or one inch. They should be folded up a little at each end, so that in
driving the nail through the shred it will pierce four times its thickness,
and be in no danger of tearing, as it often does when the nail passes through
only twice its thickness. When a shoot is merely to be nailed to the wall,
without requiring constraint on either side, then the nails are placed alter-
nately ; but when a crooked branch is to be nailed in, two or more nails in
succession will frequently be required on the same side. In driving the
nails, they should incline with their heads downwards to prevent water as
much as possible from hanging on them, as the rust produced is often
injurious, especially to fruit. The list, as already observed, should always
be placed on the internodes, and the branches should be fastened quite close
to the wall, in order not to lose the benefit of its heat. The colour of the
lists is a matter in which gardeners have different tastes. The late Rev. W.
Marshall, an ardent lover of horticulture, preferred scarlet lists: others
select those of a grey colour; some choose black; and a few mix various
colours together, which is perhaps the most picturesque mode. Brown
and black, however, being least conspicuous, generally obtain the pre-
ference. Shreds will last two or three years ; but every time they are
taken off to be put on again they should be boiled, to destroy any eggs of
insects there may be on them. Trained fruit-trees are generally loosened
from the wall at the time of winter or spring pruning, when the wall
can be cleaned and coloured if necessary, and the tree washed with
354 TRAINING.
a composition for the destruction of insects. The renailing is in general
performed immediately afterwards ; though some, in order to retard
the blossoming of the tree next spring, tie the branches to stakes at some
distance from the walls. This, however, can only be safely performed with
the very hardiest kinds of trees, and even with them must be attended with
danger during severe winters, unless in very sheltered situations. In refixing
a trained tree, place all the leading branches in their proper positions first,
beginning at the lower part of the tree, so as to make sure of covering the
bottom of the wall. The main branches being placed, lay in the young
wood, beginning also at the bottom of the wall, and at the further extremity
of the branch, and working up to the main stem. We shall now describe the
different kinds of training, commencing with the simplest, and concluding
with the different forms employed in training fruit-trees.
787. Training herbaceous plants in beds or borders is in some kinds
effected by fastening them down to the surface of the ground, or to rock-
work, or a surface of pebbles, by means of pegs, loops of matting, (630,) or
other material used as ties ; or by laying on the shoots small stones. Twin-
ing flowers, such as the common convolvulus, or twining esculents, such as
the scarlet runner, only require straight rods, or branches with upright
shoots, such as those of the beech, placed close by the plants, or at most the
point of the shoot when it is beginning to extend, slightly tied to the rod
or branch. Branches are hi general to be preferred to straight branchless
rods for herbaceous climbers, because by offering a number of interruptions
to the ascent of the climbing stem, they encourage it to divaricate, and conse-
quently to produce a greater number of flowers and fruit within a limited
space. Tendrilled climbers, such as sweet peas, and those with rambling
stems, such as the nasturtium, are also supported by branches placed in a
circle round each patch, or along each side of a row, of the height to which
the plants are expected to grow ; or straight hazel rods are inserted in the
soil obliquely so as to touch at top and bottom, and cross in the middle,
so as to form lozenge- work ; or wires may be supported by iron or
wooden rods in any desired form. Tall-growing plants with stems
having terminal flowers, and which do not branch, such as some asters, when
they cannot support themselves, require to be loosely inclosed by three or
four rods placed close to the roots at bottom, and spreading outwards at top,
and connected by twine ; or, in some cases, a slender rod may be placed to
each stem. On no account should such clusters of stems be tied together in
bunches, a common practice among slovenly gardeners, as the compression
rots the leaves and lessens the size of the flowers. Plants having branchy
stems, such as the .Lupinus mutabilis, and the Baptism, if they require
support, should have a stake to each stem, thinning them out where they are
so numerous as to produce a crowded appearance. Florists' flowers, such as
the carnation, the dahlia, &c., require particular kinds of stakes, and the
greatest care in tying.
788. Herbaceous and shrubby plants in pots being in a highly arti-
ficial state, when they require training should have straight rods, or
symmetrical frames of laths, or of wire- work. Pelargoniums when of large
size are trained by means of straight terminal shoots of willow or hazel, so as
to radiate their branches from the pot, and form a regular hemisphere of
foliage and flowers, close but not crowded. Various training frames have
been adopted for ornamental climbers in pots : one is shown by fig. 57 in
TRAINING.
355
p. 143. A common mode for the Fuchsia, the pelargonium, the Maurandia, the
Petunia, &c., and also for the grape, is shown in figs. 264 and 265, which
are formed
of rods and
rings of
stout wire,
as shown in
figures 266
& 267, the
whole be-
ing painted
green, or of
a
the colour,
of bark aC- Fig. 265- Frame-uork for training the grape-
Cording tO vinevhengrovninpot*.
the taste of the gardener or his employer. In
training slender climbers or twiners, such as
Kennedia rubicunda, nails are driven into the
wall near the ground (fig. 268, a), and three or
four feet above it (&), close to which the plant
is placed ; strings are drawn from the lower
nails to those above, and the stems of the plant
twined round them.
789. Training hardy-flowering shrubs in the open ground. — Trailing and
creeping shrubs seldom require any assistance from art, excepting when they
are made to grow upright on posts, trellises, or
walls. In general all creepers that are trained
upright, and all climbers, whether by twining,
tendrils, hooks, rootlets as the ivy, or mere
elongation as in the Lycium and the climbing
roses, when they are to form detached objects,
should be trained to stakes with expanded tops, Fig. 267. wire
such as those shown in fig. 95 in page 164, as by shown in fiff- :
this means ample heads are formed, which, in the case of the
honeysuckle, the clematis, the rose, &c , exhibit splendid masses
of blossom. Fig. 269 is a portrait
*-! of a climbing rose, trained down
from a ring which forms the top to
an iron rod, as shown in one of the
figures in p. 164. This is called the
balloon manner of training, and was
f0r first applied to apple-trees. When
supporting the rod is fixed in the ground, the
formth°fraLe°- Tin% at ^e toP snould stand an inch
work shown in or two higher than the graft at the
fig. 264. top of the stock, or than the head
formed on the stem of the plant, if it should not
have been grafted. Six or eight of the strongest
shoots are then to be selected, and tied to the
ring with tarred twine ; and if, from their length, Fig<268> Modeoftrainin^rbac
they are liable to blow about, their ends are at- climbers on a brick trail.
ngs
264'
wire
'
356 TRAINING.
tached to twine, continued from the wire to pegs stuck in the ground, as
shown in the figure. When it is desired to cover the stem of a spreading-
Fig. 2u9. Portrait of a Bizarre de la Chine rose, trained i« tite balloon manner*
headed climber with the foliage and flowers of a different plant, the taste
of which is questionable, as they never grow so freely in such a situation
where they are shaded and the roots of the plants starved, then, fig. 270,
which was used on the lawn of George I Ws
cottage at Windsor Park, may be used. Climb-
ing roses may also be advantageously displayed
on such props as fig. 94, in p. 163, and more
slender climbers, as well as standard roses, and
other shrubs, trained to single stems, may be
tied to stakes of larch, oak, ash, or sweet ches-
nut, or to cast-iron stakes, such as those shown
at a and b in fig. 95, in p. 164. When climbers
or other flowering plants are trained on arched
trellises, covering walks, it must be borne in
mind that if the display of the flowers is an
object, the trellis- work must not be continuous,
but rather of arches springing from piers of
Fig. 270. Prop with umbrella lop for trellis-work, or pilasters, at short distances
spreading headed climbers, and for from each other, SO as to admit the light be-
trainingotherplanttroundtheirstems. ^^ When ^ jg ^^ fhe plantg
will only look well on their outer surface. The laburnum, when trained
over an arched trellis of this kind, has a splendid effect when in flower ;
but when the trellis is continuous, the blossoms have a pale, sickly appear-
TRAINING. 357
ance, as we witnessed some years ago at a country seat, where the trellis of
which fig. 271 is a section was covered with laburnum ; the low table trellis
a, a, being clothed with ivy. The contrast be-
tween the dark green ivy and the yellow blos-
soms would have been effective, had the latter
enjoyed the benefit of light.
790. Evergreen shrubs require very little
training, excepting in the case of fastigiate-
growing species in situations exposed to high
winds, or shrubs that are to be shorn into arti-
ficial shapes. The evergreen cypress, and the
. upright variety of arbor vitse, are apt to have
Fig. 271. Section of a laburnum tr el- r 5 J ' r
to over a walk, with table trellises, the side-shoots displaced by high winds or heavy
a, a, for ivy. snows, for which reason these branches are fre-
quently tied loosely to, or rather connected by tarred twine with, the main stem.
When evergreen shrubs are to be shorn into common shapes, such as cones,
pyramids, piers, pilasters, &c., little or no training is required; but when' they
are to be grown into more artificial shapes, such as those of men or animals,
the figure required is constructed of wire or trellis work, and being placed
over the plant, the shoots are confined within it ; and if the plants are healthy,
and in a good soil and situation, the figure is speedily formed. The best
shrubs for this kind of ornament are those which have narrow leaves, such
as the yew, the juniper, the arbor vitae, and the spruce fir. One of the
figures, the most readily formed by any of these plants, is a hollow vase,
which only requires a series of hoops tied to ribs, and the latter attached to
a stake placed close by the main stem of the plant. In selecting plants for
being trained into figures of men and women, it is usual to use variegated
varieties to represent the female forms.
791. Training fruit-trees. — By far the most important application of
training is to fruit-trees, whether for the purpose of rendering them more
prolific, improving the quality of the fruit, growing fruit in the open air
which could not otherwise be grown, except under glass, or confining the
trees within a limited space. Fruit-trees are trained either as protuberant
bushes or trees in the open garden, or spread out on flat surfaces against
walls or espaliers. In either case the operation is founded on the principle
already mentioned — that of suppressing the direct channel of the sap, by
which it is more equally distributed over the tree, the tendency to produce
over-vigorous shoots from the highest part is diminished, and the produc-
tion of flowers from every part increased. We find that trees in a state of
nature always produce their first flowers from lateral branches, to which the
sap flows less abundantly than to those which are vertical ; and the object
of training may be said to be, to give all the parts of a tree the character
of lateral branches. With a view to this, certain rules have been derived
from the principle of the suppression of the sap, which it may be useful to
notice as of general application to every mode of training : —
1. Branches left loose, and capable of being put in motion by the wind,
grow more vigorously than those which are attached ; and hence the rule
to nail or tie in the stronger shoots first, and to leave the weaker shoots to
acquire more vigour. Hence also the advantage of training with fixed
branches against walls, as compared with training with loose branches in
the open garden, when greater fruitfulness is the object.
358 TRAINING.
2. Upright shoots grow more freely than inclined shoots. Therefore
when two shoots of unequal vigour are to be reduced to an equality, the
weaker must be elevated and the stronger depressed.
3. The shoots on the upper side of an inclined branch will always be
more luxuriant than those on the lower side ; therefore preserve, at the
period of pruning or disbudding, only the strongest shoots below, and only
the weakest above.
4. The lower branches of every tree and shrub decay naturally before
the upper branches ; therefore bestow the principal care on them, whether
in dwarf bushes in the open garden, or with trees trained on espaliers or
walls. When they are weak, cut them out, and bring down others to supply
their place; or turnup their extreme points, which will attract a larger por-
tion of sap to every part of the branch.
792. The different modes of training bushes and trees in the open garden
are chiefly the conical form for tall trees or standards, and some modifi-
cation of the globe or cylinder for dwarfs ; but it may be remarked that
unless these and all other artificial forms are constantly watched to check
the tendency to return to nature, they are much better dispensed with. By
careful attention some of these artificial forms will bring trees sooner into
a bearing state, and a greater quantity of fruit will also be produced in
a limited space ; but if the continued care requisite for these objects is
withdrawn for two or three years, the growth of the tree, while returning to its
natural character, will produce a degree of confusion in the branches that
will not be remedied till all the constrained branches have been cut away.
Wherever, therefore, fruit is to be grown on a large scale, and in the most
economical manner, in orchards or in the open garden, it is found best to
let every tree take its natural shape, and confine the primer and trainer to
such operations as do not greatly interfere with it. These are chiefly keep-
ing the tree erect with a straight stem, keeping the head well balanced, and
thinning out the branches where they are crowded or cross each other, or
become weak or diseased. There are however many persons who have
small gardens, and who have leisure or means to attend or to procure atten-
tion to all the minutiae of culture, and to these some of the modes of training
protuberant dwarfs and standards may be of considerable importance, by
bringing the trees into a bearing state sooner than would be the case if they
were left to nature, and by producing much fruit in little space.
793. The different modes of training fruit-trees against walls or espaliers,
may all be reduced to three forms or systems ; — the fan or palmate form,
which is the most natural mode, and that most generally applicable ; the
horizontal system, which is adapted to trees with strong stems, and of long
duration ; and the perpendicular system, which is chiefly adapted to climb-
ers, such as the vine. Trees trained by any of the above modes against a
wall or espalier are much more under the control of art than can ever be
the case with trees or bushes in the open garden; because in the latter case, the
whole tree as well as its branches are at all times more or less liable to be
put in motion by the wind, whereas against a wall they are fixed, and
have not the aid of motion to increase their thickness. For these reasons,
and also because flat training is applied to trees which as protuberant bushes
in the open garden would "scarcely produce fruit at all, flat training cannot
be dispensed with. In making choice of a mode of flat training, the nature
of the tree, the climate, soil, and the object in view, must be jointly taken
TRAINING. 359
into consideration. Trees of temporary duration, which naturally produce
numerous divergent branches, such as the peach and the apricot, are best
adapted for fan training, where the climate is favourable ; but in a cold cli-
mate an approach to the horizontal manner may be preferable, by lessening
the quantity of wood produced and thus facilitating its ripening. The hori-
zontal system of training produces the greatest constraint on nature, and is
therefore adapted for fruit-trees of the most vigorous growth, and of large
size, such as the pear and apple, which are almost always trained in this
manner, whether on walls or espaliers. For plants producing shoots having
little or no tendency to ramify, and which are of short duration, such as the
vine, climbing roses, &c., the perpendicular manner is the most natural and
the easiest ; nevertheless, by disbudding and training, plants of this kind can
be made to assume the fan form, and thus be rendered more productive in
blossoms and fruit, than if trained in a manner which is more natural to
them ; and in the case of the vine, even the horizontal system may be
adopted, because its shoots are of great duration. We shall first describe the
methods of training dwarfs and standards in the open garden, and next the
different modes of flat training on walls and espaliers.
794. Dwarfs in the open garden are trained in the form of hollow bushes,
concave, or shaped like cups, urns, goblets, or barrels, the form being in every
case produced by training the shoots to a frame-work of rods and hoops.
Dwarfs are also trained in the form of globes, balloons, cylinders, low cones,
pyramids, triangles, and sometimes with the branches in regular stages
like a girandole. Most of these forms are also capable of being varied by
training the shoots which compose their form vertically, horizontally, ob-
liquely, or spirally ; and also by tying down the current year's shoots as
soon as they have ceased elongating, in the manner of quenouille training, to
be afterwards described. All dwarfs, whether to be left to nature or trained
artificially, are grafted on stocks naturally of humble growth; such as the
quince or the mountain-ash for the pear, the doucin or paradise for the
apple, the Mahaleb for the cherry, the myrobolan or the sloe for the
plum, &c.
795. Spiral cylinders. — Of all these different modes of training dwarfs,
that which best deserves adoption in a small garden is the spiral cylinder,
the training of which is thus described by Mr. Hay ward : — " Prune and
manage the tree so that it shall form from three to six branches of as nearly
equal size as possible, within about six or eight inches of the ground, as in fig.
272 ; and as soon as the branches are grown from three to five feet long, fix six
rods or stakes into the earth for supporting them, in a circle about the root, as in
fig. 273, the centre dot marking the root, and the others the
rods. Each branch is then to be brought
down, and being fixed to the rod near
its base, the branch is to be carried
round in a spiral manner, on such an
elevation as will form an inclination
of about fifteen degrees, and each
branch is to be fixed in the same
manner, one after another; thus all ing, plan.
Fig 272. Spiral train- will move in the same direction, one above the other, like
ing, first stage. so many cork-screws following in the same course, as
shown in fig. 274. As from this position of the branches the point bud of each
360
TRAINING.
leader will present the most vertical channel for the sap, the strongest shoot
will form there, and thus afford the means of continuing the leaders to a great
height and for a great length of time, without crossing or
obstructing each other, or throwing out useless collaterals ;
at the same time, by the depressed position of the leading
branches, enough sap will be pushed out on their sides to
form and maintain vigorous fruiting spurs. As trees trained
in this manner need never exceed the bounds allotted them
on a border or bed, a greater number of trees may be
planted, and a greater quantity of fruit produced, in a given
space, than can be the case when they are trained in any other
manner. But as pear and apple trees on free stocks may be
Fig.274. Spiral train- found to grow too rude and large after a few years, those
lhon' best answer which are grafted on dwarf-growing stocks ; that
is, pears on quince stocks, and apples on paradise stocks. However, to keep dwarf
trees from growing too luxuriant and rude, it is a good practice to take them
up and replant them every three or four years ; if this is done with due care
as soon as the leaves are off the trees in the fall of the year, it will not injure
them nor prevent them bearing a full crop of fruit the following year. — (In-
quiry into the Fruitfulness and Barrenness of Plants and Trees, &$c. p. 238.)
796. Standards in the open garden are, in France, sometimes trained with
heads in similar shapes to those we have mentioned as adopted for dwarfs ;
but those in most general use, where the natural form is departed from, are
the spurring-in system, the conical or pyramidal system, to either of which
may be applied the quenouille system ; a term which is sometimes applied
to the distaff or conical form of the tree, and sometimes to the mode of
tying down the current year's shoots, like the fibres of flax on a distaff, so
as to stagnate in them the returning sap. Trees trained in any of these
manners are generally grafted on dwarfing stocks so as to keep their growths
within moderate bounds.
797. The spurring-in system. — Choose a tree that has a
leading shoot in an upright direction, fig. 275, a ; having
planted it, shorten the side shoot, leaving only two or three
buds, and shorten also the leading shoot, according to its
strength, so that no more buds may be left on it than
will produce shoots, as at b. The first summer the produce
in shoots will be as at fig. 276, c ; and if before Midsummer
Fig. 275. Spurring- the leading shoot be shortened as at d, it will probably throw
t side shoots the same season, as at e. At the winter
pruning all the side shoots may be shortened to two or three
buds, and the leading shoot to such a number as it is believed will be de-
veloped. These
are to be short-
ened as at// and
the process of
shortening is to
be repeated every
year till the tree
has the appear-
ance of fig. 277 ;
or until it has
Fig. 276. Spitrriny-in, progressive stages.
TRAINING. 361
attained the height required, or which the kind of tree is calculated to
attain,
798. Conical standards, or, as they are erroneously called, pyramidal
standards, may be pro-
duced from trees par-
tially spurred-in ; but
the most general mode
is to cut in the side
branches, as shown in
fig. 278, which repre-
sents several successive
stages ; while fig. 279
shows the tree brought
to its regular shape;
and fig. 280, the same
tree with the branches
of the current year tied
down in the quenouille
manner. The best ex-
ample of this mode of
training which we have
the Horticultural So-
ciety's garden in 1830; and in France, Fi»- ^ Quenouille training, progressive
in the Royal .Kitchen Garden at Ver-
sailles, in 1840. There were in the latter garden, in that year, two hundred
trees trained hi the conical manner, with the current year's shoots tied down
en quenouille. They had attained
the height of from six to twelve
feet before the branches were bent
down ; but the effect of this was
to cover the shoots with blossom,
buds, and to produce most ex-
traordinary crops. From the ex-
perience of French gardeners, it
would appear that trees trained
in the conical manner and en
quenouille do not last longer than
ten or twelve years. Copper wire
is used for tying down the
branches, and the lower ends of
the wires are attached to the
stouter branches, to the main
stem, to hooked pegs stuck in
the ground, or to a wooden frame
fixed a few inches above its sur-
face.
Fig. 279.
Conical
7"' Hayward's quenouille pig
conical training com- training. — Take a plant With Wuh the summer shoots
pleted. four or five Strong shoots of tied down.
three feet or four feet long, on a stem of four feet or more high
302
TRAINING.
:. vr,.
Fig. 281. Hayward's
(fig. 281 ) ; " let a small hoop be bent round the bottom of the trunk, and
all the branches brought regularly down and fixed to it, as in fig. 282 ; the
consequences, if not guarded against, will
be as explained in 792. As several of the
uppermost buds on the base of each branch
will probably throw out strong wood
shoots, one of them, that is placed in the
best situation to admit of being bent down
to supply the place of the parent branch
when worn out, should be selected, and
all the rest rubbed off close ; and as the
shoot that is left will grow large and
strong, in order that it may be better Fig 282. H aywards
adapted for bending, it should, as soon as guenounie training
it is five inches or six inches long, be comPleie.
brought gently down and affixed to the old branch, as in
283> °» °' marking the young shoot which has been
quenouiiie train- tied down. Trained in this manner, whenever it may be
ing, first stage. found necessary to cut out the old branches, these, by a
half-twist, may be brought down without danger of breaking, and the bend
will be less abrupt and unsightly. By the same rules, trees may be trained
in the same manner, with two or more tiers, as in fig. 284. The success of
this mode of training depends upon due
attention being paid to the disbudding or
rubbing off useless shoots in the spring,
and taking due care of those which are
intended either to carry on and extend
the tree, or to succeed and occupy the
place of the old bearers. It will," he con-
cludes, "be found extremely well adapted
to apple-trees on paradise-stocks, pear-
trees on quince-stocks, cherry-trees, &c. ;
and also to peach-trees in pots ; and it is
Fig. 283. Haytcard's a most economical mode, as it requires no
quenouiiie training, stakes." — (Gard. Mag. vol. vii. p. 441.)
^onaZwt™0™' 800' Fan-training is chiefly adapted
for trees trained against walls, and more
especially for the peach and apricot. There are several
modifications of the fan form, and five different varieties
may be pointed out. The first is the equal fan, in which
there are a number of main branches all radiating from the Fig. 284. Hayward's
graft of the tree ; hi the case of dwarfs, all the branches dotlble ^nouiiie
radiate from the horizontal line upwards, but in the case of '
standards against walls, or what in Scotland are called riders, they radiate
downwards as well as upwards; and this forms the second, or what is
called the stellate-fan manner of training. The third mode is called
the open fan, or the Montreuil training, in which there are two main
branches laid into the right and left of the centre, at an angle of 45°,
and the wall is covered by subordinate branches from these and their late-
rals. The great advantage of this mode of training is, that whenever the
wall gets naked below, it can be covered by bringing down the two main
TRAINING. 363
branches and their subordinates. An improvement on this mode of training
as applied to the peach-tree was made by Dumoutier, and is described by
Lelieur, in his " Pomone Fran9oise ;" another, by Sieulle (a cultivator at
Montreuil, to whom we were introduced, in 1819, by M. Thouin), is
described in Neill's Horticultural Tour, and in the first edition of our
Encyclopaedia, of 'Gardening ; and a third improvement has been recently made
in the Montreuil training, by F. Malot, a cultivator at Montreuil, which
consists in first covering the lower part of the wall, by preventing any shoots
from being produced from the upper sides of the two main branches till the
part of the wall below them is covered. This mode is described in the
Annales d? Horticulture de Paris for 1841, and in the Bon JardinierfoY 1842.
A fourth mode of fan-training, is what is called Seymour's, which, on prin-
ciple, appears to be the most perfect of all modes of training, and to which
the nearest approach made by the French gardeners is that called the
Palmette a la Dumoutier, alluded to above. A fifth mode is the curvilinear
fan- training of Mr. Hay ward, which is good in principle ; but which has
not yet been much adopted, notwithstanding some excellent points which
it exhibits. If we describe the common English mode of fan-training,
Seymour's mode, and Hay ward's mode, the other variations will be readily
understood. In fact, there can be no difficulty with any mode of training,
provided the operator possesses beforehand a clear conception of the form to
be produced, and bears in mind the power of buds, and the influence on that
power of elevation and depression.
801 . Fan-training in the common English manner. — The following direc-
tions for this mode of training are by an excellent practical gardener : — The
maiden plant is to be headed down to four eyes, placed in such a manner as
to throw out two shoots on each side, as shown in fig. 285. The following sea-
son the two up-
permost shoots
are to be headed
down to three
Fig. 285. Fan-training, first, eyes, placed in
stage' such a manner
as to throw out one leading shoot, and
one shoot on each side ; the two lower- Fig. m. Fan-training, second stage.
most shoots are to be headed down to two
eyes, so as to throw out one leading shoot, and one shoot on the uppermost side,
as shown in fig. 286. We have now five leading shoots on each side, well
placed, to form our future tree. Each of these shoots must be placed in
the exact position in which it is to remain ; and as it is these shoots
which are to form the leading character of the future tree, none of them are
to be shortened. The tree should by no means be suffered to bear any
fruit this year. Each shoot must now be suffered to produce, besides the
leading shoot at the extremity, two other shoots on the uppermost side,
one near to the bottom, and one about midway up the stem ; there must also
be one shoot on the undermost side, placed about midway between the other
two. All the other shoots must be pinched off in their infant state. The
tree will then assume, at the end of the third year, the appearance shown
in fig. 287. From this time it may be allowed to bear what crop of fruit
the gardener thinks it able to carry ; in determining which he ought never
to overrate the vigour of the tree. All of these shoots, except the leading
364
TRAINING.
Fig. 287. Fan-training, third stage.
ones, must at the proper season be shortened, but to what length must be
left entirely to the judgment of the gardener, it, of course, depending upon
the vigour of the tree. In short-
ening the shoot, care should be
taken to cut back to a bud that
will produce a shoot for the fol-
lowing year. Cut close to the
bud, so that the wound may
heal the following season. The
following season each shoot at
the extremities of the leading
branches should produce, be-
sides the leading shoot, one on
the upper and two on the under part, more or less, according to the
vigour of the tree; whilst each of the secondary branches should pro-
duce, besides the leading shoot, one other, placed near to the bottom ;
for the grand art of pruning, in all systems to which this class of
trees are subjected, consists in preserving a sufficient quantity of young
wood at the bottom of the tree ; and on no account must the gardener
cut clean away any shoots so placed, without well considering if they
will be wanted, not only for the present, but for the future good appear-
ance of the tree. The quantity of young wood annually laid in must
depend upon the vigour of the tree. It would be ridiculous to lay the
same quantity of wood into a weakly tree as into a tree in full vigour.
The gardener here must use his own judgment. But if any of the leading
shoots manifest a disposition to outstrip the others, a larger portion of young
wood must be laid in, and a greater quantity of fruit than usual suffered
to ripen on the over- vigorous branch. At the same time a smaller quantity
of fruit than usual must be left to ripen on the weaker branch. This will
tend to restore the equilibrium better than any other method. Fig. 288
Fig. 288. Fan-training, complete.
presents us with the figure of the tree in a more advanced state, well
balanced, and well calculated for an equal distribution of sap all over its.
surface. Whenever any of the lower shoots have advanced so far as to
incommode the others, they should be cut back to a yearling shoot : this
will give them room, and keep the lower part of the tree in order. In
TRAINING.
365
nailing, care must be taken not to bruise any part of the shoot ; the wounds
made by the knife heal quickly, but a bruise often proves incurable.
Never let a nail gall any part of the tree : it will endanger the life of the
branch. In nailing in the young shoots, dispose them as straight and as
regular as possible : it will look workmanlike. Whatever system of train-
ing is pursued, the leading branches should be laid in in the exact position
they are to remain ; for wherever a large branch is brought down to fill the
lower part of the wall, the free ascent of the sap is obstructed by the exten-
sion of the upper and contraction of the lower parts of the branch. It is
thus robbed of part of its former vigour, whilst it seldom fails to throw out
immediately behind the part most bent one or more vigorous shoots. To
assist the young practitioner in laying in the leading branches of the tree,
the following method may perhaps be acceptable. Drive a nail into the
wall, exactly where the centre of the tree is to be, then with a string and
chalk describe a semicircle of any diameter, divide the quadrant into 90° ;
the lower branch will then take an elevation of about 12°, the second of
about 27^°, the third about 43°, the fourth 58^°, and the fifth about 74^°.
A nail should then be driven into each of these points, and the chalk rubbed
off.— (G. M. ii. p. 144.)
802. Fan-training according to Seymours mode. — Head down the maiden
plant to three eyes, as shown in fig. 289, a. Three shoots being produced, the
Fig. 2«9. Seymour's fan-training, progressive stages.
second year head down the centre one to three eyes, and leave the two side
shoots at full length, as at b. Rub off all the buds on the lower side of the
two side-branches, and leave only on the upper side a series of buds from
nine inches to twelve inches apart. When these buds have grown five inches
Fig. 290. Seymour's fan-training, third stage, in summer.
or six inches, stop the shoots produced, but still allowing the leading shoot
TRAINING.
to extend itself. At the end of the summer of the second year, there will
be four side shoots, and six or more laterals, as at c. In the following
spring, the laterals d, which had been nailed to the wall, are loosened and
tied to their main shoot, as at e, and the upright shoot or mam leader
shortened to three buds, as at/, or if the tree be very vigorous, to five buds.
At the end of the third summer, the number of laterals will be doubled on
the two lower branches, as shown in fig. 290 : a new lateral having sprung
from the base of the one tied in, as at #, and another from its extremity, as
at h. Jn the pruning of the spring of the fourth year, the original laterals,
now of two years' growth, which had borne fruit, are cut off close to the
branch, and the young laterals which had sprung from their base are loosened
from the wall, and tied down to succeed them, as at fig. 291, i. The other
Fig. 291. Seymour's fan-training , third stage after the winter pruning,
laterals produced are tied in, as at fr, and the upright shoots shortened, as at
7, as before. This method of pruning and training the peach, its author,
Mr. John Seymour, describes as truly systematical, as all the principal
Fig. 292. Seymour's fan-training, .fifth year.
leading shoots are trained by a line stretched from the setting on or origin
TRAINING.
367
of the shoot to beyond its extreme length, and the distance of the leading
shoots from one another is regulated by a semicircular line, at about ten feet
from the stem, as shown in fig. 292. On this line is marked off the distances
between the shoots, which are ten inches each. The lateral shoots are laid in
about a foot asunder, as at «, in this figure. In the third or fourth year, and
Fig. 293. Seymour's fan-training, sixth year.
sometimes in the second, instead of laying in all the side shoots at full
length, some of them are shortened, so as to get two leading shoots from
as many side shoots as may be necessary to fill the wall, as shown at
6, 6. If the double side shoots thus produced are strong, they may be
laid in their whole length ; but if weak, they must be cut short to give
them strength. Occasionally a side shoot may be made to produce three
others, as at c ; so that there never can be any difficulty in producing a
sufficient number of leading shoots to furnish the wall. Fig. 293 is a por-
Fig. 294. Seymour's fan-training, in progress for a low
trait of one-half of a Vanguard peach of six years' growth, taken in March,
B B 2
368
TRAINING.
1826. This tree, we are informed, still exists in Carleton Hall Gardens,
where it covers nearly eight hundred square feet of wall, and is universally
admired. It will be evident, we think, to every gardener, that this mode
of training is not so well adapted for low walls as for such as are high. For
high walls it is recommended to train the tree in form of the fig. 294, till it
reaches the top of the wall, and afterwards to change the position of the
shoots in the manner shown in fig. 295, encouraging the shoots produced
Fig. 295. Seymour's fan-training, suited to a low wall.
from a, a, to throw out branches to fill the centre of the tree. (Ibid. vol. vi.
p. 437.) There can be no doubt that this is a very systematic and beautiful
mode of training, but being more difficult than the common fan mode, it
has not been generally adopted by gardeners. Its perfect symmetry ought
strongly to recommend it to the amateur of leisure.
803. Pan-training in the wavy or curvilinear manner. — This mode of
training was first described and its advantages pointed out by Mr. Hay ward,
in his Science of Horticulture, published in 1822 ; but it had been in practice
to a certain extent long before, which shows its foundation in nature. Mr.
Callow, to whom the idea was suggested by the lower branches of some large
elms, which, though they projected ever so far horizontally, still had their
extremities inclined upwards, practised it with the peach and nectarine
nearly half a century ago. (Gard. Mag., 1834, p. 38.) This mode of training,
which we shall describe from Mr. Hayward's very scientific work, is
founded on the fact, that the sap will always flow in the greatest quan-
tity to the most vertical buds ; so that a branch bent like an inverted
syphon, however low the centre may be, yet if the extreme point be turned
upwards, the buds there will produce vigorous upright shoots, however
distant they may be from
the main stem. If a
branch be fixed in a ver-
tical position, the strong-
est shoot will be pro- Fig. 297. Illustrative of
duced at the point bud a, wavy-training.
*«te= in fig. 296, as it will also if the shoot should
TRAINING. 369
fignre. Again, if a branch be fixed in a horizontal position, as in fig. 297,
the strongest shoot will be produced from the most vertical bud near the
base of the shoot, as at rf, and the shoot produced from e will be the weakest ;
but by turning up the point of this horizontal shoot, as at fig. 298 /,
2 V. nearly as strong a shoot
^Ssat==^ssc=^ j will be produced as if ^
YV the branch had been
:rrr^»W fixed in a vertical po-
a considerable distance from the main stem of the plant. The bud at/, in
this example, will also make a strong shoot. It is easy to conceive how
these facts may be taken advantage of in training trees on flat surfaces.
All the main branches, which in the common mode of fan-training, and also in
Seymour's mode, are laid in at an angle of 45°, are by Hayward's mode laid
in much nearer the horizontal position, but always with their extreme
points turned up. Trees may be trained in this manner either without a
main stem, which constitutes the slightest deviation from common fan-
training, and which has been found greatly preferable to it by Mr. Callow,
Mr. Glendinning, and others ; with one main stem, or with two main stems,
both of which modes have been tried and proved by Mr. Hayward.
804. Wavy fan-training with two stems. — Suppose that the object is "to
cover a space of wall of sixteen feet in length and twelve feet high, and at
the same time to provide a length of stem of eight feet from the root for the
sap to pass through to prepare it for fructification (which is required by the
peach tree), we must obtain a plant with two equal stems, growing from the
same base, of four feet each ; for by each taking one-half of the sap supplied,
and passing it over four feet, both surfaces together will be equal to oi'.e
stem of eight feet high ; and in order to bring the fruiting part of the tree as
near the earth as possible, and to fill the lower part of the wall or trellis, we
must bend each of the stems down, as in fig. 299 ; and all the buds being
removed, but three at each extremity, ft, ft, (and it must be remembered that
unless this is particularly attended to, it
will be almost impossible to succeed in
training a tree in this manner,) those will
take the full quantity of sap supplied by
the root, and form shoots of proportionate
strength, and those shoots during the sum-
mer may be trained upwards, as in fisr. 300.
Fig. 300. War y-traininc], first stage. m. /• n • • , ,1 • i i i
The following winter the side-branches
must be brought down to their proper position to the right and left, as in
fig. 301. If the horizontal branches are four feet long, or of the full length
required to fill the space of
sixteen feet allowed, the , /
points of those branches must ' • .. / ' ^^
be laid flat, as at t, on the ^^~-— ^
left-hand side of 301 ; but if jj
they are required to grow **#&.
longer, the points must be Fig. 301. Wavy-training, third stage.
turned up, as on the right-hand side, k. The next object must be to manage
the centre shoots, or stems, which are to furnish horizontals, so as to cover
370 TRAINING.
the upper part of the wall. There are two modes of effecting this : the one
to bend the leading branch in a serpentine form, as represented at fr, in fig. 301,
iind form the bends so that they may present a wood bud on the upper side of
each, at from four inches to nine inches apart, which will place the hori-
zontals from nine inches to eighteen inches apart on each side ; all other
buds but these being removed, they will be furnished with sufficient sap to
form horizontals of due length the following year, and also a centre shoot to
form the stem, to be managed in the same manner to produce horizontals
the following year ; and so on every year, until the tree has attained the
height of the wall. The other mode of proceeding with the stem is to train
it in an upright direction, and to cut it off, or shorten it, as at «", in the last
figure, from nine inches to eighteen inches every year; rubbing off all the buds,
except the three which are best placed at the end to furnish two horizontals
and a leader for the following year. This is not only the most simple, but
perhaps the most certain, mode of providing horizontals of due strength, and
at the distances wanted. Indeed this mode of shortening the centre branch
must be adopted with all fruit trees, except the peach. The peach tree,
with care and attention, may be trained on the serpentine plan, so as to place
the horizontals with great regularity. When it is thus trained, there is this
advantage,— the current of the sap being checked in the buds, a larger
portion is sent into the horizontals, and the sap is more equally divided ;
they are thus sustained in greater luxuriance at the lower part of the tree,
and sometimes two tiers of horizontals may be obtained in one year. But
as almost all other trees are prone to form their shoots at the ends of
the last year's shoots, the bending will not always force out shoots where
wanted. In order to secure this, therefore, the leading shoots must be
shortened every year, down to the place where it is desired to form the
horizontals ; arid even by this mode of forcing out branches (by shortening),
the upright flow of the sap may be checked by bending the leader each year
from one side to another, on an inclination of about 45°, as in fig. 302,
which as indicated by the
numbers 1 to 5, is of five
years' growth. Proceed-
ing in this manner, a tree
will advance in height
only by a tier of horizon-
tals each year, and hence
it will appear to fill the
upper part of the wall but
Fig. 302. Wavy-training, J(fth year ,rr , r , , .
slowly ; but it must be
considered, that the time you lose in covering the upper part of the wall,
you gain in width on the lower part. It may also appear on a superficial
view, that by extending the branches so long, and rendering them so naked
of shoots, for the first year or two, you lose so much time ; but it is not so
in reality, for by this mode you lose no time in cutting back the stem, as by
the usual mode. By the common mode of training, two or more years are
lost before it is attempted to produce bearing wood. Moreover, by laying
down the first branches to such lengths, you obtain a space sufficient, the
second or third years, to dispose of every inch of wood the tree makes,
without crowding it too closely together ; and indeed the means of appro-
priating to a profitable purpose all the nutriment extracted from the soil by
TRAINING. «371
the tree. From a tree trained in this manner above seven hundred per-
fectly ripened peaches have been gathered the fifth year of training, all
growing within six feet of the surface of the border. When a tree is full
grown, it will have the appearance of fig. 303. Particular attention must
be paid to the
rubbing off all
or most of the
" shoots, as soon
as they appear in
the spring, from
the front and
under sides of
the horizontals,
as, well as from
all other parts of
the tree where
young wood is
not wanted." —
{Hay ward on the
Fruitfalnessand
Barrenness of
Fig. 303. Wavy-training t completed. Plants and
Tree*, <$c., 1834.) To Mr. Hayward's directions, the observations which
we have made on some trees trained in this manner enable us to suggest,
that a sufficient number of shoots and leaves should be left on the mam
stems, for the purpose of strengthening them and the roots. For this pur-
pose, it will be advisable to leave some shoots on the stems, even where they
are not ultimately wanted, till such time as the ramification °f the top
affords a sufficient breadth of foliage for strengthening them. The stems, in
their naked state, are also liable to be scorched by the rays of the sun, un-
less they are protected, either by a covering or screen of some kind, or by
training down some of the shoots, so as that the foliage may overhang them.
A similar objection may be made to Hitt's mode of training with two stems,
which may be considered the parent of Mr. Hayward's mode.
805. Wavy fan-training with a single stem will readily be understood. On
planting, if the stem is without branches, cut it back to three buds ; but if it
has already three shoots, shorten the centre one to nine inches or a foot,
according to the kind of tree, and leave only three buds at its upper ex-
tremity, laying in the side shoots as in fig. 304. In like manner after next
years growth shorten the centre
shoot, and lay in the two side shoots
as before, and proceed in this manner
till the wall is filled, or till the tree
has the appearance of fig. 305. It is
necessary to observe, with reference
Fig. 304. Wavy-traininp with a single stem, first to this figure, that the length of Stem
is for the purpose of admitting a single
shoot of a vine, to be trained horizontally below it, a mode which Mr. Hay-
ward finds to be productive of early and abundant crops. In wavy fan-training
with a single stem which is short, Mr. Hayward observes, " It will be dif-
ficult to prevent the horizontal branches near the centre of the tree from
372
TRAINING.
v.
becoming naked of bearing wood, because the sap cannot pass through a
sufficient space of bark to prepare it for fructification, until it is a great
distance from the trunk.
But this defect may in a great
measure be remedied, if,
instead of being cut back to
make it throw out branches
to form the tree from a short
stem, a stem of four or five
feet be bent down as in fig.
306 ; and if all the buds, as
they push out, be rubbed off,
except the three at the end,
those may be trained up in
the same manner as if the
stem had been cut back or
shortened, and afterwards the
Fig. 305. A half rider trained in the wavy manner. 8tem or centre may be treated
in the same manner as the one that is cut back ; the difference will then be,
that the centre of the tree will be formed four feet on one side of the root,
instead of being immediately over it ; but as the sap will thus have a space
of four feet of bark to pass, the tree will produce its bearing wood in greater
abundance near the stem, and fill the wall more equally with fruit." —
(Inquiry, S$c. p. 228.)
806. Horizontal training is in a great measure confined to Britain, for it is
not generally approved of on the Continent, more especially in France. It was
first systematically described by Hitt, and is practised either with one or two
stems, and either with the upright stem straight, or in a zigzag direction to
stimulate the lateral buds to develop themselves. From this upright stem
the branches proceed at right
angles, generally at nine inches
apart for apples, cherries, and __ ^
plums, and from ten inches to a
foot, or eighteen inches for pears. ~
A maiden plant with three -..
, Fig.307- Horizontal train-
shoots having been procured, the ing, first stage.
two side ones are laid in horizon-
tally, and the centre one upright, as in fig. 307 ; all the buds being rubbed off
the latter but three, viz., one next the top for a vertical leader, and one on each
side as near the top as possible, for horizontal branches. In the course of the
first summer after planting, the shoots may be allowed to grow without being
stopped. In the autumn of the first year the two laterals produced are
nailed in, and also the shoots produced from
the extremities of the lower laterals ; the centre
shoot being headed down as before, as shown in
fig. 308. But in the second summer, when the
main shoot has attained the length of ten inches,
or twelve inches, it may be stopped ; which if the
plant is in proper vigour will cause it to throw
out two horizontal branches, in addition to those
which were thrown out from the wood of the preceding year. The tree will
&>
Hsr*'*"^-
iw___
Fig. 308. Horizontal training,
second stage.
TRAINING. 373
now be in its second summer, and will have four horizontal branches on each
side of the upright stem as in n>. 309 ; and by persevering in this system
four horizontal branches
will be produced in each
year,
till the tree reaches
Fig. 309. Horizontal training, third stage.
consists of a single shoot from a bud.
and next spring head it down to seven buds,
three shoots, the
third and fourth,
counting up-
wards, must be
rubbed off when
they are three
inches in length ;
the uppermost
shoot must be
trained straight
up the wall for a
leading stem, and
the remaining
four horizontally
along the wall.
The leading shoot
the top of the wall, when
the upright stem must
terminate in two horizon-
tal branches. In the fol-
lowing autumn the tree
will have the appearance
of fig. 310 ; supposing an
apple tree be the plant to
be trained, and that it
Let it be planted early in autumn,
" Every bud pushing two or
Fig. 310. Horizontal training, fourth year.
having attained about fifteen inches in length, cut it down to eleven inches.
From the shoots that will thus be produced select three, one to be trained as
a leader, and two as side branches. In the second autumn the tree will have
the appearance of fig 311. Proceeding in this way for seven years, the tree
will have reached the top of a wall
twelve feet high. With weak trees,
or trees in very cold, late situations,
this practice will not be advisable, as
the wood produced from the summer
shoots would be too weak, or would
not ripen ; but in all ordinary situa-
tions the plan will succeed." — (Har-
rison on Fruit-trees, chap, xx.)
807. Fan-training and horizontal
training combined. — In training trees
horizontally, we have seen that a
Fig. si i. Horizontal training, the apple. considerable period must elapse before
the wall is filled. It is alleged also that heading-down does not always
produce two lateral shoots, and also that it has a tendency to make the
374 TRAINING.
shoots already produced grow more rank than is desirable : by the following
method practised by Mr. Green of Stepney, this inconvenience is avoided,
and the wall is much sooner filled in height with shoots :— Suppose the wall
to be under twenty feet long, and that it is intended to train a pear-tree
J>
Fig. 312. Horizontal training and fan-training combined.
against it ; plant the tree at one end of the wall, and then proceed as follows:
Let the situation of the tree be at a, in fig. 31 2 ; stick a nail in the wall at &,
Fig. 313. Horizontal and fan-training combined.
and another nail at c, and strike a line on the wall from b to c ; then train
all the shoots to one side after the fan man-
ner, and bend the whole of the shoots into a
horizontal position, as soon as they reach the
line that is drawn from b to c ; after which
continue to train them horizontally. If the
wall is from thirty to forty feet in length,
plant the tree in the middle of it as at d, in fig.
313, and proceed as follows : — Stick a nail in
the wall in the centre, near the top, at e;
stick another nail at /, and another at g;
then strike a line from e to /, another line
from e to g ; train the tree in the fan manner
until the shoots reach the lines drawn upon
the wall, and then bend them hori-
zontally. If the wall is higher
than it is wide, proceed as follows :
•—Plant the tree in the middle of
the wall at 7t, in fig. 314 ; stick one
nail at *, one at &, and one at / ;
strike the lines as before ; but, in- pig31s
Stead of spreading out the shoots fan training,
horizontally, train them perpendi- ^rst Sta9e-
Fig. 314. Horizontal and ttpriy/tt
training combined.
TRAINING.
375
Fig. 316. Half-fan traini
second stage.
cularly. This process answers well for pears, vines, or any other rank-
growing tree. — (G, M., vol. viii. p. 530.) A similar mode of training haa
been adopted by
Mr. Smith of
Hope ton House,
for the finer ap-
ples and best
late pears, and
is thus described
by him: fig. 315
represents a tree
one year from
the graft, newly planted, and afterwards
cut down to two buds on each shoot.
-n. o-i/, .1 j. Fig. 317. Half-fan training, third stage.
Fig. 316 represents the same tree two
years old, and fan-trained. Fig. 317, the same tree three years old, cut back
and fan-trained. Fig. 318, the same tree, six years old, fan-trained ; the
shoots brought
down in a curvi-
linear form to the
horizontal direc-
tion; and the differ-
ent years' growth
marked one, two,
three, four, five,
six. The centre is
still trained in the
fan form, and the
branches are
brought down
yearly; until the
tree reaches to the
top of the wall,
where the fan-
forward horizontally.
Fig. 318. Half-fan training, sixth year.
training terminates, and the branches are trained
Nothing more is necessary than to keep the trees in good order, and to en-
courage the leading shoots. — (G. M. x. p. 267.)
808. Perpendicular training is comparatively little used, excepting for
climbing shrubs, such as roses, the vine, and the gooseberry and currant,
when trained against a wall or espalier rail. The principle is to have two
horizontal main stems on the lowest part of the wall or trellis, and to train
from these upright shoots at regular distances. Sometimes four horizontal
main stems are used — two at the bottom, and the other two half way up the
wall or espalier ; but this mode is chiefly adopted with the vine. With the
exception of the latter plant and the fig, when trained in this way, the main
horizontal branches are very short, seldom in the case of the rose, gooseberry,
. |_i . _ or currant, extending more than two feet or three feet from
each side of the stem. A young plant with two shoots may have
these shortened to one foot each in length, and tied to the lower
Flg.3l9.Perpen- , . /. ,, , •,,. /» 01 r» rnu- i_ • j
dicuiar train- *jar or wire °* the trellis, as m fig. 319. ImsbLung done in
autumn, next year two upright shoots will be produced, and an
376 TRAINING.
addition made to the horizontal shoots, as in fig. 320. The third year, two
other upright shoots, or if the plant is in a vigorous state, four will be pro-
, j duced, as in fig.321; and this will
J I generally be found sufficient hori-
.a^a JL^L^fc zontal extension for a gooseberry,
currant, or rose. See fig. 322. The -~*
IH
11
-*«a*Bir —
Fig. 320. Perdicu- B« upright shoots now established
lar training, second Will advance at the rate 01 from Fig. 321. Perpendicular train-
stage. nine inches to a foot in a year, if in9> third stas>e-
the plants are gooseberries or currants, but a great deal faster if they are
climbers of any kind. This mode of training is frequently combined with
the fan manner, when vines, roses, Wistarias, or other luxuriant climbers,
p*-e to be trained against the gable ends of houses, as shown in fig. 313.
809. Instruments and materials. — In addition to those mentioned (784) as
. _ required for training in general, we may add for
training against walls and trellises,— a pair of
scissors for clipping the shreds ; a hammer, with
a shaft of sufficient length, that when hung on
one round of the ladder by the head, the other
may rest on the round below so as not to fall
through ; a leathern wallet, such as that figured
and described in p. 167, or in default of it a
. basket, fig. 323, about twelve Inches long, six
inches broad, and six inches deep,
with loops to put a belt through on
one side, that it may hang before the
operator, having the side on which
the loops are made bending to rest Fig. 323. Train
^ better against ^ ^ and & ^ er's basket.
vision in the middle for two different sorts of shreds
— the longer of these should be an inch or more in breadth, and the shorter, for
the bearing shoots of peaches and nectarines, about a third of an inch (Hitt) ;
a deal plank to tread upon, with a strap at each end to drag it along either
way, or to lift it with one hand ; a small pair of pincers for drawing out
nails in places where the hammer cannot be so conveniently employed, and
a pair of pliers, if wire is used as ties ; a key or narrow saw (fig. 202, in
p. 290) for taking off old branches; a mallet, and a chisel about two inches
broad at the mouth, for the same purpose ; to which we may add a couple
of step-ladders, on which a plank may be placed at different heights parallel
to the wall for the operator to stand on, by which he will do much more
work, and with much greater ease to himself. In cutting branches of trees
trained against walls, the cut or wounded section should always, if possible,
be on the under side of the branches, or next the wall ; and in the case of
espaliers, it ought to be on the under side.
810. Comparative view of the different modes of training. — It is well to
understand the various methods of training detailed in the foregoing pages ;
and knowing them, any modification may be adopted which circumstances
may require, provided the general principles are kept in view. Ornamental
shrubs are easily managed, because they have not a tendency to rear them-
selves by forming a strong stem ; but with regard to fruit-trees, the case is
otherwise. These, it is well known, if left to nature, form one strong stem,
Fig. 322. Perpendicular training
TRAINING. 377
supporting a top which reaches the height of twenty, thirty, or forty feet, or
more. In order to attain this, the sap rushes, whilst the tree is young and
vigorous, towards the leading shoot ; and if lateral branches are occasionally
produced, the flow of sap is not strongly directed towards them compared to
that which is impelled towards the more upright part. At length, however,
a ramification does take place, in comparison with which the leading shoot
becomes less and less predominant, till it becomes ultimately lost amongst its
compeers. A tolerably equal distribution of sap then results, and a conical
or spherical top is formed bearing fruit, not generally in the concavity, where
it would be greatly excluded from light, but at the external surface, where
the fruit itself and the leaves immediately connected with the buds producing
it can be fully exposed to light, air, and dews. It was remarked that lateral
branches were occasionally produced on the stem in the progress of its ascent.
When the top is formed, these are placed at great disadvantage, owing to
their being overshaded, and they are then apt to decay, the tree assuming
the character of a large elevated top supported on a strong naked stem. This
is the natural disposition of trees, and to this it is necessary to attend in
order that it may be counteracted where the natural form of the tree cannot
be admitted. It should be borne in mind that the disposition to form an
elevated naked stem is still strongly evinced in dwarf trees ; although sub-
divided, yet each branch possesses its share of the original disposition, and
its lower and horizontal shoots are left to become weak in comparison with
the upper and those that are vertical.
811. A standard tree, from its being least restrained from attaining its
natural habit, requires least management in regard to training, as has been
already explained. When trained in any dwarf form, attention is in the
first place required towards counteracting the disposition to form one large
elevated stem by stopping the leading shoot. In this and other processes in
pruning and training, it is necessary to be aware of the nature of the buds
on different parts of the shoot, and the effect of cutting near or at a distance
from the base. Where a shoot is shortened, the remaining buds are stimu-
lated, and those immediately below the section seldom fail to produce shoots,
even although they would have otherwise remained dormant. The lowest
buds on the base of a shoot do not generally become developed, unless the
shoot is cut or broken above them. They remain endowed with all their
innate vital power, although comparatively in a state of repose ; but should
the shoot on the base of which these buds are situated be destroyed or
amputated, very soon they are called into vigorous action, producing supple-
mentary shoots much stronger than could be obtained from any other buds
more remote from the base. Were these buds as prone to development as
others, a mass of shoots and foliage would be produced in the central parts,
where the foliage could not have a due share of light, an arrangement that
would prove bad. They must be looked upon as being placed in reserve
for furnishing \vood shoots, whenever the pruner chooses to stimulate their
development by amputating the portion of shoot above them.
812. From this view of the properties belonging to the lowest situated
buds, it is evident they are the most unlikely to become fruit-buds. These
are formed towards the extremities. In some cases they are terminal ; but
generally about two-thirds from the base is the situation where fruit-buds
are first formed, and in some kinds of fruit-trees are developed into blossom
the following season, and in others the basis of a spur is established. This
378 WEEDING.
spur sometimes continues slowly to elongate for years before it produces
fruit. As the strongest shoots are obtained from buds near the bases of
shoots, and as all horizontally trained branches grow weak compared with
those that have a more vertical position, it follows that all horizontal branches
and those approaching that direction should be obtained, as far as circum-
stances will permit, from buds situated near the base. Hence in horizontal
training, say a foot apart between the tiers of branches, it is not well to
encourage two tiers in the same season ; for in that case the tier that pro-
ceeds from buds two feet from the base of the current year's shoot, has a
much less substantial origin than those that are produced from buds only
a foot from the base. The formation of two tiers should therefore never
be attempted whilst the lower part of the wall is being furnished ; for the
lower horizontals have a tendency to become ultimately weak, and on this
account it is requisite that their origin should be well established. Towards
the top of the tree, where the sap flows with greater force, two tiers are less
objectionable. According to the principles of Seymour's training, the ori-
ginating of the side branches from buds near the base of the vertical central
shoot is well provided for, and this ought to be kept in view hi every mode
of training adopted. In order to furnish well the lower part of a tree, it is
necessary to procure strong branches, and these can be best obtained from
the lower part of a strong central shoot ; and in order that this shoot may
have sufficient strength, it must have a vertical position. If no central
shoot is retained, one of three evils must result : either the central pai t
must remain open as the tree increases, with half fans on each side ; or a
shoot to produce others to fill the centre must be encouraged from one side,
thus upsetting the balance of the tree ; or, to avoid this, two or more vertical
or nearly vertical shoots must be allowed, the divarications from which
cannot be kept clear of each other, whilst likewise a great proportion of
shoots must inevitably be placed nearly or quite perpendicular, relatively
with which the horizontal branches below are situated at an infinite disad-
vantage as regards the distribution of sap. Trees commenced to be trained
in nurseries have often the objectionable form imposed upon them of an open
centre, being deprived of an upright shoot and set off like a V ; and similarly
objectionable are the Montreuil and other modes on the same principle.
With skilful management, these modes do succeed in France ; but in the
rich soil and humid climate of Britain, the flow of sap cannot be equalised
by any mode that admits of a competition between vertical and horizontal
branches. One upright is necessary for furnishing side branches ; but being
annually cut back for this purpose, it does not gain any increasing ascend-
ency, and forms but a slight exception to the whole flow of sap being
directed to the growth of the side branches ; and in consequence of this,
these branches will become so well established, that they will be capable of
receiving a due share of sap to enable them to continue healthy, instead of
dying off, as is their tendency when the vigour of the tree is wasted in
exuberant wood induced by permitting shoots, either intentionally or through
neglect, to follow their natural disposition to grow up into stems, wherever
they can avail themselves of a favourable, that is, an upright position, for
appropriating an abundant supply of sap. (Gard. Mag. 1842.)
§ XL— Weeding.
813. A weed is any plant which comes up in a situation where it is not
WEEDING- 379
wanted. It may be either an absolute weed, such as are all plants of no
known use ; or a relative one, such as a useful plant where it comes up and
is not wanted among other useful plants, or on walks, walls, &c. Weeds
are injurious by depriving the soil of the nutriment destined for other plants ;
by depriving other plants of the space they occupy, as in the case of weeds
in beds of seedlings, and of broad-leaved plants on lawns ; by their shade,
when they are allowed to grow large ; and by their mere existence, as when
they appear on gravel- walks. In those parts of gardens where the soil is
kept constantly pulverised on the surface, the most numerous weeds consist
of annual plants ; but among the grass of lawns, and sometimes among crops
which remain in one place for more than a year, perennial weeds also make
their appearance. The seeds of weeds are brought into gardens by stable
dung, by birds, by the wind, by fresh soil brought in for the renewal of
borders, for compost, &c., and by some other sources ; and they are perpe-
tuated there by being allowed to come to maturity and shed their seeds.
The obvious mode of preventing the existence of all absolute weeds, whether
annual or perennial, would be to prevent all weeds, whether hi gardens or
fields, from ripening seeds, by cutting them down before they come into
flower ; and this, we think, ought to be made an object of national concern
for the sake of the agriculture of the country, even more than for its gar-
dening. Prices per peck or per bushel might be offered for the unopened
flower-buds of different weeds, according to their bulk or frequency, to be
paid by parish-officers to such children and infirm persons as might find it
worth while to collect them, nothing being paid for those buds which have
been suffered to expand. This practice, we are informed, exists in some
parts of France and in Bavaria ; but to be effective in any country it ought
to be general. In the mean time, all that can be done is to destroy weeds
as fast as they appear.
814. Annual weeds among growing crops are readily destroyed in dry
weather by hoeing, and leaving them, if very young, to die where they have
grown ; but if large, they may be raked off and wheeled to the compost
ground, where mixed with soil or with other putrescent matters, they will
be speedily decomposed and rendered fit for manure. Wherever casings of
dung or other fermenting materials to hotbeds are in use, weeds, if laid on
them or mixed with them, will assist in aiding fermentation ; or when dig-
ging and trenching are going forward, they may be buried in the soil at
once. In hoeing up annual weeds, it is sufficient, as far as regards their
destruction, to cut them over beneath the seed-leaves, which commonly rest
on the surface of the ground ; but as the object of hoeing is commonly not
only to destroy weeds but to stir the soil, the hoe ought to be thrust in much
deeper in order to attain both objects. In moist soils and in moist weather,
care must be taken not to hoe so deep as partially to bury the weeds, which
in that case, instead of being destroyed, may be said to undergo a kind of
transplantation. Weeds among broadcast crops which stand thick on the
ground, such as onions, spinach, &c., require to be pulled up by hand ; and
for this purpose a moist state of the soil is preferable, but not so much as to
occasion poaching by the feet of the weeder, unless indeed the plants should
be in beds, where they may be weeded immediately after the heaviest rains.
815. Perennial weeds, except when they are quite young and not far
advanced beyond the sead-leaf, when they may be treated as annuals, require
more care to eradicate than annual weeds. Their roots generally must be
380 WEEDING.
raised up by a fork, weeding- hook, spade, trowel, or some other implement,
which penetrates deeper than the hoe ; and great care must be taken with
underground stems, such as those of the couch-grass, the small field convol-
vulus, the hedge nettle, and others, to take up every joint, otherwise the
result will merely be the propagation of these weeds by division. Among
growing crops, the two-pronged fork (fig. 34, in p. 135) is the only safe
instrument1 for eradicating root- weeds, for reasons which we omit, because
like many other reasons which we do not give, we consider them sufficiently
obvious to the reader who has perused the preceding chapters of this work
with due attention.
816. Weeds in gravel-walks should always be taken out by weeding, and
never, in our opinion, by hoeing and raking ; and for amateurs, who do not
wish to stoop, there is the implement, fig. 30, in p. 135, as well as the
Guernsey weeding-prong, fig. 105, in p. 238. Salt has been used to destroy
vegetation on walks, but its effects do not last above a year, as the first
winter's rain washes it into the subsoil ; besides, the attraction of salt for
moisture has been found (Gard. Chron for 1841, p. 846) to encourage the
growth of mosses and other cryptogamic plants to such an extent, as to give
the walks a slimy, slippery surface after rain, and during winter and spring.
Sulphate of copper (the blue vitriol of druggists) effectually destroys moss
and other plants, is more durable in its effects than salt, and is not attended
with the same humidity and attraction for the seeds of cryptogamic plants.
It must not be forgotten, in using salt and other compositions for destroying
weeds on walks in kitchen-gardens and shrubberies, that the roots of wall
and espalier trees generally find their way under gravel, and consequently
that if such mixtures are used for two or three years in succession, they
may destroy the trees as well as the weeds. In some gardens, in order to
destroy weeds in walks at the least expense, the walks are hoed and raked,
and frequently left in this state without being rolled. In wet climates and
retentive soils, where walks are covered with loose rough gravel in order
that they may be walked on immediately after rain, as is the case in some
country residences in Scotland, this is proper ; but where walks are made of
binding gravel or sand, we consider this practice in bad taste, because it
confounds the character of the surface of the walk, which to walk comfort-
ably on ought to be firm, even, and smooth, with that of the dug border,
which ought to be always more or less rough to facilitate the admission of
air and moisture to the roots of the plants. In a shady shrubbery walk, or
a gravel- walk through a wood, the appearance of moss is to our eyes much
less offensive than would a surface hoed and raked, however free the latter
might be of vegetation.
817. Weeds in lawns or on grass-walks include all the broad-leaved plants
which spring up among the proper grasses, not even excepting the clovers,
commonly sown with them to give the grass a better hold of the scythe in
mowing. All these broad -leaved plants, and even all broad-leaved grasses,
such as the cocksfoot, ought to be weeded out if it is intended to have a per-
fect lawn, which to be so ought to resemble a piece of cloth in uniformity of
texture and appearance. The worst weeds in lawns are those which have very
broad and flat reclining leaves, which the scythe is apt to pass over, leaving
them to feed the roots, such as certain species of plantago, dandelion, &c. ;
and these are the more difficult to eradicate, because they have tap-roots, fur-
nished with adventitious buds which seldom fail to be developed, unless the
WEEDING. 381
roots are cut over two or three inches beneath the surface. The common
daisy is very troublesome in lawns by the breadth of the tuft formed by its
leaves ; but being a fibrous-rooted plant it is easily eradicated, and provided
none are allowed to ripen seed, a lawn may soon be cleared of them. In
lawns not frequently mown, the daisy rake (fig. 35, in p. 136) or daisy knife
(fig. 50 d, in p. 140) ought to be employed to cut off the flowers before they
expand.
818. Weeds in shrubberies and plantations. — So long as shrubberies are
annually dug, the weeds are kept under by hoeing and raking ; but when
these operations have ceased, and the shrubs do not cover the whole of the
surface, the interstices generally exhibit coarse grasses and rampant weeds ;
and it is not a little remarkable that this is often found to be the case in
grown-up shrubberies, where the walks are kept clear of weeds, and their
edgings carefully trimmed, as if the eye of the spectator were not directed to
the scenery on each side. If the object were & fac-simile imitation of a
natural wood, then every weed that came up might be allowed to grow and
flourish ; but as we are referring to shrubberies, which are always artificial
plantations, and chiefly of foreign plants, — in these, we say, no herbaceous
plant ought to be allowed to grow up and flourish, that is, not as artificial as
the trees and shrubs among which it appears. If therefore the shrubbery hi
its young state contained flowers as well as shrubs, and is to maintain a pictur-
esque character, the flowers may be allowed to exist till the encroachment of
the shrubs destroys them ; but if the character to be maintained is the
gardenesque (in which every plant should stand free, with sufficient room to
display its natural shape), then no more herbaceous plants ought to be
allowed to exist than can attain a proper size and degree of perfection. All
the others interfere with the character to be maintained, and ought therefore
to be treated as weeds. The manner in which these are removed in shrub-
beries and plantations which have ceased to be dug is chiefly by mowing,
which ought to be done three or four times in the course of summer. Where
shrubberies are properly managed, digging, or at least hoeing, among the
plants will not cease till the shrubs have nearly or altogether covered the
ground, in which case very few weeds will appear. In many cases, the
ground may be covered with low evergreens, such as ivy, tutsan, periwinkle,
spurge, laurel, &c., when the larger shrubs and trees may stand at a consi-
derable distance apart, and yet little or no weeding become necessary. When
large weeds only are to be pulled out of shrubberies, this may sometimes be
done with weeding pincers (fig. 324) after the weeds have thrown up their
flower-stems ; but the evil, both in regard to exhausting
the soil and appearance, is in that case in a great measure
already effected, therefore the best mode is to cut them over
a few inches beneath the surface with the weeding spud
(fig. 28, in p. 134), as soon as they make their appearance
in spring.
819. Weeds in woods and park scenery are chiefly de-
stroyed by mowing ; and it has been found, as already
mentioned (774), that bruising and tearing off the stems
often destroy the root more effectually than cutting with
the scythe. In thick woods consisting of trees and un-
der growths, the ground is generally so effectually covered
withthe Bushes that no weeds can make their appear-
c c
382 WATERING.
ancc ; but in groves of trees, and in plantations formed in Mr. Cree's
manner, there will always be spaces more or less liable to throw up
rampant weeds, which in merely useful plantations ought to be mowed and
left to decay on the spot, for the sake of the manure which they will afford
to the trees. In cultivated or smooth park scenery, all coarse weeds should
begot rid of, so as to present a smooth turf; but in rough forest park
scenery, all the plants which it produces should be allowed to grow as being
appropriate : of these, the large fern or brake (pteris aquilina) is peculiarly
characteristic.
820. Weeding ponds, rivers, and artificial waters, in garden and park
scenery, is often very expensive by its being necessary to empty and clean
out the bottom and sides of the excavation. Much of this trouble and
expense might be rendered unnecessary in many cases by mowing over the
weeds in the bottom of the water, when they first make their appearance
there in early spring, and repeating the operation at short intervals till the
roots are destroyed from the want of elaborated sap sent down by the leaves.
(See more on this subject in par. 548.) It should be constantly borne in
mind, that all weeds and all plants whatever may be effectually destroyed by
depriving them of their leaves as fast as they are produced (113).
§ XII. Watering.
821. Water, whether as a source of nutriment or a medium of affecting
various other objects, is one of the most important agents of culture. A
certain degree of moisture in the soil is essential to the existence of plants ;
because no food can be absorbed by the roots that is not held in solution
by water, and because the decomposition of water, and its perspiration from
the leaves and bark are continually going forward. Plants require a certain
degree of moisture at their roots not only when in active growth, but when
in a state of comparative rest, because even then perspiration is going on
with those parts which are above the ground, and with the roots themselves
when plants are taken up for transplanting. In the season of growth the
demand for water is greatly increased, and it diminishes as the period of
growth advances, and the power of decomposition and evaporation ceases. If
water in excess is given at this period of the growth of a plant, its parts
become distended in consequence of the absorption by the spongioles still
going on, while the power of decomposition and perspiration by the leaves is
diminished ; it becomes sickly, its leaves assume a yellow colour, and if the
excess of water is not soon withdrawn from the soil, death ensues. By
pulverizing soils and increasing their depth, their capacity for holding water
is increased, while by underground draining it cannot be retained in excess.
By these means, and by the addition of immures acting mechanically
and keeping the soil open, a great facility is afforded to the extension of
the roots, and the vigour of the plants is increased in proportion, but at
the same time the power of the roots to exhaust the soil of water becomes
greatly increased. If under such circumstances a proportionate supply
of water is not afforded at the proper time, either by nature or art,
the growth of the plant will fall much short of what it might be ; of which
examples may be seen both in garden and field crops, by comparing the crops
of a moderately wet summer with those of a very dry one. It may be con-
cluded, therefore, that the full benefits of stirring the soil, draining and
manuring, cannot be obtained without a command of water.
WATERING. 383
822. The specific purposes for which water is used in Horticulture are numer-
ous. In general it may be applied wherever a stimulus is wanted to growth,
unless indeed the soil be already sufficiently moist. It is given to newly
sown seeds, or newly planted plants ; for the purpose of setting blossoms,
swelling fruits, increasing the number and succulcncy of leaves ; conveying
manure held in suspension; convening matter for destroying insects, or
parasitic fungi, such as the mildew ; or poisoning plants on walls or gravel
walks ; for causing substances in powder to adhere to plants, as in applying
sulphur and other articles ; for clearing the leaves and stems of plants from
dust or other foreign matters ; for accelerating vegetation when the wrater is
warmer than the soil ; for retarding it when it is cooler ; for thawing frozen
plants ; for forming steam or dew in plant structures ; for rooting cuttings
of some kinds of plants (G02) ; for growing aquatics, for heating plant struc-
tures, and for producing fountains and other aquatic ornaments. Water
in the form of snow, forms a valuable protection to low plants when they can
be covered by it, acting as a non-conductor of the heat of the soil, and pre-
venting it from escaping into the atmosphere ; and water as ice is an object
of the gardener's care, the filling of the ice-house being generally committed
to him. On the quantity of rain or snow which falls in any country, and on
the proportions which fall in different seasons of the year, depends, as we
have already seen, (140 to 144,) the natural vegetation of that country, its
agriculture, and all that part of its horticulture which is carried on in the
open garden.
823. The ordinary sources from which water is obtained in gardens are
chiefly wells, and the collection of rain water in cisterns ; but it occasionally
happens that a natural stream passes through or near the garden, or that
water is conveyed to it by pipes or drains from some abundant source. In
whichever way water is supplied it ought always to be exposed in a pond or
basin, so as to be warmed by the sun to the same temperature as the surface
of the soil before being used ; unless indeed the object be to retard vegetation
by its coldness, which can very seldom be the case. Some very interesting
experiments were made by Mr. Gregor Drummond, in 1826, on the com-
parative effects of spring water and pond water, in lowering or raising the
temperature of the soil of a peach border, which it may be useful to quote.
1. " The first experiment was made on the 10th of May. At the depth
of 18 inches the temperature of the border was 64°, and that of the spring-
water used 46°. In twenty-four hours after, the temperature of the border
wras reduced to 52°, or had lost 12°. At the same time the temperature of
the soil being 64° as above, and heat of the pond water 67°, the soil at the
close of twenty -four hours was 66°, or instead of losing 12°, had gained 2°.
2. " June 20th the second watering was given. The temperature of the
border at the depth of 18 inches was now 74°, and that of the spring water
52°. In twenty-four hours the border was reduced to 58°, or had lost 16°.
" At the station where the 'pond water was used the temperature of the
border at the above-mentioned depth was 77°, and that of the water 82°. In
twenty-four hours the temperature of the border was 80°, or had gained 3°.
3. " The third and last watering was performed on the 28th of July.
The temperature of the border at 18 inches below the surface was 72°, and
that of the spring water 57°. In twenty-four hours the border was reduced
to 61°, or had lost 11° of temperature. At the pond water station the border
at the depth of 18 inches was 78°, and the water itself 74°. In twenty-four
c c 2
384 WATERING.
hours the temperature of the border was still 78°, or had suffered no change
of temperature from the watering it had undergone.
" It is very clear from these facts, that whilst spring water greatly cooled
the soil, that from the pond exerted no such operation, but on the contrary
often raised its temperature." — (Hort. Trans., vol. ii. 2nd series, p. 57.)
Hence in our opinion every complete kitchen garden, and every flower
garden whatever, ought to have a basin, or basins of water in a centrical
situation fully exposed to the sun. In every plant structure there ought to
be a cistern to receive the rain water which falls on the roof; and if con-
venient, another for pond or well water, which should only be used when
there is a deficiency of rain water. In plant structures where little air is
given, and the atmosphere kept constantly moist, as in the propagating
houses of Mr. Cunningham of Edinburgh (574), the water which falls on
the roof is found abundantly sufficient for every purpose for which it is
required within throughout the year.
824. The distribution of water in gardens is in some cases effected by open
surface gutters of hewn stone, as was the case in the gardens at Douglas
Castle, in Kirkcudbrightshire, in 1804 and for many years afterwards, and in
others by leaden pipes under the surface, the gutters or pipes communicating
with small basins, or sometimes with sunken casks, conveniently distributed
over the garden. When these basins do not exceed eighty feet or one
hundred feet apart every way, the entire surface of the garden may be
watered from them by means of a portable engine, (fig. 83 in p. 155). In
some cases a cistern or reservoir is placed on an eminence exterior to the
garden, or in a tower connected with its walls or its plant structures ; and
the water is conveyed by pipes to different places throughout the garden
and hot-houses, from whence it may be drawn into watering pots or engines
by means of cocks ; or leathern hose may be screwed on to the cocks, and
the water, in consequence of the elevation of the cistern or basin, distributed
at once among the plants. In some instances where the basin is considerably
higher than the top of the walls, the water is delivered with such force from
the orifice of the hose, as to wash the trees as effectually as is done by a
syringe or an engine. Gardens situated on declivities are favourable for
this kind of arrangement, which is not unfrequerit in the north of England
and in Scotland. Where there is an abundant supply of water from a source
40 or 50 feet above the level of the garden, a series of pierced pipes might be
distributed over it, about the height of the walls, and thus a shower over
any part of the garden commanded at pleasure, on the same principle as in
the hot-houses of Messrs. Loddiges. (513.)
825. The ordinary mode of giving water to plants is by watering pots (425
and 426) and by watering
engines (440). On a large
scale it is sometimes con- 11
veyed in barrels on carts, D. ...... ......;:. ..-.-.-...- •-
and distributed over lawns,
and plantations of straw- Fis- 326- Water-distributor for
. .11 -i the watering barrows.
berries or other low plants
Fig. 325. Watering^barrowfor in rows> bv tne same means as in watering roads ;
strawberries. or by such barrels as fig. 325. To this barrel is
joined the perforated cylinder fig. 326, which projects about two feet from one
side ; a plug b prevents the escape of the water till the barrel is wheeled to the
WATERING. 385
proper spot; this plug has a cord a, attached to which a slip of wood c, is suspend-
ed; and themoraent the operator enters between the rowsof plantsto be watered,
he pulls the string, and as he wheels along the barrel, the water rapidly escapes,
watering two rows at a time. In this manner the strawberries in the market
gardens in the neighbourhood of London are watered, when they are in
blossom. When the leaves of plants are to be cleaned from dust or other
matters that water alone will bring off; or when liquid compositions, such
as lime water, tobacco water, sopy water, &c., are to be thrown on them, the
syringe or engine is used, and when water is applied to small plants, or very
small seeds newly sown, recourse is had to a small watering pot with a very
fine rose.
826. When it is proper to water, and how much water to give, must be
determined by the circumstances in which the plant is placed. In nature
the atmosphere is very rarely otherwise than saturated with moisture,
when it rains ; but as artificial watering is a substitute for rain, it must not be
withheld when the plant requires it, on account of atmospheric dryness. As
the nearest approach to the state of the atmosphere in which nature supplies
water, the afternoon or evening may be chosen when the air is both cooler,
and somewhat moister than during sunshine. As in soils that are stirred on
the surface, the greater part of the roots are always at some depth, the
quantity of water given should be such as will thoroughly moisten the
interior of the soil, and reach all the roots. A slight watering on the surface,
unless the soil is already moist below, will not reach the fibres, and will
soon be lost by evaporation. When a less quantity of water is supplied than
will saturate the soil to the depth of from nine inches to twelve inches, " it
often," Mr. Hay ward observes, "does more injury than good to plants ; for
when in want of water the roots penetrate deep, and under such circum -
stances a small quantity of water on the surface checks the capillary attrac-
tion of moisture from below ; and thus the roots that are grown deep, which
are those on which the plant is made to depend in times of great drought,
are deprived of their supply of water, and the plant exerts its efforts to throw
out horizontal fibres ; by the time these fibres are formed and the young
shoots extended, the supply of water on the surface again fails, and they are
again checked, and perhaps destroyed : thus the efforts of the plant being
uselessly exhausted between the two extremes of a supply and a deficiency
of water, it naturally declines in its growth, and hence arises the general
opinion that watering in dry weather injures, more than it benefits plants."
(An Inquiry, 6$c., p. 53.) Most water is required by plants that are in a
vigorous state of growth and have a large breadth of foliage ; least by those
which have nearly completed their growth ; and in general none by plants
in a dormant state, excepting in such cases as that of watering grass lawns in
summer to stimulate vegetation, or irrigating meadows after they have been
mown for the same purpose. In the case, however, of excessive dryness,
some degree of moisture must be afforded to such plants as are liable to
become desiccated even though dormant. Succulent plants, for example,
will bear a great degree of dryness, through a protracted period ; whereas
others that perspire more through the bark would be completely dried up if
equally exposed to drought. The application of water to plants in pots in a
dormant state is one of the commonest and most injurious errors committed
by persons unacquainted with the principles of culture. It does compara-
tively little harm to plants in the free soil in the open garden, but to plants
386 WATERING.
in pots, and especially to those having suffruticose stems, such as the pelar-
gonium, or to hair-rooted plants, such as heaths, and to all bulbs, it is ex-
tremely injurious, and often destructive of life. In the first case more water is
absorbed by the roots than can be decomposed by the leaves ; in the second
case the roots are suffocated and rotted from their delicacy ; and iu the third,
rotting takes place from mere organic absorption ; for when the leaves of
bulbs decay, their roots decay also, and consequently they cannot absorb
water by their spongioles ; while absorption by the tissue still going on, the
vessels become surcharged and burst, and the bulb rots. Hence in the case
of bulbs, and such like plants in pots, the soil in which they are kept
should contain no more moisture than what is necessary to keep the
bulb, tuber, or corm, in a succulent state; but in proportion to the
dryness in which bulbs are kept at this season, should be the abundance
of the supply of water when they begin to grow. All bulbs will be found
to flower in their natural habitats, either during, or immediately after a
rainy or moist period of the year, as is the case with our wood hyacinths
in spring, and with the colchicum in autumn ; and much more strikingly
so with the bulbs and corms of Africa, which grow and flower only in
the rainy season. When plants are ripening their fruit, a diminished
supply of water increases the flavour, because at that period of growth the
power of decomposing it is diminished ; and if it is absorbed without
being decomposed, the effect will be to render the fruit watery without
flavour ; to crack it in some cases, to burst it in others, and in the case of
all keeping fruits to shorten the period for which they may be kept. The
same effects are produced by excess of water on bulbs, such as those of
the onion ; on roots and tubers, (underground stems,) such as the turnip and
the potato ; and even on leaves, such as those of the lettuce and the cabbage,
which in wet cloudy seasons are never so highly flavoured as in seasons
moderately moist, when succulency and flavour are combined. Water
should sooner be withdrawn from tender plants than from hardy ones in
vigorous growth, and when practicable, it should be withdrawn from all
plants in a growing state in time to admit of their ripening their wood.
827. Whether plants should be watered over the leaves or only over the soil in
which they grow depends on the state of the plant, the temperature in which
it is placed, the time of the day, the season of the year, and other circum-
stances. Plants in a state of vigorous growth, in a suitable temperature in
spring or summer, and in the afternoon or during cloudy weather, are better
watered over the top, in order to make certain of clearing their foliage ; but
late in autumn or during winter, when growth even in hothouses is or ought
to be slow, owing to the deficiency of light, plants should be watered chiefly
at their roots ; and while the most abundant supplies might be given in the
former case, in the latter they ought to be moderate, because the vital
powers of the plant are comparatively weak, and because a cold damp atmo-
sphere, which watering over the top at that season might produce, would,
by obstructing the perspiration of the leaves, occasion their decay. In general,
all plants, whether in the open air or in plant structures, ought to be watered
over head during spring, summer, and the early part of autumn, unless they
are in a dormant state, or there is some specific reason why what water they
do receive should be given at the root. On the other hand, all plants in
houses not undergoing forcing, and all plants whatever in the open air during
the latter part of autumn, during winter, and in the early part of spring,
WATERING. 387
should be watered only at the root. Watering over the top should in general
never he performed during bright sunshine ; yet there are various plants
with which this may be done with impunity, such as all the grasses ; and in
the royal kitchen-garden at Versailles the Alpine strawberry is watered
over head during bright sunshine throughout the whole summer, without
any inconvenience being found to result to the plants. (G. M., vol. xvii.,
p. 387.) Watering during summer should in general be performed in
the afternoon or evening, because at these periods less will be carried off by
evaporation than during the day ; while during winter and spring, watering-
ought to take place during the morning, that during the day the surface of
the ground may be warmed and dried by evaporation and infiltration. In
general, watering over the top is only necessary with plants in leaf; but
plants, and especially trees, which have been newly transplanted, may be
advantageously watered over the top to diminish evaporation from the bark,
which without being so moistened might (736) lessen the amount of sap
returned by it to the root.
828. Watering plants in pots requires much more consideration on the
part of the waterer than watering in free soil. When the plant is in a
dormant state, though it must not receive so much water as to excite it into
growth, or distend its parts more than is necessary to prepare it for active
vegetation, yet still it must receive as much as to prevent the soil from being
so dry as to extract moisture from the roots. As a test for this being the case,
the soil in the pot, when opened or stirred up on the surface, ought to have
a fresh appearance, neither moist nor dry ; nearly dry in the case of bulbs
and tubers, and nearly moist in the case of dormant deciduous plants.
Another difficulty in watering plants in pots is to ascertain that the water
given has penetrated the whole of the soil in the pot. The ball or mass of
soil is frequently so filled with roots, or from its nature and treatment so
compact (742), as not to be readily permeable by water, which in that case,
after merely moistening the surface, escapes between the ball and the pot ;
while the operator, eeeing the water escaping from the bottom of the pot,
concludes that the mass of soil has been thoroughly penetrated and saturated
by it. Many greenhouse plants, particularly oranges, camellias, and heaths,
are killed by this mode of deceptive watering, which may be traced to this
cause, viz., that when once soil is thoroughly dried so as to become like
dust, it loses the power of capillary attraction, and resists the entrance of
water unless accompanied by extraordinary pressure. Soil containing peat-
earth is peculiarly liable to this kind of dry ness when watering in proper
time has been neglected ; and hence the value of Mr. McNab's mode (749)
of mixing with such soil pieces of broken freestone. To ascertain when the
water has penetrated the mass of soil in a pot, it is common to thrust into it,
not far from the stem of the plant, a round pointed stick, and to make sure
of moistening the interior, to pour in water in the hole so formed. In
loamy soils, or soils containing a large proportion of sand, this mode will
suffice for saturating the ball ; but in the case of heath-soil, it becomes
necessary to immerse the pot and the plant in a vessel of water, so that the
soil shall be six inches or a foot under its surface, and thus receive a pressure
sufficient to cause the escape of the contained air. Another class of evils
in watering plants in pots arises from their not being sufficiently drained,
which may arise either from the operation having been improperly per-
formed in potting or shifting, or from the crevices among the drainage
388 STIRRING THE SOIL, AND MANURING.
having become choked up by the washing down of the soil. In this case,
the water, not escaping freely from the pot, produces all the evils of stagna-
tion already mentioned (821); the spongioles burst and the fibres rot, the
leaves become yellow and drop off, and the bark, being distended by moisture,
separates from the wood, the plant in the meantime being killed. Nothing
is more common than cases of this kind in the greenhouses and window-
gardens of amateurs ; and it is very frequent also in collections of plants in
pots, such as alpines, under the care of regular gardeners, whose workmen or
apprentices water them indiscriminately, with little or no regard to the state
of the plant or the soil hi the pot. The obvious manner of preventing this
evil is, whenever there is the slightest suspicion of overwatering, to turn the
plant out of the pot, examine the drainage, which will come out with the
ball, and take it off and replace it with fresh materials. It would be well
also, in the case of all plants that are likely to be overwatered, to use a
larger proportion of sand in the soil, and to put extra drainage in the bottom
of the pot, and also to introduce among the soil a considerable proportion of
fragments of freestone.
829. Aquatic and marsh plants, being grown in water, or in soil saturated
with it, form exceptions to the treatment required for plants in general ;
nevertheless it has been observed of these that they always grow with most
vigour when the atmosphere is moist, whether produced in hot-houses by
watering over the top, or in the open air by rain. The cause, De Candolle
thinks, may be in part traced to the state of the electricity of the atmosphere
during rain ; and perhaps something also may be due to the temporary
cessation of excessive evaporation.
830. Watering with liquid manure is necessarily confined to the soil, and
is most advantageous when given to plants in a growing state ; because,
though at other seasons a portion of it would still be absorbed by the roots,
yet the greater part would be washed into the subsoil. See § xiii.
831. To economise the water given to plants, more especially in the open
air, the surface is sometimes mulched with fibrous or littery matter, or even
with small stones or pebbles. Both materials retain moisture and heat ;
while stones or pebbles, by becoming soon dry, prevent surface-damp, and
reflect much heat during sunshine. The strawberry is sometimes mulched
with straw, and sometimes with tiles or slates, or pebbles, for the double
purpose of retaining moisture and keeping the ripening fruit clean ; and
the surface of the ground in the rose nurseries about Paris is sometimes
mulched with straw, to save watering, and prevent the rose-beetle from
depositing her eggs in the soil.
§ XIII. Stirring the Soil, and Manuring.
So much has already been said on these subjects that it is only necessary
here to advert to the chapters in pages 45 and 56, and to page 227.
832. Stirring the soil is advantageous by the admission of air, rain, and
heat to the roots of plants, by promoting evaporation in moist soils, and by
retaining moisture in such as are dry. In the latter case the dry loose soil
on the surface acts as a mulching or non-conductor to the soil below ; and
in the former it acts by exposing a greater number of moistened particles to
the air than could be the case if these particles were consolidated. The
celebrated agriculturist Curwen found that an acre of pulverised soil eva-
PROTECTION FROM ATMOSPHERICAL INJURIES. 389
porated 950 Ibs. of water in an hour, while the same soil and the same
extent of surface not pulverised, scarcely evaporated anything.
833. Manuring. — Permanent manures, such as stable dung and other
solid substances, are for the most part incorporated with the soil when it is
dug or trenched before being cropped, and it is generally thought that most
advantage may be obtained from them when they are deposited near the
surface. Temporary manures, such as soot, bone-dust, and other powders,
waste yeast (one of the richest of manures), and liquid manures, such as decoc-
tions of dung, and solutions of salts of different kinds, are most advantageously
applied on the surface of the ground, and to growing crops.
§ XIV. Blanching.
834. The operation of blanching, or depriving the leaves and stems of
plants of their green colour, is effected by excluding light from the
growing plant, in consequence of which it is produced without colour, and
without that portion of its flavour which depends on colour. The tubers
of potatoes are blanched naturally, because in general they are produced
under the surface of the soil, or they are shaded by the foliage of the plant.
The points of the shoots of asparagus are blanched, in Britain, by covering
the crowns of the plants with a stratum of light loose soil, and on the
Continent by the same means, or by placing covers of different kinds over
them, as is done in this country with the sea-kale and tart rhubarb, by the
use of the blanching-pot (fig. 58, in p. 143). Celery is blanched as it
grows, by drawing up earth so as to cover the petioles of the leaves ; and
this operation is performed from time to time as long as the plants continue
to advance in height. The leaves of the chardoon are blanched in a similar
manner, and sometimes by tying them round with ropes of hay or straw.
The interior leaves of the common cabbage, and of the cabbage-lettuce and
endive, are blanched naturally, but the process is sometimes heightened by
tying up the leaves, and sometimes by coverings. In general, perennial
plants in which the nutriment for the leaves of the coming year have been
deposited in the roots during the year preceding, such as the asparagus,
sea-kale, chicory, &c., may be blanched by covering them entirely either
with soil or some kind of utensil ; while annual plants, the leaves arid every
part of which is the produce of the current year, require to have the ope-
ration performed by degrees as the leaves advance in size, whether by tying
up, earthing up, or by both modes. By the operation of tying up,
two effects are produced : the inner leaves as they grow, being excluded
from the light, are blanched ; and being compressed, in proportion to their
number and the degree of growth which takes place after tying up, the
head of leaves becomes at once tender and compact. Perennial and biennial
plants with ramose roots may be blanched on a large scale, by placing the
roots in soil, in a cellar or dark room ; but this cannot be done with annual
plants, which must be grown in light, and blanched as they grow. Gourds,
cucumbers, and apples, are sometimes blanched by growing them in opaque
boxes or cases ; or they are grown with pale stripes, by partially covering
them with strips of paper or cloth, made to adhere by gum or paste.
§ XV. Protection from Atmospherical Injuries.
The great number of plants cultivated in this country, even in the open
air, many of them from climates very different from ours, have given rise
390 PROTECTION FROM ATMOSPHERICAL INJURIES.
to a variety of contrivances to protect them from atmospherical injuries.
The most effective of these is without doubt that of forming for such
plants artificial climates, such as the different kinds of hot-beds and hot-
houses; but there are also various contrivances for protecting plants growing
in the open air or against walls, and it is to these that we at present intend
to confine our attention. They may be included under shading from the
sun, sheltering from wind, and protecting from rain or from cold. Most of
these operations are founded on the doctrine of radiation, which has been
treated in so much detail in chap, iv., p. 67, that very little more requires
to be said on the subject.
835. The object of shading is to lessen evaporation from the soil or from
plants, or to exclude light or heat. It is effected by interposing some opaque
medium, or even glass in some cases, the purest of which as we have seen
(486) excludes a certain portion of light, between the objects to be shaded
and the direct rays of the sun, and this medium differs in its texture and
other properties according as it is intended to be temporary or permanent.
Mats and canvas are the common articles for temporary shading in the
case of plants under glass ; but for plants in the open garden, hurdles of
wicker-work, or frames filled in with beech or birch branches, screens of
reeds are used, or the plants are placed in the north, east, or west sides of
walls or hedges. Sometimes also they are planted under trees ; but as this
kind of shade excludes rain and dew, it is only adopted in particular cases.
A slight degree of shade is produced by forming the surface of ground into
narrow ridges in the direction of east and west, and sowing or planting the
crop on the north side of the ridge. On the same principle, crops in rows
in an advanced state are made to shade seedling crops sown between them,
when shading them is desirable. Oil paper-caps, and other articles for
shading individual plants have been figured and described (449), and also
canvas shades for hot-house roofs (464). Some of the most severe injuries
which plants trained against walls sustain in this country is by the powerful
action of the sun in early spring, succeeded by extreme cold ; but by judi-
cious shading such evils may be greatly mitigated or altogether avoided.
836. Sheltering from wind, the principles of which have been pointed out
(265), is effected on a large scale by plantations, and in gardens by walls,
hurdles, wicker-work covers (461), hand-glasses, and other articles described
and figured in sect, vi., p. 158.
837. The principles of protecting from cold have been described at length
in our chapter on the atmosphere (p. 67), and the different materials and
contrivances for this purpose have been enumerated in the section (p. 158)
just referred to. Coverings for the surface of the ground include dead
leaves, litter, straw, sawdust, spent tan, rotten dung, coal ashes, coarse sand,
spray, and branches of trees or shrubs, &c. Coverings for standard plants
in the open garden include temporary roofs of thatch, boards, canvas, wicker-
work, bark, or manufactured materials, such as pitched paper, asphalte
sheeting, &c. Coverings for walls include branches with the leaves on,
such as those of the silver or spruce-fir, of the beech, birch, or hornbeam,
cut before the wood is ripened, in consequence of which the leaves will
adhere to the shoots, and being dead and without moisture, they are better
non-conductors than green leaves, straw or hay ropes, rope-netting, canvas,
bunting, woollen-netting, oiled paper-frames, wicker-work, hurdles, &c.
By referring to p. 173, it will be seen that thin canvas has been found the
ACCELERATING VEGETATION. 391
preferable article for protecting wall fruit-trees in the Horticultural Society's
garden, after fifteen years' experience.
838. Protecting from rain requires the application of some description of
temporary roofing, impervious to water. For beds or borders in the open
garden, frames or hurdles, thatched with drawn wheat straw or reeds, may
be employed, and these will also protect standard plants ; or projected from
the tops of walls, and supported by props in front, they will protect from
rain both the tree and the border in which they are planted, (see 476).
§ XVI. Accelerating Vegetation.
889. The acceleration of the growth of plants may be effected by the
position in which they are placed relatively to the rays of the sun, by with-
drawing moisture, by sheltering from cold winds and rains, by the choice
of early varieties, by pruning, and by the application of artificial heat.
For crops of herbaceous vegetables in the open garden, the most general
modes of acceleration are to cover with hand-glasses, or other portable
frames with glass roofs (462) ; and to sow or plant in borders on the south
side of east and west walls, and as near to the wall as circumstances will
admit. Next to walls, the south sides of hedges or espalier rails are selected ;
or, in default of either of these, ridges in the open garden, in the direction
of east and west, are thrown up, their sides forming an angle of 45°, and on
the south side of these the crop is sown or planted. The growth of early
peas and early potatoes is frequently accelerated in this manner, and also
the ripening of strawberries, and the growth of spinach, lettuce, and other
culinary plants ; and Mr. Errington, a scientific gardener of great experience,
says that all early crops whatever may be thus produced within one week
of those on a south wall border. The different modes of protection from
cold and rain, mentioned in the preceding section (834 to 835), are sub-
servient to acceleration; and dry warm soil, culture in pots by which
the plants are rendered portable, and the selection of early varieties, are
obvious adjuncts. The ripening of fruit, more especially on ligneous
plants, may be hastened by ringing, after the blossoms are fully expanded,
or even after the fruit is set. Mr. Williams, of Pitmaston, found that
ringing vines, not only ripened the fruit earlier, but rendered the berries
larger, and of higher flavour. Of two vines growing together against
a wall, the one ringed shortly after the blossoming season ripened its fruit
perfectly in the beginning of October, while the fruit on the other vine
„ which was not ringed was destroyed by frost. The rings of bark taken off
were rather less than a quarter of an inch in width (Hort. Trans., iv.,
p. 55). It is probable also, that the fruit of herbaceous plants, such as the
tomato or the capsicum, or the seeds of tender annuals, such as the Zinnia
and the Thunbergia, may be accelerated by ringing or constricting the stems
by tying, to check the return of the sap.
840. Artificial heat for the purpose of acceleration is applied by means of
fermenting substances, as in hot-beds (465 and 489), the combustion of fuel,
as in hot walls (475) and hot-houses of various kinds, whether heated by
flues, hot-water, or steam (480). The different kinds of hot-houses and
pits, and their general management, have been already given (480 to 522) ;
and we shall here confine ourselves to what concerns hot-beds and pits
heated by fermenting materials.
841. Hotbeds are chiefly made of stable-dung ; but tanners' bark, leaves
392 ACCELERATING VEGETATION.
of trees, and especially oak -leaves, mown grass, weeds, clippings of hedges,
and almost every other article capable of putrescent fermentation, may be
used either alone or with stable-dung. Tanners' bark, or oak-leaves, are
found the preferable fermenting materials for hot-beds in hot-houses, because
they undergo less change in bulk, and retain their heat longer than dung
or any other fermentable substance that can be readily obtained in equal
quantities. Leaves do not produce such a powerful heat as bark, but they
have this advantage, that when perfectly decayed, they form a rich mould,
which is useful both as soil and as manure ; while rotten tanners' bark is
found rather injurious than useful to vegetation, unless it be well mixed
with lime or with earth, or left till it is thoroughly decayed into mould.
When it ceases, therefore, to be used in the hot-house or hot-bed, it is
employed in the open garden as a surface-mulching, to keep in heat or
moisture.
842. Preparation of materials for hotbeds. — The object being to get rid of
the violent heat which is produced when the fermentation is most powerful, it
is obvious that preparation, whether of leaves, tan, and stable dung,must consist
in facilitating the process. For this purpose, a certain degree of moisture
and air in the fermenting bodies are requisite ; and hence the business of the
gardener is to turn them over frequently, and apply water when the process
appears impeded for want of it, and exclude rain when it seems chilled and
retarded by too much water. Recent stable-dung generally requires to lie a
month in ridges or beds, and be turned over in that time thrice before it is
fit for cucumber beds of the common construction ; but for M'PhaiTs hot-
beds, or for linings or casings, or any description of hot-bed or pit, no time
at all need in general be given, but the dung formed at once into linings.
Tan and leaves require in general a month to bring them to a proper degree
of heat ; but much depends on the state of the weather and the season of the
year. Fermentation is always most rapid in summer ; and if the materials
are spread abroad during frost, it is totally impeded. In winter, the process
of preparation generally goes on, under cover from the weather, in the back
sheds ; which situation is also the best in summer, as full exposure to the
sun and wind dries too much the exterior surface ; but where sheds cannot
be had, it will go on very well in the open air. A great deal of heat is un-
doubtedly lost in the process of fermentation ; and some cultivators have
recently devised plans to turn it to some account, by fermenting dung in
vineries which are just beginning to be forced, or in vaults under pine -pits
or plant stoves. The latter mode seems one of the best in point of economy,^
and is capable of being turned to considerable advantage, where common
dung-beds are extensively used ; but the most economical plan of any is un-
doubtedly that of employing M'Phail's pits, or such as are constructed on
similar principles.
843. MlPhail's hotbed or pit consists of two parts, the frame and lights of
which are of wood, and not different from those used for growing cucumbers,
or other ordinary purposes, and the basement on which the frame is placed,
which is flues of brickwork, with the outer wall uniformly perforated, or as
it is commonly called pigeon-holed, as shown in fig. 135, in p. 196. Against
these perforated flues linings of dung are formed, the steam of which enters
the flue, and heats the earth inclosed. The chief objections to this plan are
the first cost and the greater consumption of dung, which some allege is
required to keep up the proper heat. Its advantages are, that hot dung may
ACCELERATING VEGETATION.
393
be used without any preparation, by which much heat is gained ; and that
in the winter months, when a powerful artificial heat is required, which (in
the case of common hot-beds) is apt to burn the plants, they are here in
the coldest part of the soil, and cannot possibly be injured by any degree of
heat, which can be communicated by dung. Fig. 327 is a section of a pit on
Fig. 327. Cross section of a pit on M'Phail's principle, with variations.
this principle, with some improvements : a a is the surface of the ground ;
b 6, excavations for the dung-casings, 2-L feet deep, 18 inches wide at bottom,
and 2 feet wide at the ground's surface ; the greater width at top being to
prevent the dung from shrinking from the side of the excavation as it sinks ;
c is the outer perforated wall, a brick in width ; d, the inner wall of brick
set on edge, and tied to the outer wall with occasional cross bricks ; e, is a
layer of billet wood 1 foot in thickness to admit of the heat penetrating from
each side, or the same object may be effected by a layer of loose stones ; f, a
covering of fagot wood, over which a layer of turf or litter is placed to pre-
vent the soil from sinking into and choking up the interstices in the layer of
billet wood ; g, the bed of soil ; /*, a trellis for vines, melons, or other plants,
at one foot from the glass ; i, a gutter for receiving the water from the glass,
and which should conduct it through a small pipe, either at one end, or in
the middle to a small barrel, or to a cistern of slate or other material sunk
in the soil of the pit in front. The preferable situation is mid way between
either end, in order that the vapour of the water may be equally diffused in
the atmosphere of the pit. By keeping the upper surface of the dung of the
form shown in the figure, it will throw off the rain, which may be conducted
away in small surface gutters.
844. The formation of common hotbeds is effected by first making out the
dimensions of the bed, which should be six inches wider on all sides than
that of the frame to be placed over it, and then, by successive layers of dung
laid on by the fork, raising it to the desired height, pressing it gently and
equally throughout. In general, such beds are built on a level surface ; but
Mr. Knight's forms a surface of earth as a basis, which shall incline to the
horizon to the extent of 15°; on this he forms the dung-bed to the same in-
clination ; and, finally, the frame, when placed on such a bed, if, as is usual,
it be deepest behind, will present its glass at an angle of 20°, instead of six or
eight, which is undoubtedly of great* advantage in the winter season. This
seems a very desirable improvement where light is an object, which it must
394
ACCELERATING VEGETATION.
be, in a high degree, in the case of the culture of the cucumber and melons,
as well as in forcing flowers. Sometimes a stratum of faggots or billet
wood is placed on the ground as a foundation for the dung, which keeps it
from being chilled ; and if here and there the stratum is carried up vertically
for a foot in width and 18 inches in height, it will facilitate the entrance of
heat when casings are applied, or of cold air, if the heat of the bed should be
found too great. The ends of these vertical strata, when not to be used,
should be covered with litter to prevent the escape of heat by them.
845. Ashes, tan, and leaves. — Ashes are often mixed with the dung of
hotbeds, and are supposed to promote the steadiness and duration of their
heat, and to revive it if somewhat decayed. Tan and leaves have also been
used for the same purpose ; and it is generally found that about one-third
of tan and two-thirds of dung will form a more durable and less violent
heat than a bed wholly of dung. The heat of dung-beds is revived by
linings, or collateral and surrounding walls, or banks of fresh dung, the old
dung of the bed being previously cut down clobe to the frames. These
linings, as before observed, require less preparation than the dung for the
beds. The dung- bed being formed, and having stood two or three days with
the frame and lights placed over it to protect it from rain, is next to be
covered with earth, of quality and in quantity according to the purpose to
which it is to be applied. In severe weather, the sides of the bed are often
protected by hurdles of straw or faggots, which tend to prevent the escape
of heat.
846. The nightly covering to hotbeds and pits may be of boards, or of
bast-mats, or reed or straw mats ; and the following mode of retaining the
covering will be found neat as well as economical : — Three pieces of iron of
the form of fig. 328, a, are screwed on to the end of the frame, one piece at
tne toP> another at
the bottom, and
the other in the
middle, so that the
top of the iron is
about two inches
above the light; on
the opposite end
three pieces of the
Fig. 328. Details of wire fastening mats on frames, one-sixth of the full size. form Of c are
screwed on at the same distances as a ; & is a side view of a, and d is a side
view of c. A wire, three-eighths of an inch in diameter, and rather longer
than the frame it is intended for, must be made with a loop at one end (/),
to place over the iron d; the other end must be fitted with a thumb-screw
(e), to screw up the wire when it is placed in the notch #, which should
be counter-sunk in the centre. Small hooks should be driven in the frames,
either front or back, to lay the wires in when not in use. (G. M., 1842, p.109) .
847. Management of hotbeds and pits heated by dung. — As the body of
air inclosed is small, its temperature is easily raised too high by the sun,
and depressed too much by high winds or very cold nights. The artificial
supply of heat from the fermenting material not being under control is
another cause of overheating, and hence the constant attention required to
give or take away air during the day, and to regulate the coverings put on
at night. Much mischief, as has been already observed, is produced by
RETARDING VEGETATION. 395
over-covering, and yet, for the reasons which we have just mentioned, it
would be very unsafe to leave a hotbed uncovered during any of the nights
of winter or early spring ; though later in the season, or where plate-glass
is used, covering at night might be dispensed with. The covering should
not be drawn over the linings so as to confine the steam ; which in that
case would find its way into the frame to the injury of the plants. The
temperature and moisture to be kept up in hotbeds vary with the kinds of
plants, and the object in view.
§ XVII. Retarding Vegetation.
848. The different modes of retarding vegetation being in many cases
the opposite of those for its acceleration, the subject may be similarly
arranged. As on the south side of ridges of ground, in the direction of east
and west, plants are accelerated by meeting the rays of the sun at a larger
angle, so on the north side of such ridges, as well as on the north side of
walls and hedges, they will be retarded by the exclusion of the sun's direct
influence. Opaque coverings, put on in winter or in early spring, are also
effective, more especially when of some thickness, by excluding the stimulus
of light, and presenting a thicker mass to be penetrated by atmospheric heat.
Thus herbaceous perennials, such as asparagus, rhubarb, sea-kale, and other
plants which do not retain their leaves during winter, may, by a thick
covering of leaves or litter put on in January, when the soil is at the coldest,
be prevented from vegetating for a week or a month later than the same
plants on a surface sloping to the south, without any covering, and with the
soil dry and loosened about the collars of the plants. The production of
blossoms and fruit may in many cases be retarded by taking off the flower-
buds at their first appearance in spring or early summer, as is often done
with roses, strawberries, and raspberries, which when so treated flower and
fruit a second time in the autumn. Even the common hardy fruit-trees, —
the apple, pear, cherry, &c.,— 'When so treated will blossom and set their
fruit a second time in the same year, but it will not ripen from the length
of time required. Currants and gooseberries, and even pears and apples on
dwarfs, are preserved on the trees till Christmas, by matting them over ;
and the season of wall-fruits and of grapes in hothouses are preserved by
excluding the sun and preserving the air dry. In general, all exogenous
perennial herbaceous plants, when cut over as soon as their flower-buds are
formed in spring, will spring up again and produce flowers a second time in
autumn ; but this does not happen with endogens, excepting in the case of
grasses and a few other plants. Retarding no less than accelerating may be
effected by changing the habits of plants ; and thus, as plants which have
vegetated early one season are likely also to vegetate early the season fol-
lowing, so plants which have continued to grow late in autumn one year
will be later in vegetating in the following spring, and continue to grow later
in the autumn. There is a considerable difference in the natural earliness
and lateness of vegetation in all plants of the same species or variety raised
from seed, and hence, early and late varieties may always be procured by
selection from the bed of seedlings. By this means have been obtained all
the earliest and latest varieties in cultivation both in fields and gardens.
Seeds or plants procured from cold and late soils and situations, and brought
to earlier ones, continue for a time to be late from habit, and the contrary ;
and hence the practice of farmers in cold, late districts procuring their seed-
RESTING VEGETATION.
com and potato-sets from low, warm districts, and the contrary. When
plants are grown in pots, they can generally be more effectually either
accelerated or retarded than by any other means ; because they may be at
pleasure transferred to a coal-cellar, to an ice-house, or to a forcing-house.
Thus fruit-trees and flowering shrubs in pots, put into an ice-house in
January, will have their vegetation retarded for any length of time, as no
growth can take place where the temperature is under the freezing-point.
Plants so treated, if not retained too long, may be made to vegetate at any
season that is desired, but the transition from the temperature of the ice-
house to summer-heat must be very gradual, in order that the buds may be
fully distended with sap before they are developed. Fruit or vegetables
which would spoil or advance too far if left on the plants, such as peas,
cauliflowers, cucumbers, peaches, &c., may be retained several days in the
state required in the ice-house, or in a room adjoining it, and even for a
certain period in a cool cellar or shed. The earliest potatoes are obtained
by some gardeners by keeping them in a place so cool as to prevent vege-
tation for two seasons : that is, the produce of the summer of one year is to
be planted in the December of the year following. The German gardeners,
by retarding the roots of the ranunculus in this manner, are enabled to pro-
duce it in flower all the year, and the same thing might be effected with
various bulbs. The flowering of annual plants is easily retarded by sowing
them late in the year ; and on this principle the gaiety of the flower-garden
is preserved in autumn, and culinary productions, such as spinach, lettuce,
&c., obtained throughout winter.
§ XYIII. Resting Vegetation.
849. In the natural state of vegetation all plants experience a more or less
lower degree of temperature during the night than during the day. In the
tropics the difference is but little, particularly as regards plants that grow in
the shade. It, however, increases from the torrid to the frigid zone ; and
therefore artificial temperature should be regulated accordingly. Tropical
plants are injured by a greater discrepancy of temperature than occurs in
their native regions. There the temperature independent of direct sun heat
is next to uniform. But in the case of such plants as the vine, the fig, and
the peach, the natural habit of which extends to a latitude as high as 45°, a
considerable range of temperature is necessary. They enjoy, in summer, a
long day of high temperature — indeed a tropical heat ; but at night a tro-
pical temperature is not maintained. These plants, and others having cor-
responding habitats, require not only a temperature lower by night than by
day, but also lower in winter than in summer. Tropical plants, on the con-
trary, are injured by having a wintering imposed upon them, a condition
they are never naturally placed in. In particular situations, even in extra-
tropical countries, plants may be found growing where the temperature
varies little, owing to shade and shelter, the vicinity of springs, £c., but
these are only the exceptions.
850. Nightly temperature requires to be considered chiefly with reference to
plants under glass. The fear of too low a temperature within being produced
by the cold without, has naturally led gardeners to bestow particular care on
covering up hotbeds, and raising the temperature of the air in hothouses in
the evenings. In consequence of this, it often happens that when the tem-
perature of the external air has not fallen so low during the night as was
RESTING VEGETATION. 397
expected, the temperature under glass becomes greater than was intended.
The effect of this on plants is to produce elongation without sufficient sub-
stance ; great in proportion to the length of the night, the absence of light,
and the want of atmospheric moisture. Mr. Knight, who has the merit of
first having called the attention of gardeners to the night temperature of
hothouses, observes that " a gardener, in forcing, generally treats his plants
as he would wish to be treated himself ; and consequently though the aggre-
gate temperature of his house be nearly what it ought to be, its temperature
during the night relatively to that of the clay is almost always too high."
The consequences of this excess of heat during the night are, I have reason
to believe, in all cases highly injurious to the fruit-trees of temperate cli-
mates, and not at all beneficial to those of tropical climates ; for the tem-
perature of these is, in many instances, low during the night. In Jamaica,
and other mountainous islands of the West Indies, the air upon the moun-
tains becomes, soon after sunset, chilled and condensed, and, in consequence
of its superior gravity, descends and displaces the warm air of the valleys ;
yet the sugar-canes arc so far from being injured by this sudden decrease
of temperature, that the sugars of Jamaica take a higher price in the market,
than those of the less elevated islands, of which the temperature of the day
and night is subject to much less variation. In one of Mr. Knight's forcing-
houses, in which grapes are grown, he always wishes to see its temperature,
in the middle of every bright day in summer, as high as 90°; "and," he
adds, " after the leaves of the plants have become dry, I do not object to ten
or fifteen degrees higher. In the following night, the temperature some-
times falls as low as 50° ; and so far am I from thinking such change of
temperature injurious, I am well satisfied that it is generally beneficial.
Plants, it is true, thrive well, and many species of fruit acquire their greatest
state of perfection, in some situations within the tropics where the tempera^
ture in the shade does not vary in the day and night more than seven or
eight degrees ; but in these climates, the plant is exposed during the day to
a full blaze of a tropical sun, and early in the night it is regularly drenched
with heavy wetting dews ; and consequently it is very differently circum-
stanced in the day and in the night, though the temperature of the air in the
shade at both periods may be very nearly the same. I suspect," he continues,
" that a large portion of the blossoms of the cherry and other fruit-trees in
the forcing-house often proves abortive, because they are forced, by too high
and uniform a temperature, to expand before the sap of the tree is properly
prepared to nourish them. I have therefore been led during the last three
years to try the effects of keeping up a much higher temperature in the day
than in the night. As early in the spring as I wished the blossoms of my
peach-trees to unfold, my house was made warm during the middle of the
day ; but towards night it was suffered to cool, and the trees were then
sprinkled, by means of a large syringe, with clean water, as nearly at the
temperature at which that usually rises from the ground as I could obtain it ;
and little or no artificial heat was given during the night, unless there
appeared a prospect of frost, tinder this mode of treatment, the blossoms
advanced with very great vigour, and as rapidly as I wished them, and pre-
sented, when expanded, a larger size than I had ever before seen of the same
varieties. Another ill effect of high temperature during the night is, that
it exhausts the excitability of the tree much more rapidly than it promotes
the growth or accelerates the maturity of the fruit ; which is, in eonse-
D D
398 RESTING VEGETATION.
quence, ill supplied with nutriment, at the period of its ripening, when most
nutriment is probably wanted. The muscat of Alexandria, and other late
grapes, are, owing to this cause, often seen to wither upon the branch in a
very imperfect state of maturity ; and the want of richness and flavour in
other forced fruits is, I am very confident, often attributable to the same
cause. There are few peach-houses, or indeed forcing- houses, of any kind in
this country, in which the temperature does not exceed, during the night, in
the months of April and May, very greatly that of the warmest valley in
Jamaica in the hottest period of the year: and there are probably as few
forcing- houses in which the trees are not more strongly stimulated by the close
and damp air of the night, than by the temperature of the dry air of the noon
of the following day. The practice which occasions this cannot be right; it ism
direct opposition to nature." — Physiological and Horticultural Papers, p. 217.
851. What the night temperature of a hotbed or hothouse ought to be as
compared with that of the day, can only be determined by experience ;
because plants under glass are so far removed from plants in the free air,
that the same difference which takes place in the latter case may not in the
former case be advisable. Nevertheless it is clear from the experience of
gardeners that a very great fall during the night is seldom or never attended
with bad effects, provided there has been sufficient heat and light during the
day. Much of the evil of a high temperature during night, especially where
opaque coverings are used, must be owing to the absence of light. A scien-
tific gardener of great experience observes, " Without extreme caution in the
application of coverings to prevent the escape of heat, the worst effects will
soon become apparent, I find that, upon the shutters being put on, the internal
temperature is raised about five degrees or thereabouts in ordinary circum-
stances ;in cases of cold rain or high winds, more ; therefore the injury they
cause may probably proceed from this : the plants are inclosed in total dark-
ness, with an almost instantaneous and most unnatural increase of tempera-
ture, which is in some measure maintained through the night, and the same
amount of depression takes place when the coverings are removed and light
admitted in the morning. In houses heated by combustion this can in some
measure be guarded against, but in those heated by fermenting substances,
such as hotbeds, the evil becomes aggravated ; and therefore to structures
heated by such materials I cannot see the utility of this application, as
economy here cannot be the motive ; materials capable of maintaining a
sufficient temperature during a sunless winter's day will in all cases be suffi-
cient during night, when a fall of temperature is so beneficial ; yet these
structures are covered more than all others, the evils not becoming so appa-
rent, possibly because the plants there contained are generally but of
annual growth. The debilitating effect of covering houses heated by fire is
particularly perceptible in vineries, probably from the position that the
plants occupy in the house. Thus, were economy not a material object,
and were heating power at command, I certainly should add no covering to
the glass roof."— G. M. 1812, p. 106.
852. Double glass roofs would evidently form the least objectionable nightly
covering to plant-structures of every kind ; and next to this the use of
damaged plate-glass, instead of common crown glass, as from the much
greater thickness of the former far less heat would be allowed to escape by
conduction. The use of plate glass in cucumber and melon frames, and also
in greenhouses and forcinghouses., has of late years been adopted by several
RESTING VEGETATION. 399
persons, and the glass being much less liable to be broken, and requiring no
covering during nights, it is found to be on the whole more economical than
common glass, and much better for the plants.
853. The annual resting of plants is effected, as we have seen, either by cold
or by dryness, and both these causes can be imitated in a state of culture,
either separately or combined. Plants in the open garden may be safely left
to the influence of the seasons ; but half-hardy plants against walls, or in
borders by themselves, may be brought to a state of rest by thatching the
ground so as to prevent what rain may fall on it from sinking in ; the lateral
supplies being cut off by surface gutters or underground drains. The supply
of sap by the roots being thus reduced, growth will gradually cease, and the
parts will be matured, and at once enabled to resist the winter and vegetate
with redoubled vigour the following spring. It may be observed here that
the shoots of a tree which is to be protected from frost during winter, do not
require to be ripened to the same degree with shoots which are to be exposed
to the action of frost in the free atmosphere ; because buds, like seeds, will
vegetate provided the embryo be formed, even though they should not be
matured. Plants which have been forced have their period of rest brought
on naturally by the maturation of the plant, and artificially by removing the
glass with which they are covered, and exposing them to the free action of
the atmosphere, which at that season being dry, is much more favourable for
evaporating the watery part of the sap than it is later in the autumn ; and
hence peach-trees which have been forced, have almost always better-ripened
wood, containing more blossom-buds, than peach-trees on the open walls.
In the case of peach-houses, vineries, &c., the glass roof is removed and the
plants left in their places ; but where vines are grown in a hothouse or
greenhouse along with other plants that require artificial heat throughout
the year, the shoots are withdrawn and exposed to the common atmospheric
temperature for three or four months. Greenhouse plants, such as natives
of the Cape of Good Hope and Australia, are brought to a state of rest,
partly by lowering the temperature of the greenhouse and partly by with-
holding water. The last mode is that which is most to be depended on,
because in most greenhouses there are some plants in flower at every period of
the year, and for these a greater degree of heat must be kept up than would
suffice alone, for throwing greenhouse plants into a state of rest. All tropical
plants are brought to a state. of repose by dryness, and this is readily imitated
in hothouses, in consequence of the plants being in pots. There are some
tropical plants, however, which though in certain localities they have what
almost amounts to a short cessation of growth, yet in a state of culture they
succeed better without it. Of these plants the pine-apple is one which
when kept in a state of active growth till it has produced its fruit, brings
it to a far larger size than when allowed a period of repose ; and this would
appear to be practicable with all ligneous plants that are without buds ; such
as most endogens, in which class of plants buds are chiefly found among
herbaceous species in the form of bulbs.
854. The natural period of rest in hardy plants may be varied or changed
by withholding moisture, even without reference to temperature. We see
this taking place both with trees and herbs in dry seasons : when wood is
ripened, leaves drop off; and grass fields become brown, in July and August,
which in moist seasons would have continued growing till October or Novem-
ber. By imitating these effects in gardens, the operations of accelerating
D D 2
400 RESTING VEGETATION.
and retarding may be greatly facilitated ; and the imitation is easy when
plants are kept in pots. Ligneous plants may be thrown into a state of rest
by stripping them of their leaves, when the wood of the year is nearly ripe,
and at the same time shortening back the shoots to matured buds. Vines
against walls in the open air, when treated in this manner, come into leaf the
year afterwards somewhat earlier than vines in the same circumstances, but
not so treated ; but when the practice of early pruning is continued every
year, the habit becomes fixed, and in a few years they will be found to break
earlier by ten days or a fortnight. Even pruning after the leaves drop in
autumn, as we have seen, has a tendency to produce an earlier development of
the buds than when that operation is deferred till spring ; because the num-
ber of buds to be nourished during winter being smaller, they are swelled to a
larger size (779), and the more ready to be developed. In general, whatever
tends to ripen the wood in ligneous plants, and mature the leaves in herbs,
tends to bring the plant into a state of repose ; and hence the value of walls,
dry borders, dry soils, and warm exposures. It may even be affirmed, that
with plants under glass the period of repose may be changed from what it is
in their native countries to what is most suitable for ours. Thus the natural
period of rest for plants which are natives of the Canaries is from April to
October, and of growth and maturation during our winter and early spring,
when we are most deficient in solar light ; but there can be little doubt that,
by the application for a series of years of a system of acceleration and retard-
ation, plants, natives of the Canaries, might be induced to flower during our
summers, and undergo their period of rest during our winters. We do not
say that the object would be worth attempting, but merely that we think it
is practicable.
855. The advantages of putting trees that are to be forced into a state of
rest, and thus rendering them as excitable as possible previously to the appli-
cation of artificial heat, have been forcibly pointed out by Mr. Knight. The
period which any species or variety of fruit will require to attain maturity,
under any given degrees of temperature, and exposure to the influence of
light in the forcinghouse, will be regulated to a much greater extent than
is generally imagined, by the previous management and consequent state of
the tree, when that is first subjected to the operation of artificial heat.
Every gardener knows that when the previous season has been cold and
cloudy and wet, the wood of his fruit-trees remains immature, and weak
abortive blossoms only are produced. The advantages of having the wood
well ripened are perfectly well understood ; but those which may be ob-
tained, whenever a very early crop of fruit is required, by ripening the wood
very early in the preceding summer, and putting the tree into a state of
repose as soon as possible after its wood has become perfectly mature, do not,
as far as my observation has extended, appear to be at all known to gar-
deners ; though every one, who has had in any degree the management of
vines in a hothouse, must have observed the different effects of the same
degrees of temperature upon the same plant in October and February. In
the autumn, the plants have just sunk into their winter sleep; in February,
they are refreshed and ready to awake again : and wherever it is intended
prematurely to excite their powers of life into action, the expediency of
putting these powers into a state of rest early in the preceding autumn
appears obvious. (Hort. Trans, vol. ii. p. 368.) Mr. Knight placed some
vines in pots in a forcinghouse, in the end of January, which ripened their
OPERATIONS OF GATHERING, ETC.
401
fruit in the middle of July ; soon after which the pots were put under the
shade of a north wall in the open air. Being pruned, and removed in Sep-
tember to a south wall, they soon vegetated with much vigour, till the frost
destroyed their shoots. Others, which were not removed from the north
wall till the following spring, when they were pruned and placed against a
south wall, ripened their fruit well in the following season in a climate
not nearly warm enough to have ripened it at all, if the plants had
previously grown in the open air. Peach-trees somewhat similarly treated
unfolded their blossoms nine days earlier, " and their fruit ripened three
weeks earlier than in other trees of the same varieties." (Hort. Trans.
vol. ii. p. 372.) Pots of grapes which had produced a crop previously to
Midsummer were placed under a north wall till autumn ; on the 12th of
January, they were put into a stove and ripened their fruit by the middle of
April. (Hort. Trans, vol. iv. p. 440.)
§ XIX. Operations of Gathering, Preserving, Keeping, and Packing.
856. Gathering. — The productions of horticulture are in part enjoyed as
scenery, and in part as articles of cookery, and other parts of domestic
economy ; and the gathering of articles for the latter purposes forms a part
of the duty of the gardener. All crops are taken from the plant when
mature, as in the case of ripe fruits or roots ; or they are cut from it when
the plant is in a growing state, as in gathering herbs or cabbages ; or the
entire plant is taken up, as in the case of turnips, carrots, &c. In all these
cases the part of the plant to be gathered should not have been moistened
by rain, and the weather at the time should be dry. Wherever the knife
requires to be used in gathering, the operation may be considered as coming
under pruning, and should be performed with the same care in respect to
buds and wounded sections. In gathering fruit, care should be taken not
to rub off the bloom, particularly from cucumbers, plums, and grapes.
When ripe seeds are gathered, the capsules or pods should be perfectly dry,
and they should be spread out afterwards in a shaded, airy shed or loft, or
on a seed -sheet in the open air, till they are ready to be rubbed out, cleaned,
and put up into paper bags till wanted.
857. Preserving. — Culinary vegetables may be preserved in a growing
state by placing moveable covers, such as thatched hurdles, over them in the
open garden, as indicated in fig. 329 ; or they may be preserved in a living
state by planting them in soil, in
pits or frames, to be covered during
severe weather ; or they may be
planted in soil, in light cellars, the
windows being opened in the day-
time,— a practice common in the
colder countries of the Continent.
Aromatic herbs, such asmint, thyme,
&c., may be preserved by first dry-
ing them in the shade, and next corn-
Fig. 329. Low-roof matched hurdles for protecting pressing each kind into small packets,
plants in the open garden. and covering these with paper. Aro-
niatic herbs, and also pot-herbs, such as parsley, celery leaves, chervil, &c.,
may be preserved by drying in an oven, and afterwards, tying up in paper.
Flowers and leaves, and also ripe fruit, may be preserved in dried sand by
402 OPERATIONS OF GATHERING, ETC.
the following process : — The articles are suspended in a cask or jar, by
threads attached to cross-sticks, fixed immediately within the position of
the lid. This being done, pure white dry sand is poured slowly in till
it surrounds all the articles suspended, which become as it were immersed
in it. When the flowers or fruits are to be taken out, the plug is removed
from a hole in the bottom of the vessel, and as much of the sand allowed to
run out as uncovers as many of the fruit or flowers as it is desired to take
out at one time. This mode of preserving is given in some French and
Italian authors ; but we believe it is very seldom put in practice. Roots,
tubers, and bulbs are preserved in soil or in sand, moderately dry, and
excluded from frost ; and some kinds, which have coverings which protect
them from evaporation, such as the tulip and the crocus, are kept in cool
dry shelves or lofts, or in papers till the planting season. Potatoes, turnips,
carrots, &c., are preserved with most flavour by leaving them where they
have grown, covering the ground with litter, so as to exclude frost, and
admit of their being taken up daily as wanted. Towards the growing
season they should have a thicker covering to exclude atmospheric heat ; or
a portion should have been taken up in autumn, and buried in sand or soil,
in a cool cellar, in order to retard vegetation as long as possible. The
roots mentioned, and also onions, will keep upwards of a year without
rotting or vegetating, if mixed with sand and buried in a pit in dry soil, the
upper part of which shall be at least five feet under the surface of the
ground, so as effectually to exclude air and change of temperature. Hen-
derson, an eminent gardener at Brechin, makes use of the ice-house for
preserving u roots of all kinds till the return of the natural crop." " By
the month of April," he says, " the ice in our ice-house is found to have
subsided four or five feet ; and in this empty room I deposit the vegetables
to be preserved. After stuffing the vacuities with straw, and covering the
surface of the ice with the same material, I place on it case-boxes, dry- ware
casks, baskets, &c., and fill them with turnips, carrots, beet- root, celery,
and in particular potatoes. By the cold of the place, vegetation is so much
suspended that all these articles may be thus kept fresh and uninjured, till
they give place to another crop in its natural season."
058. Keeping -fruits, such as the apple and pear, are preserved in the
fruit-room, in shelves, placed singly so as not to touch each other ; the finer
keeping-pears may be packed in jars or boxes, with dried fern, or with
kiln-dried barley-straw ; and baking apples and pears may be kept in heaps
or thick layers on a cellar-floor, and covered with straw, to retain moisture
and exclude the frost. But the subject of keeping fruits will be recurred to
in treating of the fruit-garden.
859. Packing and transporting plants and seeds. — Rooted plants and
cuttings, and other parts of plants intended to grow, may be preserved for
weeks, and, under certain circumstances, even for months, in moist live
moss, the direct action of the air and the sun being excluded ; and in this
medium also they may be packed and sent to any distance within the tem-
perate hemispheres, but not in tropical regions, on account of the extreme
heat. Plants that are to pass through these regions are planted in soil, in
boxes with glass covers, and being occasionally watered, they are transferred
from India to England with a very moderate proportion of loss. Seeds are
in general most safely conveyed from one country to another in loose paper
packages, kept in a dry airy situation, so as neither to be parched with dry
SELECTING AND IMPROVING PLANTS IN CULTURE. 403
heat nor made to vegetate by moisture ; but some seeds which are apt soon
to lose their vitality, such as the acorns of American oaks, may be packed
in moist moss, in which they will germinate during the voyage ; but if
planted in soil as soon as they arrive, they will suffer little injury. Nuts
and other large seeds may probably preserve their vitality by being allowed
to germinate in masses of moderately dry soil, as Mr. Knight suggested
might be done with the seeds of the mango. The roots or root-ends of
plants or cuttings are enveloped in a ball of clayey loam, wrapped up in moist
moss, or in the case of cuttings or scions of ligneous plants, stuck into a
potato, turnip, or apple, and sent to any distance ; or, as already observed
( 676), they may be inclosed in moistened brown paper, or wrapped up in oiled
paper, and sent by post. Mr. Knight found that shoots containing buds of
fruit-trees might be preserved in a vegetating state, and sent to a consider-
able distance, by reducing the leaf-stalks to a short length, and inclosing the
shoot in a double-fold of cabbage-leaf, bound close together at each end, and
then inclosing the package in a letter. " It was found advantageous to
place the under-surface of the cabbage-leaf inwards, by which the inclosed
branch was supplied with humidity, that being the perspiring surface of the
leaf, the other surface being nearly or wholly impervious to moisture." —
(Hort. Trans., vol. iv., p. 403.)
860. Packing fruits and flowers. — Firm fruits, such as the apple and
pear, and flowers either in a growing state in pots, or cut for nosegays, are
easily packed ; but grapes, peaches, strawberries, &c., are with more diffi-
culty sent to a distance without being injured. To pack such fruit, and also
the more delicate flowers,, a box is suspended within a box, in such a manner
that the inner case can never touch the outer one. This mode is " found
better than any other for insuring the safe transport of delicate philosophical
instruments, and is equally adapted to ripe fruit. Having packed the fruit
in an inner case with soft cotton, or whatever may be deemed best for the
purpose, let that inner case be suspended within an outer one by lines or
cords. Suppose, for instance, that the outer case is two or three inches
clear all round the inner case, and the eight cords proceeded from the eight
outer corners of the one, and were fastened to the eight internal corners of
the other case. In this way, whatever side was uppermost, the inner case
would be suspended from the four upper cords, the four lower ones serving
only to steady it and to prevent its swinging against the outer case. If
the whole be turned upside down, the functions of the cords become
reversed, so that they must all be strong enough to perform either office,
about which, however, there is no difficulty. A still better plan, for those
who have frequently very choice specimens of fruit to transmit, would be
to insulate the inner case by spiral springs, with the additions of small por-
tions of felt or woollen cloth, to limit the vibrations ; the springs would
be very cheaply made, and would avoid the repeated trouble of packing or
tying ; but the cords will do extremely well." — (Gard. Chron., vol. i.,
p. 485.)
§ XX. Selecting and improving Plants in Culture.
861. All the plants in cultivation that are remarkable for their value as
culinary vegetables, fruits, or flowers, are more or less removed from their
natural state ; and the three principal modes by which this has been effected,
are, increasing the supply of nourishment, selection from seedlings, or acci-
SELECTING AND IMPROVING PLANTS IN CULTURE.
dental variations, and cross-breeding. " Nature," Mr. Knight observes,
u has given to man the means of acquiring those tilings which constitute the
comforts and luxuries of civilised life, though not the things themselves ; it
has placed the raw material within its reach, but has left the preparation
and improvement of it to his own skill and industry. Every plant and
animal adapted to his service is made susceptible of endless changes, and as
far as relates to his use, of almost endless improvement. Variation is the
constant attendant on cultivation, both in the animal and vegetable world ;
and in each the offspring are constantly seen, in a greater or less degree, to
inherit the character of the parents from which they spring." — (Knight's
Physiological Papers, §c. p. 172.)
862. Cultivation, then, is the first step in the progress of improving vege -
tables. It is almost needless to state that this consists in furnishing a plant
with a more favourable soil and climate than it had in a wild state ; supply-
ing food by manure to as great an extent as is consistent with health and
vigour ; allowing an ample space for its branches and leaves to expand and
expose themselves to the action of the sun and the air ; guarding the plant
from external injuries, by the peculiar kind of shelter and protection which
it may require, according as the object may be the improvement of the
entire plant, of its foliage only, of its flowers, or of its fruit. All cultivation
is founded on the principle that the constitution and qualities of plants are
susceptible of being influenced by the quantity and quality of the food with
which they are furnished, and that the constitution and qualities so formed
can be communicated to their offspring. The seeds of plants abundantly
supplied with food, and growing in a favourable climate, will produce plants
of luxuriant foliage, and larger than usual in all their parts ; while the con-
trary will be the case with seeds produced by plants grown in a meagre soil,
and in an unfavourable climate. Seeds produced in a hot climate will pro-
duce plants better adapted for that climate than seeds from a climate that is
cold, and the contrary ; and hence also the seeds of plants grown in a poor
soil and ungenial climate will succeed better in that soil and climate than
plants raised from seeds produced under more favourable circumstances.
Hence, in improving plants by cultivation, the experiments ought to be made
in the soil and climate for which they are intended. " No experienced
gardener," Mr. Knight observes, " can be ignorant that every species of fruit
acquires its greatest state of perfection in some peculiar soils and situations,
and under some peculiar mode of culture. The selection of a proper soil and
situation must therefore be the first object of the improver's pursuit ; and
nothing should be neglected which can add to the size, or improve the fla-
vour, of the fruit from which it is intended to propagate. Due attention to
these points will in almost all cases be found to comprehend all that is neces-
sary to insure the introduction of new varieties of fruit, of equal merit with
those from which they spring ; but the improver, who has to adapt his pro-
ductions to the cold and unsteady climate of Britain, has still many difficulties
to contend with : he has to combine hardiness, energy of character, and early
maturity, with the improvements of high cultivation. Nature has, how-
ever, in some measure pointed out the path he is to pursue ; and if it be
followed with patience and industry, no obstacles will be found which may
not be either removed or passed over. If two plants of the vine, or other
tree of similar habits, or even if obtained from cuttings of the same tree,
were placed to vegetate during several successive seasons in very different
SELECTING AND IMPROVING PLANTS IN CULTURE. 405
climates ; if the one were planted on the banks of the Rhine, and the other
on those of the Nile, each would adapt its habits to the climate in which it
were placed ; and if both were subsequently brought in early spring into a
climate similar to that of Italy, the plant which had adapted its habits to a
cold climate would instantly vegetate, whilst the other would remain per-
fectly torpid. Precisely the same thing occurs in the hothouses of this
country, where a plant accustomed to the temperature of the open air will
vegetate strongly in December, whilst another plant of the same species, and
sprung from a cutting of the same original stock, but habituated to the
temperature of a stove, remains apparently lifeless. It appears, therefore,
that the powers of vegetable life in plants habituated to cold climates are
more easily brought into action than in those of hot climates ; or, in other
words, that the plants of cold climates are most excitable : and as every
quality in plants becomes hereditary, when the cause which first gave exist-
ence to those qualities continues to operate, it follows that their seedling
offspring have a constant tendency to adapt their habits to any climate in
which art or accident places them." — (Knight's Horticultural Papers, p. 172.)
8C3. Selection. — An individual wild plant being thus improved, the next
step is to sow its seeds under the most favourable circumstances of soil and
situation, and from the plants so produced to select such, or perhaps only one,
or even a part of one, which possesses in the highest degree the qualities we are
in search of. This plant being carefully cultivated, its seeds are to be sown,
and a selection made from the plants produced as before. In this manner
one generation after another may be sown and selections made till the desired
properties are obtained. In the case of annual plants the object may be
attained in a few years, but in the case of trees, and especially fruit-trees, a
number of years are requisite. Mr. Knight, who has had more experience
in raising new fruits by selection from seedlings than perhaps any person
ever had before his time, has the following instructive observations: —
" When young trees have sprung from the seed, a certain period must elapse
before they become capable of bearing fruit, and this period, I believe, can-
not be shortened by any means. Pruning and transplanting are both
injurious ; and no change in the character or merits of the future fruit can
be effected, during this period, either by manure or culture. The young
plants should be suffered to extend their branches in every direction in
which they do not injuriously interfere with each other ; and the soil should
just be sufficiently rich to promote a moderate degree of growth, without
stimulating the plant to preternatural exertion, which always induces
disease. The periods which different kinds of fruit-trees require to attain
the age of puberty are very varied. The pear requires from twelve to
eighteen years ; the apple, from five to twelve or thirteen ; the plum and
cherry, four or five years ; the vine, three or four ; and the raspberry, two
years. The strawberry, if its seeds be sown early, affords an abundant crop
in the succeeding year."— (Physiological Papers, $c. p. 178.)
864. Selecting from accidental variations, or as they are technically termed,
sports. Among a great number of seedlings raised in gardens, or of plants
in a wild state, some entire plants, or parts of plants, will exhibit differences
in form or colour from the normal form and colour of the species. Among
these peculiarities may be noticed double flowers, flowers of a colour different
from those of the species, variegated leaves, leaves deeply cut where the
normal form is entire, as in the fern-leaved beech ; and even the entire plant
406 SELECTING AND IMPROVING PLANTS IN CULTURE.
may be of more diminutive size, or its shoots may take a different direction,
as in fastigiate and pendulous-branched trees. All these, and many other
accidental variations, which, as we have seen (551), cannot generally be
reproduced from seed, may be perpetuated by cuttings, or some other mode
of propagating by division.
865. Cross-breeding. — This process is effected by fecundating the stigma
of a flower of one plant with the pollen from the flower of another of the
same species, but of a different variety. Sometimes fecundation may be
effected with the pollen of a different species, and in that case the produce is
said to be a hybrid, while in the other the result is merely a cross or a cross-
bred variety. The mode of performing this operation has been very well
described by Mr. Hay ward. " Supposing," he says, "for instance, you have
two geraniums producing differently-shaped leaves and differently-coloured
blossoms — or two apple-trees, bearing apples of different sizes, colours, and
qualities, and it be desired to produce geraniums of differently-shaped leaves
and differently- coloured flowers, and apples of different sizes, colours, and
qualities, that is, different from either of the two plants or trees which you
possess : the mode of effecting this is to select a blossom of the plant from
which you wish to obtain the seed ; when it is just on the point of opening and
exposing the anthers, take a pair of scissors, and, gently forcing open the petals
of the blossom intended to bear the seed, cut off the stamens, and remove the
anthers, and then leave the blossom thus operated upon for a day or two, or
until the petals are quite expanded, and the pistil arrived at a state of
maturity ; when it is in this state, select a blossom of the plant with which
it is desired to impregnate the prepared female blossom, and when this is in
a state of maturity, and in a state to part with its pollen or farina freely,
take a small camel's-hair pencil, collect the farina on the point, and place it
on the stigma or crown of the pistil of the prepared blossom. This opera-
tion may be performed, with an equal chance of success, on plants of all
descriptions." (An Inquiry, §c. p. 120.) " New varieties of every species
of fruit," Mr. Knight observes, " will generally be better obtained by intro-
ducing the farina of one variety of fruit into the blossom of another, than by
propagating from any single kind. When an experiment of this kind is made
between varieties of different size and character, the farina of the smaller
kind should be introduced into the blossoms of the larger, for, under these
circumstances, I have generally (but with some exceptions) observed in the
new fruit a prevalence of the character of the female parent ; probably
owing to the following causes. The seed-coats are generated wholly by the
female parent, and these regulate the bulk of the lobes and plantule : and I
have observed, in raising new varieties of the peach, that when one stone
contained two seeds, the plants these afforded were inferior to others. The
largest seeds, obtained from the finest fruit and from that which ripens most
perfectly and most early, should always be selected. It is scarcely necessary
to inform the experienced gardener that it will be necessary to extract the sta-
mina of the blossoms from which he proposes to propagate, some days before
the farina begins to shed, when he proposes to generate new varieties in the
manner I have recommended." — (Knight's Physiological Papers, p. 177.)
866. Precautions against promiscuous fecundation require to be taken
both in the case of flowers the seeds of which are to be sown for the purpose
of selection, and in those which have been cross-fecundated. In the former
case, the plants should as much as possible be isolated from all others of the
SELECTING AND IMPROVING PLANTS IN CULTURE. 407
same, or of allied kinds ; and in the latter something more should be done.
The reasons are, that in both cases the farina of adjoining flowers of the same
kind is in all probability floating in the atmosphere, and will adhere to
whatever stigmas of its own species it may light on ; and secondly, that bees
and other insects which frequent flowers carry off the pollen from one to
another, and thus produce accidental cross-fecundation, which would render
nugatory that which was attempted by art. The only mode to guard against
pollen floating in the atmosphere is by placing the plants from all others of
the same kind, though what distance is required is uncertain. For the
crucifera3 generally most space is required ; varieties of cabbages and turnips
having been adulterated when at the distance of upwards of a mile, in an
open country and in the direction of the prevailing winds. To guard against
the effects of bees and other insects, the blossoms when selected and fecun-
dated by art may be surrounded by coarse gauze, or inclosed in a case of
glass, till the blossom begins to fade. To strengthen the embryo seeds, the
plant may be pruned in such a manner as to throw an extra share of sap
into the branch, stem, or pedicel on which the flower is situated. Thus, if
the fecundated flower form part of a spike, the upper part of the spike may
be cut off; a corymb or an umbel may be thinned out ; the suckers may be
taken from a sucker-bearing plant, such as the raspberry ; the runners from
the strawberry ; the offsets from a bulb, the tubers from a potato, and so
forth.
867. Fixing and rendering permanent the variety produced is effected, in
general, by one or other of the modes of propagation by division (551).
Improved varieties of fruit-trees are generally perpetuated by grafting; fruit-
shrubs, such as the gooseberry, by cuttings ; perennials, by division, offsets,
or suckers, &c. ; improved annuals and biennials, and some perennials, are
perpetuated by seeds, which forms an exception to the general rule. What
\ve have already advanced on this subject in the paragraph last quoted ren-
ders it unnecessary to dwell on it here, farther than to notice a practice, the
result of the experience of cultivators, the rationale of which it is difficult to
explain. This is the transplantation of culinary biennials, such as the turnip,
carrot, parsnep, beet, cabbage, cauliflower, onion, and many such plants, after
they are full grown, previously to their being allowed to send up their flower-
stems. By this practice the variety is said to be prevented from degene-
rating ; and if so, it may probably be on account of the greater part of the
nourishment to the seeds being furnished by the store laid up in the plant,
and but only a small portion taken from the soil. It is certain that trans-
planted plants do not produce nearly so much seed as they would have done
if not transplanted ; and it is equally certain that in the case of the turnip,
when the bulb is of a moderate size, and even small rather than large, much
stronger flower-stems are sent up, and more seed produced, than when it is
large. The reason probably is that the roots below the unswelled bulb are
stronger, not having yet fulfilled their functions, and hence are enabled to
draw a larger proportion of nourishment from the soil.
868. The production of double flowers is a subject not yet thoroughly
understood by physiologists. As double flowers are seldom found in a wild
state, they appear to be the result of culture, and yet there is scarcely any
well-authenticated instance of culture having produced them. It is certain,
however, that double flowers degenerate into single ones when culture is
408 SELECTING AND IMPROVING PLANTS IN CULTURE,
withdrawn, and that extraordinary supplies of nourishment and moisture, as
in moist and warm seasons, produce flowers more double than in dry
seasons. Mr. Munro, a scientific practical gardener, endeavours to account
for the production of double flowers, by supposing that there is one fluid or
sap of plants destined for growth, and another for reproduction ; and that
double flowers are produced when the latter sap is in excess. He concludes,
therefore, that by reducing the number of seed-pods in a plant, those left
would be so amply nourished by the excess of the reproductive sap, as to
produce double flowers. To prove this he selected a number of single scarlet
ten-week stocks, and as soon as he observed five or six seed-pods fairly
formed on the flower-spike, every succeeding flower was pinched off. From
the seeds saved in this manner he had more than 400 double flowers from
one small bed of plants (G. M. for 1838, p. 122). De Candolle states that
Mr. Salisbury assured him that by putting plants with single flowers in a
very rich soil, and fixing ligatures round the stem near the neck, he obtained
seeds which produced double flowers (Phys. Feg., p. 734) ; but this as a
general principle he considers very doubtful. One thing is certain, that
seeds saved from semi-double flowers frequently produce flowers which are
double ; and it would also appear that from the authority of gardeners/seeds
from single flowers which have been growing among double ones, more
frequently produce double flowers, than seeds from plants which have not
been so circumstanced.
869. Duration of varieties. — All the plants of a variety which have
been procured by division, for example all the plants of any particular
variety of grape, apple, or potato, being in fact only parts of one individual,
it has been argued by Mr. Knight, that when the parent plant dies all
the others must die also ; or to put the doctrine in a more general form,
that all varieties are but of limited duration. This opinion, though it
has been adopted by many persons, has not met with the approbation of
Professor De Candolle, who says that the permanence of the duration of
varieties, so long as man wishes to take care of them, is evident from the
continued existence of varieties the most ancient of those which have
been described in books. By negligence, or by a series of bad seasons,
they may become diseased, like some of our varieties of apple or potato ; but
by careful culture they may be restored and retained to all appearance for
ever. We are not sure that De Candolle's theory will hold good with the
finest fruits and florists' flowers. The species might be recovered, but we
question whether in many instances that will be the case with the variety.
Perhaps a hypothesis might be devised which would coincide with both
authorities. It would coincide with that of De Candolle, if Mr. Knight had
spoken with reference to actually wild varieties only ; but with regard to
improved varieties, as they are understood in a horticultural point of view,
they are doubtless prone to decay in proportion to their degree of departure
from that physiological perfection which enables the wild variety to maintain
itself continually on the surface of the globe, independent of the care of man.
A wild variety will produce seed under favourable circumstances, but
many highly improved varieties, in a horticultural sense, do not perfectly
mature their seeds under any circumstances whatever ; and therefore must
be physiologically imperfect, and being so, a priori^ if it be admitted that
imperfection is a principle of decay, it will not be denied, that no plant
OPERATIONS OF ORDER AND KEEPING. 409
imperfectly constituted can carry on its functions but for a more or less
limited time, even under the most favourable circumstances.
870. We have dwelt longer on this subject than may appear necessary,
because we consider the civilisation of wild plants by cultivation, the originat-
ing of new varieties of those already in our gardens from seed, or of wild plants
from accidental variations, among the most interesting and rational amuse-
ments which can engage the amateur. There is a great deal of enjoyment
in displaying our power over plants in propagating them, by cuttings, leaves,
and the different modes of grafting and budding ; but greater still is that of
creating new kinds of fruits or flowers by cross-fecundation, or improving a
wild plant so as entirely to change its character. As examples of what may
be done, we may, among culinary vegetables, refer to the common carrot,
which in five generations from seed, in as many years, has been brought
from a wild state to be fit for the table, by M. Vilmorin ; and among flowers
to the heartsease, which in the course of the last twenty years has by cross-
breeding and selection, been raised from a flower with thin crumpled petals
and irregular shape, to one of our most symmetrical and flat firm-petalled
florists' flowers. We conclude by reminding the amateur that the blossoms
or fruits produced by newly-originated plants the first or second year, are
often inferior to what the same plant will produce when it has acquired a
greater degree of vigour ; and that to do justice to new varieties of herbaceous
plants, they should be allowed to flower at least two years, and ligneous
plants to flower and fruit, three or even four years, before they are rejected.
§ XXI. Operations of Order and Keeping.
871. By order is to be understood that relation of objects to one another,
which shows that the one follows the other as an obvious or natural conse-
quence. Thus, suppose that on entering a kitchen- garden we observe a border
along the walk separated from the larger compartment by a continuous espalier
rail ; this rail we naturally expect will be continued all round the garden,
or if interrupted it will be by some obvious and satisfactory cause. Suppose
the line of railing discontinued without any obvious reason ; in that case we
should say there was a want of order. Still more so should we be struck with a
want of order, if the walk were bordered by dwarf fruit-trees, not in a straight
line or in a line parallel to that of the walk, but sometimes nearer and some-
times farther from it, and with the trees also at irregular distances in the line.
There is a secondary meaning in which the word order is used among gar-
deners, which has reference to keeping ; and thus a border of flowers or
other plants confused with weeds would be said to be disorderly, or not in
order. In the former case, the term refers to design, and in the latter to
management ; and it may be easily conceived that the unfavourable impres-
sion on a stranger is much graver in the case in which it is of a permanent
nature, than in the other where it is only temporary. Neatness, as applied
to horticultural scenes and objects, may be considered as synonymous with
cleanliness.
872. The term keeping in horticulture relates to the degree of order and
neatness which are maintained in management ; and hence the expressions,
badly kept, highly kept. A garden that is in high order and keeping must
have been correctly laid out and planted at first, and cultivated and managed
with great care afterwards. This care must not be devoted merely to some
particular department, or to some object under the gardener's charge, but
4JO OPERATIONS OF ORDER AND KEEPING.
must extend to everything according to its importance. In a kitchen-gar-
den, the system of managing the wall and espalier fruit-trees, and of crop-
ping the compartments, demands the first attention, because the result will
not only influence the most conspicuous features in the garden, but also
increase or diminish the quantity and quality of the produce.
873. The following rules may perhaps be of some use, if impressed on the
mind of the young gardener, and if insisted on being kept by workmen by
the master or the amateur : —
1. Perform every operation in the proper season and in the best manner ', on
the principle that " whatever is worth doing at all is worth doing well."
Nothing can be more annoying to a person who is desirous of having his
garden kept in the highest order, than to see the slovenly manner in which
some gardeners thrust plants into the soil, tie them up when they require
support, and hack and cut at them when they require pruning. w' Cut to
the bud " is a precept too often disregarded by such persons ; among whom
we have known excellent growers of crops, both in the open air and under
glass.
2. Complete every operation consecutively. — The neglect of this is a very
common fault. For example, the wall-trees are receiving their summer
pruning, and as this occupies a day or two, or is necessarily performed at
intervals, so as not to deprive the trees of two much foliage at once, the
shoots cut off are left on the ground till all the trees have been gone over.
The same mode of proceeding is followed in every other operation. We
allow that, on the principle of the division of labour, this is the most econo-
mical mode, but on the principle of high keeping it is objectionable ; and in
the event of changes of weather, such as a fall of rain, it may, in the case of
neglecting to rake off weeds the same day in which they are hoed up, defeat
the intention of the operation.
3. Never, if possible, perform one operation in such a manner as to render
another necessary. — It is a common practice with many gardeners, when
weeding borders or trimming plants, to throw the weeds or trimmings on the
gravel-walks, thereby occasioning the labour of sweeping them up, as well
as soiling the gravel of the walk. There is scarcely a practice more to
be condemned than this, both with reference to economy of time and to high
keeping. The walk is disfigured by the weeds and trimmings perhaps for a
whole day, and when they are swept off it is found that the gravel has been
disturbed and is discoloured. In all cases of weeding borders and pruning
shrubs, or hedges, close to walks, the weeds and prunings should be put at
once into a wheelbarrow or basket.
4. When called off from any operation, leave your work and your tools in
an orderly manner. — Do not leave a plant half planted, or a pot half watered,
and do not throw down your tools as if you never intended to take them up
again. Never leave a hoe or a rake with the blade or the teeth turned up,
as if you intended them as man-traps. Never stick in a spade where it will
cut the roots of a plant ; but if you must stick it in among plants, let its blade
be in the direction of the roots, not across them.
5. In leaving off work, make a temporary finish, and clean your tools and
carry them to the tool-house. — Never leave off in the midst of a row. Never
leave the garden-line stretched. Never show an eagerness to be released
from work. Never prune off more shoots, pull up more weeds, or make
more litter of any kind than you can clear away the same day, if not the
same hour.
OPERATIONS OF HORTICULTURAL DESIGN AND TASTE. 411
6. Never do that in the open garden or in the hothouses, which can be
equally well done in the reserve ground or in the back sheds : potting and
shifting, for example.
7. Never pass a weed or an insect without pulling it up or taking it off,
unless time forbid. Much might be done in this way towards keeping down
weeds, were it not for the formality of some gardeners, who seem to delight
in leaving weeds to accumulate till a regular weeding is required.
8. In gathering a crop, take away the useless as well as the useful parts. —
Never leave the haulm of potatoes on the ground where they have grown.
Take up all the cabbage tribe by the roots, unless sprouts or second crops
are wanted ; and carry every kind of waste to the reserve or the frame
ground, to rot as manure or mix with dung linings.
9. Let no plant ripen seeds, unless these are wanted for some purpose useful
or ornamental, and remove all the parts of plants which are in a state of decay.
— The seed-pods of plants should not be allowed even to swell, unless the
seeds are wanted for some purpose, because being the essential result of
every plant, they exhaust it more than any other part of its growth, and
necessarily always more or less weaken it for the following year.
874. To these rules many others might be added, but it is not our wish
to render gardeners mere machines. One great object of the young gardener
ought to be to cultivate his faculty of seeing, so that in every garden he may
be able to detect what is worth imitating, and what ought to be avoided.
There is nothing tends more to this kind of cultivation than seeing the gar-
dens of our neighbours, in which we may often detect those faults which
exist in our own, but which, from having become familiar to us, we had not
been able to see in a similar light. Without a watchful and vigilant eye,
and habits of attention, observation, reflection, and decision, a gardener will
never be able to be a complete master of his profession.
CHAPTER II.
OPERATIONS OF HORTICULTURAL DESIGN AND TASTE.
WE have introduced the title of this chapter, chiefly for the sake of show-
ing that we have not forgotten any part of our subject, and that the whole
of what would have been treated of here has already been given in the
Suburban Architect and Landscape Gardener. In order, therefore, to keep
this work within certain limits, we shall only here give an outline of what
would otherwise have been treated of in detail.
875. Taking plans of gardens, garden-buildings, or of any part of them,
or of garden implements, or of modes of performing operations, ought to be
understood by every gardener who aspires to eminence in his profession,
and by every amateur who wishes to improve his own garden by what he
sees in those of others.
876. Carrying plans into execution by transferring them from paper to
ground, or in whatever manner they require to be realised, is equally neces-
412 OPERATIONS OF GENERAL MANAGEMENT.
saiy to be understood by both the gardener and the amateur ; and for this
purpose, and that of the preceding paragraph, some knowledge of geometry,
land-surveying, and drawing is requisite. We would recommend Pasleys
Practical Geometry and Plan-drawing, 8vo. 10*., and Crocker's Land-sur-
veying, 8vo. 12*.
877. Reducing a surface to a level, or to a uniform slope, is one of the
most common operations required of a gardener in forming a garden or
laying out grounds. For this purpose he must have learnt the use of the
spirit-level or of the common mason's level, so as to be able to stake out level
or regularly sloping lines on irregular surfaces. We recommend, as the best
work on this subject for the practical gardener, Jones's Principles and Prac-
tice of Levelling, 1840, 8vo. 4*.
878. The laying out of walks, roads, lawns, and the formation of pieces
of artificial water, fountains, rockwork, and various other works that fall
more or less under the superintendence of the gardener, are given at length
in the volume referred to.
CHAPTER III.
OPERATIONS OF GENERAL MANAGEMENT.
879. The general management of a garden, whether it includes the
pleasure-ground, and all the scenes which come under the gardener's depart-
ment in an extensive country residence, or merely a few rods of ground
for growing culinary crops and flowers, requires such constant attention
throughout the year, that gardeners have wisely invented calendars to remind
them of their duty, monthly and even weekly. An abbreviated calendar of
this kind will be found at the end of our volume, and we shall here confine
ourselves to giving some hints on general management.
880. On undertaking the charge of a garden, the first point to determine
is, the number of hands required for its cultivation, and how many of these
men are to be professional gardeners, as journeymen or apprentices, and how
many common country labourers or women. It is scarcely possible to keep
a garden in the highest order, however small it may be, without a profes-
sional gardener in constant attendance ; or without a garden-labourer,
directed by the amateur ; who in this case may be supposed to perform
all the more delicate operations of propagating, pruning, training, &c.,
himself. Where only one professional gardener is kept, he will frequently
require a labourer to assist in operations that cannot well be done by a single
person, or that require to be done quickly ; or of one or more women, to
assist in weeding, gathering crops, or keeping down insects. Though as a
general and permanent practice we do not advocate the employment of
women in out-door work, yet in the present state of things in this country
there are generally to be found women glad to accept the remuneration for
working in a garden, and the healthiness of the employment in good weather
is a recommendation to it.
881. The books to be kept by a gardener in a small place need not be more, as
far as the business of the garden is concerned, than an inventory- book of the
OPERATIONS OP GENERAL MANAGEMENT. 413
tools, &c. ; a cash-book, in which to enter what he pays and receives ; and
a memorandum-book, to enter the dates and other particulars of orders
given to tradesmen, &c., of sowing main crops, of fruit-ripening, and such
other particulars as his master may require, or as he may think useful.
Such books should be furnished by the master, and consequently be delivered
to him when they are filled up. In some gardens a cropping-book is kept,
in which on one page is registered the date, and other particulars of putting
in the crops ; the page opposite being kept blank, to enter the dates when
they begin to be gathered, and how long they last. In all large gardens a
produce-book is kept, in which every article sent to the kitchen every day
in the year is recorded. There are various modes of keeping books of this
kind, but one of the simplest and best appears to us to be the following : — A
list, or kitclwn-bill, is printed of all the culinary articles which the garden is
supposed to produce in the course of the year ; and a similar list, or dessert-
bill, of all the dessert articles. On these lists,every morning, the gardener
marks such articles as are in season, or as he can supply, and sends the
kitchen-bill to the cook or steward, and the dessert-bill to the housekeeper,
who put their marks to every article which are wanted for that day. The
bills are carried back to the gardener, who puts them into the hands of his
foreman ; who sends the articles to the kitchen in the course of the forenoon
with the bills, which are signed by persons receiving the articles, and
returned to the gardener; who preserves them, and has them bound up
in a volume at the end of the year. This book forms an excellent record
of garden-produce for future reference. See a form of kitchen-bill and also
of dessert-bill, in G. M., for 1841, p. 9.
882. The ordering of seeds and plants is one of the most important
duties of the head-gardener ; the difficulty being to determine the exact
quantity of seed required, which is of some importance when the garden is
at a considerable distance from the seedsman. Abercrombie's Seed Estimate
is a useful memorial for this purpose, and a year's experience in any garden
will enable the gardener to give his future orders with sufficient exactness.
Some seeds in most gardens are saved by the gardener, particularly flower-
seeds ; and many kinds of plants are now propagated by him which, were
they to be procured from nurserymen, would increase the expenses of even
a small garden to such an amount as to put such gardens out of the reach of
thousands who now enjoy them. Gardeners also exchange many articles
with one another, by which means their gardens are much enriched at little
or no expense to their master ; and thus the richer any garden is in plants
or seeds, the more likely are these riches to be increased, from there being
a greater number of articles to exchange. Hence also the great advantage
of employing a good professional gardener, who in many situations saves far
more than the amount of his wages, by propagation and exchanges.
883. The management of men and the distribution of work are the
great points to which a head- gardener ought to direct his daily attention.
The work of every day ought to be foreseen the day before, subject, how-
ever, to changes in the weather, against which other work should be pro-
vided. A general idea of the labours and operations of the coming week
should be formed the week before, and communicated to the foreman, who
ought to receive his directions every evening for what is to be done the
following day. P'or this, and all other matters of general management,
gardeners' calendars are of the greatest use as remembrancers ; but the gar-
414 OPERATIONS OF GENERAL MANAGEMENT.
dener's principal dependence must be on his own knowledge and experience.
Unless lie think and act for himself, as if no calendar had been in existence,
he will never succeed ; andif this may be said of a professional gardener, it
applies still more forcibly to the amateur.
884. The wages of a gardener. — Something may here be expected to be
said on this subject, and we shall observe: — 1. That there cannot be a
greater mistake than to suppose that the products and enjoyments of a
garden, however small, can be obtained without the services of a really good
professional gardener; and 2. that all the difference between a garden-
labourer, who perhaps can barely read and write, and who can neither
spell nor pronounce botanic names, is not above £20 or £30 a-year. No
man would think of giving a garden-labourer, to whom he committed the
management of his garden, less than a guinea a- week with his lodging, and
some other perquisites, such as spare vegetables, fuel, &c. Now, for £70
or £80 a-year, a scientific professional gardener may be engaged ; one who
can understand and reason upon all that is written in this volume, as well
as carry all the practices described into operation, and who in consequence
will elicit more enjoyment from a quarter of an acre than a man who has
no scientific knowledge will do from any extent of ground, and means with-
out limits. We by no means set down £70 or £80 as adequate wages for
such a person ; we know many gardeners who receive £100, and some £150
and £200 a-year, with a house, coals, candles, and various other perquisites.
We merely state that such is the salary at which a scientific gardener may be
engaged at the present time. But let us not be supposed to undervalue the
garden-labourer. Wherever an amateur is his own head-gardener, there
the garden-labourer is his fittest assistant, and far better adapted for his
purpose than a professional gardener, whose superior knowledge and skill
might discourage him in his operations. The wages of a professional
gardener, it must be allowed, are but small, compared with the amount of
knowledge and the steady attention which the exercise of his profession
requires ; but wages in this, as in every other case, depends on demand
and supply, and it would serve little purpose here to discuss the subject of
increasing the one or diminishing the other. This much it may be useful to
observe that gardening, when studied scientifically, is a profession which
tends to elevate the mind, and confer intellectual enjoyments of a much
more exalted character than mere money-making can ever do. This, we
think, is proved by the excellent moral character of almost all professional
gardeners, and by the high degree of intelligence and scientific knowledge
which many of them acquire. There are few persons, we believe, who have
a more extensive personal knowledge of British master-gardeners than we
have, and we also know a good many on the Continent ; and we must say
that, as a body, we have the very highest respect for them. They are
almost all great readers ; and in consequence of this, the intellectual and
moral powers of many of them have been developed in a manner that com-
mands our utmost veneration. There is scarcely a science or an art which
some master-gardener of our acquaintance has not of his own accord taken
up and studied from books, so as to obtain a respectable degree of knowledge
of it. We know a number who have taught themselves several languages,
and one of the best Hebrew scholars in Scotland, as we are informed by a
clergyman (a good judge), is a gardener, who taught himself that language
without the assistance of a master. We know gardeners that excel in almost
OPERATIONS OF GENERAL MANAGEMENT. 415
every department of mathematics and geometry. Some are scientific mete-
orologists, naturalists in all the departments, and a number are good drafts-
men. Many Scotch gardeners dip into metaphysics, and we have long
known one whose library contains all the best English works on the subject,
including those of Reid, Kames, Stuart, Monboddo, Drummond, and many
others, besides translations. The development of so much talent among
gardeners is no doubt owing to the nature of the profession, which excites
thought ; to the isolation of their dwellings and the necessity of their
staying at home in the evenings to look after hothouse fires, and very
much also to the kind indulgence of their masters, who, with very few excep-
tions, allow them the use of whatever books they want from their own
libraries. Most employers also make presents of books to their gardeners ;
and some, of which Lord is the most magnificent example that we
know, have established in their gardens, libraries, with mathematical instru-
ments, globes, and maps. Another more recent yet grand cause of the
development of the minds of gardeners is the practice, which has become
general among them within the last twenty years, of writing for the press.
The Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London, and the Memoirs
of the Caledonian Society, first called forth this talent, which, as the gar-
dening books in existence previously to the first edition of our Encyclopaedia
of Gardening will show, had been confined to very few persons. The
grand stimulus to writing, however, was given by the Gardener's Magnzine,
a work most liberally supported by the contributions of gardeners ; and how
generally this has called forth the talent of writing among both masters and
journeymen will appear by the abundance of communications which continue
not only to be supplied to that periodical, and several others which appear
monthly, but to two weekly gardening newspapers. Amateurs also have
very generally become writers on horticultural subjects; and from the
different views which many of them take from those held by practical men,
the discussions they often elicit prove highly instructive to all parties. What
we greatly admire in all this intellectual progress is, that gardeners still
maintain their modesty of deportment and that high moral character, which
commands the respect of their employers and of all who know them.
E E2
PART III.
THE CULTURE OF THE KITCHEN AND FRUIT GARDEN.
CHAPTER I.
LAYING OUT AND PLANTING THE KITCHEN AND FRUIT-GARDEN.
SECT. I. Laying out the Kitchen-Garden.
885. The situation and general arrangement of the kitchen-garden have
already been treated of in the Suburban Architect and Landscape Gardener,
but previously to entering on its culture and management, we shall here
recapitulate the main features. The situation relative to the other parts of
a residence, should be as near the house as is consistent with other details.
In general the kitchen, stable-offices and kitchen-garden should be on one
side of the mansion or dwelling, and so placed as to admit of intercommuni-
cation without bringing the operations or operators into the view of the
family or their visitors. As the stable-offices are generally near the kitchen-
offices, so the kitchen-garden may be near the stables ; and in such a situa-
tion it will generally be found that the kitchen- garden is less seen from the
windows of the mansion, than if it were placed at a much greater distance,
A very little reflection will convince any one that this must necessarily be
the case. Relatively to surface, one which is level, open, and airy, is the
best ; because it is least liable to be affected by high winds. The next best
surface is one gently sloping to the south, or south-east ; and the worst is
one sloping to the north-east. The surface of a hill is to be avoided on
account of its exposure to high winds ; and equally so one in a valley on
account of the cold air which descends from the adjoining heights and settles
there. The extent is regulated by the wants of the family, and may vary
from a quarter of an acre to several acres ; every thing depending on the
quantity and quality of the produce required. The best soil is a loam, rather
sandy than clayey, on a subsoil moderately retentive. The form of the
garden should be rectangular, as better adapted than any other for the opera-
tions to be carried on within. The area is enclosed by walls, in general
forming a parallelogram with its longest side in the direction of east and
west, in consequence of which the greater length of walling has a surface
exposed to the south. When the situation is such as to require artificial
shelter, plantations are formed exterior to the garden for this purpose,
but they should never, if practicable, be nearer the walls than 100
feet or 150 feet ; for though science has not yet satisfactorily assigned
the reason, yet it is certain that nothing is more injurious to culinary veget-
ables and fruits, than the exclusion of a free current of air in every direction.
The sole object of shelter ought to be to break the force of high winds.
Water should never be wanting in a garden, and as we have already observed
(823) it should always be exposed in a basin for some time before being
used. The garden walls should if possible be of brick; or if they are formed
of stone, or of mud or compressed earth, which in some parts of the country
LAYING OUT THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 417
make excellent walls, retaining much heat and lasting a long time, they
ought to be covered with a wooden trellis on which to train the trees. It
has been recommended by Hitt and others to build the walls on piers, for
the sake of allowing the roots of the trees to extend themselves on both sides
of the wall. As however the branches of the trees are constrained so ought
to be the roots, in order that the one may be proportionate to the other.
Besides, as there are generally trees on both sides of every garden wall, it
does not appear that, under ordinary circumstances at least, anything would
be gained by this mode of building walls, excepting the saving of a small
proportion of materials. Where walls are not built of brick, stone or earth,
they may be formed of boards, which when properly seasoned and after-
wards saturated with boiling tar, will endure many years, and produce as
much heat in the summer season as brick or stone. They are indeed colder
in winter and spring, but that circumstance is often an advantage by retard-
ing the blossoming of the trees, and lessening the risk of their being injured
by spring frosts. If a cavity were formed by the boarding, and filled with
pounded clinkers, or charcoal, or coke, much heat would be absorbed from
the sun heat, and thus form a source for giving out heat at night.
Where the walls are formed of brick they may always be built hollow,
(472) to save material; and as very little additional expense will be
required to form the hollows into flues (475) or channels for hot- water
pipes, such an arrangement should not be neglected in the colder parts
of the island. The walks in the interior of the garden are laid out in a
direction parallel to the walls, and espalier rails are commonly formed parallel
to the walks. Exterior to the walls, a narrow portion of ground is inclosed
which is technically called the slip^ the object of which is to admit of getting
the full benefit of the wall on the outside as well as within.
88G. In trenching and levelling the surface of the kitchen-garden, care
must be taken to form a complete system of underground drainage ; not only
by having drains formed of tiles to carry off subterraneous water, but by
having the surface of the subsoil parallel to the exposed surface, both being
inclined towards the situation of the drains ; so that the water in sinking
down from the surface may not rest in hollows (526). The best situation
for these drains will generally be under the walks. The depth of the soil
of a garden should seldom be less than two feet, this depth being penetrated
by the roots of even the smallest kinds of culinary vegetables when growing
vigorously. The depth of the soil, however, ought to bear some relation to
its quality, and to the climate. A loamy or clayey soil in a humid climate
need not be trenched to the same depth as if it were in a warm and dry
climate ; because the use of the soil to plants being to retain moisture, a
small body not liable to lose by evaporation, may be as effective as a larger
one so constituted as to lose a great deal. The borders for fruit-trees form
an important part of the kitchen- garden, and should always be prepared with
a due regard to the soil, the climate, and the kinds of trees to be planted.
The bottom should generally be prepared so as to prevent the roots from
penetrating into the subsoil : though as this naturally limits the supply of
water to the roots in dry seasons, and consequently gives occasion for
artificial waterings, a better mode than making the borders very shallow, is
never to dig them, and to spread the manure always on the surface. By
this means the roots will not be forced downwards, as they necessarily must
be when the surface is loosened and exposed to the drying influence of the
418
LAYING OUT THE KITCHEN GARDEN.
sun and winds, or the exhaustion of crops of vegetables. The subsoil of the
borders, however, ought in every case to be drained. In planting fruit-trees
in the kitchen garden, we would on no account whatever introduce standards,
or any description of fruit-tree, in those partsof the open garden which are to be
cropped with herbaceous vegetables; because such trees injure the surrounding
crops by their shade, and never produce much fruit, or fruit of good quality,
in consequence of their roots being forced down into the subsoil by the neces-
sary stirring of the soil among the herbaceous crops. We have enlarged on this
subject elsewhere, (Sub. Gard. 1st ed. p. 202,) and we therefore only add
that we recommend no fruit-trees to be planted in the kitchen-garden ex-
cepting against the walls, against espalier rails, in rows along the walks, or in
compartments by themselves. It may be objected to what we recommend, that
it is contrary to the practice of market-gardeners, who in general grow fruit-
trees among their culinary crops ; but to this we reply, that the fruit of such
trees, and the flavour of the crops which grow under them, must necessarily
be far inferior to that of fruit grown on trees which draw their nourishment
from the surface of the soil, and of vegetables which enjoy the full benefit of
the sun and air. Market-gardeners know this, though their customers may
not. A forcing department, a frame ground and a reserve ground, are
accompaniments to every complete kitchen-garden, and even the smallest
has at least a reserve and frame ground. The two latter accompaniments
are generally placed exterior to the walls of the garden, in that part of the
slip which is nearest the stables, and the forcing department is sometimes
placed there also; though more generally it consists of glass structures placed
against the north wall of the garden. The best outer fence for a garden is a
sunk wall, the ditch in which it is built serving as a main drain, into which
all the drains in the interior may discharge themselves. The wall of this
fence may be carried up three feet or four feet above the surface of the ground,
to render it more formidable as a fence, without at the same time producing
too much shelter and shade in the slip. In many places it is customary to
surround the slip with a shrubbery bounded by a hedge, which has a very
good effect for a few years while the trees are young, but when they grow
large they produce an injurious degree of shelter and shade. The main
entrance to a kitchen-garden should always be so placed as to look towards
the main feature within, this feature necessarily being the south side of the
north wall, not only because that wall supports the hot-houses when there
are any within the garden, but because on it are grown the finest fruits. As
an example of a kitchen-garden arranged agreeably to the foregoing obser-
vations, but combining also a flower-garden, as being frequently required in
a suburban villa, we refer to fig. 330. It contains one acre within the walls,
and half an acre in the slips ; and the following references will explain the
details.
1. Flower-garden.
2. Conservatory.
3. Green-house.
4. Forcing-house for flowers.
5. Back-shed.
6. Area for setting out green-house
plants in summer.
7. Culinarydepartments with espaliers.
8. Espalier-borders.
9. Pond, surrounded with a stone
margin.
10. Forcing department.
11. Water- basin.
12. Ranges of pits for melons, cu-
cumbers, &c.
13. Pine-stove.
LAYING OUT THE KITCHEN GARDEN.
419
10 30 SO ">0
I T _ ' . I t I - 1 1 1 1 1 Ft
Fig. 330. Plan of a kitchen garden containing one acre within the walls, and half an acre in
the surrounding slipt.
420
DISTRIBUTION OF FRUIT-TREES IN A KITCHEN GARDEN,
14. Peach-house.
15. Vinery.
16. Pits.
17. Back-shed.
18. Department for compost, mixing
dung, &c.
19. Mushroom-sheds, tool-house,
wintering vegetables, &c.
20. Slips, bounded by a sunk wall
Supposing the flower-gardens and
references may stand as under : —
1. Fruit-garden.
2, 3, 4, 5. To be omitted, if not
desirable.
6, 7, 8. Culinary departments with
espaliers.
9. Pond.
10. Forcing department.
11. Water-basin.
12. Ranges of pits, for melons, cu-
cumbers, &c.
13. Pine-stove.
14. Peach-house.
15. Vinery.
fence, surmounted by an open
iron railing.
21. Gardener's house.
22. Fruit and onion room, with
lodging-room for under-gar-
dener, and seed-room over.
23. Yard to gardener's house.
24. For pot-herbs.
hothouses are tc be omitted, then the
16. Pits.
17. Back-shed.
18. Department for compost, mixing
dung, &c.
19. Mushroom-sheds, tool-house,
wintering vegetables, &c.
20. Slips, as before.
21. Gardener's house.
22. Fruit and onion room, with
lodging-room for under-gar-
dener, and seed-room over.
23. Yard to gardener's house.
24. For pot-herbs.
The following plan, fig. 331, contains an acre within the walls, and is
without a gardener's house, or slips at the sides, the situation being sup-
posed to render it necessary to conceal the walls by a plantation of evergreen
shrubs made close to them. To prevent the roots of these shrubs from
penetrating to the borders inside of the walls, their foundations must be at
least three feet deep in the most impervious subsoil, and deeper still on soil
that they will readily penetrate. The following are references : —
o, a, Fruit-garden, the border next
the outer fence for pot-herbs.
6, 6, Culinary departments with espa-
liers.
c, c, Forcing department.
d, d, Department for compost, mixing
dung, &c.
e, e, Ranges of pits for melons and
cucumbers.
/, Pine-stove.
#, Peach-house.
h, Vinery.
t, t, Pits.
fr, Back-shed.
/, /, Sheds for mushrooms, or for other
purposes,
m, m, Water-basins.
SECT. II. The distribution of Fruit-trees in a kitchen-garden.
887. The more delicate fruit-trees are always placed against walls, and
those which are less so are planted in the open garden as standards, dwarfs,
or espaliers. South of London the trees planted against walls are chiefly the
grape, fig, peach, nectarine, and apricot. Sometimes there are planted against
walls of a south aspect, one or two choice plums, a few cherries to come
into early bearing ; and on the north side of an east and west wall, some
Morello cherries and sometimes currants, to come in late ; the fruit being
DISTRIBUTION OF FRUIT-TREES IN A KITCHEN-GARDEN.
421
^
covered with netting, to preserve it from birds and so retain it on'the trees
till Christmas. North of London, pears, and apples of the finer kinds, are
trained against walls; and
north of York, even the
mulberry, which in Scot-
land never ripens fruit as
a standard. Nuts, such
x , v as the walnut, sweet ches-
\\ \ nut, and filbert, are almost
\ \ \ always grown as stan-
t dards; but the crops of
the two former are very
precarious north of York,
and but rarely ripened in
Scotland. The only sug-
gestions that can be given
for selecting the trees
which require a wall in
any given situation are, to
observe what has been
done in gardens in the
same locality or in similar
localities. The lists given
consist of varieties which
have all been proved to be
of first-rate excellence, and
are, with few exceptions,
the same as those, for the
selection of which, we had
the assistance of Mr.
Thompson, by permission
of the Horticultural So-
ciety. In choosing from
these lists for a garden in
the north of Scotland, the
grapes and the figs will be
rejected altogether for the
open walls, because they
would not ripen there;
while for a garden in the
south of England the ap-
ples and pears would be
rejected, because there the
/ fruits would ripen suffi-
/ ciently well in the open
(/ garden, as espaliers,dwarfs,
rrr<^ or standards. We shall
here give only the names
too of the kinds selected ; other
1
io jo
Fig. 331. Plan of aUtcJicn-garden, containing one acre within particulars will be found
the walls, and three quarters of an acre in the slips, at the in our frujt catalogue
two ends.
422
WALL FRUIT-TREES.
SUBSECT. I. Wall Fruit-trees.
888. Select List of Fruit-trees adapted for walls of different aspects, those
marked * deserving the preference : —
Drap d'Or, £. or W.
*Green Gage, S., E., W.
*Coe's Golden Drop, S., E., W.
* Washington, S., E., W.
* Purple Gage,S., E., W.
Ickworth Imperatrice, E. or W.
Kirke's Plum, E. or W.
Apples.
*Golden Pippin, S., S.E., or S.W.
*Ribston Pippin, E. or W.
^Nonpareil, S., S.E., or S.W.
* Herefordshire Pearmain, E. or W.,
or S.E.
Court of Wick, E. or W.
Reinette du Canada, E.orW.,orS.E.,
or S.W.
Newtown Pippin, S.E. or S.W.
*Cornish Gillyflower, S.E. or S.W.
*Court-pendu Plat, S.E. or S.W., or
E. or W.
*Golden Harvey, S.E. or S.W. or E.
or W.
Scarlet Nonpareil, E. or W.
Hughes's Golden Pippin, E. or W.
* Pearson's Plate, E. or W.
Pears.
*Jargonelle, S.E. or W.
* Marie Louise, E., W.
Gansel's Bergamot, E., W.
Duchesse d'Angouleme, E., W.
*Beurre Diel, E., W.
*Hacon's Incomparable, E. or W.
*Glout Morceau, S.E. or W.
* Passe Colmar, S.E. or S.W.
Nelis d'Hiver, S.E. or W.
Beurre d'Aremberg, S.E. or W.
Colmar, S.E. or W.
*Easter Beurre', S.E. or W.
*Beurre Ranee, S.E. orW.
Cherries.
*May Duke, S., E., W.
*Royal Duke, S., E., W.
*Knight's Early Black, S., E., W.
•Elton, S. E. W.
* Florence, E. or W.
*Early Purple Guigne, S., E., W.
Black Tartarian, S., E., W.
Late Duke, E., W., N.
*Morello, E., W., N.
Plums.
*Royale Hative, S.E.W.
Drap d'Or, S., E., W.
Apricots.
* Large Early, S., E., W.
*Moorpark, S., E., W.
*Royal, S., E., W.
^Turkey, S., E., W.
Breda, E. or W.
Peaches.
Early Anne, S.
*Grosse Mignonne, S.
Royal George, S.
*Noblesse, S.
-'Malta, S.
*Bellegarde, S.
*Barrington, S.
*Late Admirable, S.
Nectarines.
*Elruge, S.
* Violet Hative, S.
White, S.
Pitmaston Orange, S.
Due de Tello, S.
Figs.
*Blue or black Ischia, S.E., S., or
S.W.
* White or brown Ischia, S., S.E., or
S.W.
Black Genoa, S.E., S., or S.W.
White Genoa, S.E., S., or S.W.
*Brown Turkey, S.E., S., or S.W.
* Brunswick, S.E., S., or S.W.
S.E., S. or S.W.
Grapes.
*The Early Black, S.
* White Muscadine, S.
Grove End Sweet Water, S.
Pitmaston White Cluster, S,
WALL FRUIT-TREES. 423
Esperione, S. I ably well on the open wall in the
Black Hamburgh, S. climate of London in fine seasons.
Grisley Frontignac, S.
The last two grapes ripen remark-
The Mulberry is sometimes planted
against a west wall.
889. Of all these different kinds of fruits, with the exception of the fig and
the grape, both short -stemmed and long-stemmed trees are to be procured in
the nurseries. The former, that is, the dwarfs, are for filling up the lower
parts of the wall, and ultimately also the upper part ; and the latter, the
standards or riders, are for filling up the upper part till the dwarfs are so far
advanced as to take their place, when the riders are taken up and thrown
away. Riders therefore should always be of early-bearing sorts. The plants
may be procured either one year grafted, or one, two, or three years trained,
the latter trees being double or treble the price of the former, but filling the
wall much sooner. As riders are but of temporary duration, it is customary
to procure them three or more years trained, that they may bear fruit imme-
diately. When the walls are under twelve feet high it is scarcely necessary
to plant riders ; for if three years trained trees are planted, the wall will be
covered to the top in seven years.
890. The distance from each other at which the trees should be planted de-
pends on the species of tree, the climate, the height of the wall, and to a certain
extent also on the width of the border. The following distances are calcu-
lated for the dwarfs on a wall twelve feet high, with a border twelve feet
wide, in the climate of London : — Peaches, nectarines, and figs, fifteen feet
to twenty feet ; apricots, fifteen feet for the early sorts, and eighteen feet to
twenty-four feet for the late strong-growing sorts, as apricots and plums do
not bear pruning so well as other wall-trees ; cherries and plums, fifteen feet to
twenty feet, or the stronger-growing plums, such as the Washington, twenty-
four feet ; apples on dwarfing stocks, fifteen feet— if on free stocks, from
twenty-five feet to thirty feet ; mulberries, from fifteen feet to twenty feet.
Vines may be planted among the other trees at thirty feet or forty feet dis-
tance, and a single stem from each plant trained up to the coping of the wall,
and then horizontally close under it, where if pruned in the spurring-in
manner (797) it will bear abundantly, and produce more saccharine fruit
than if it had been treated like a fruit-tree. If however the situation is
favourable for vines, they may be planted from ten feet to fifteen feet apart,
and trained either in the perpendicular manner (808), or horizontally with
upright laterals, or in the fan manner ; or several plants may be introduced
together, and trained in Mr. Hoare's manner, or in the Thomery system, to
be afterwards described. One rider, peach, cherry, or plum, may be intro-
duced between every dwarf, if the latter should be maiden plants ; but if
they are dwarfs three or four years trained, riders are unnecessary excepting
on walls above twelve feet high.
891. For low walls the distances above given may be increased one-fourth,
when the height of the wall is only nine feet, and one-half when it is six
feet. The mode of training for walls under nine feet should generally be
the half- fan manner, shown in fig. 318 in p. 375. The intervals between
the trees may be filled up for three or four years with gooseberries or cur-
rants ; each plant trained to a single upright stem, and spurred in. By thus
having only one shoot from a plant, the top of the wall will be reached by
424 FRUIT-TREES FOR ESPALIERS AND DWARFS.
that shoot in three or, at most, four years; and as the permanent trees encroach
on the temporary ones on each side, the latter can be taken out one at a
time, so as never to leave an unseemly blank on the wall.
892. Training, in the case of walls twelve feet high and upwards, should
be the fan manner for the peach, nectarine, early apricots, and figs ; the
half-fan for the stronger apricots, plums, cherries, the more delicate pears,
and the mulberry ; and the horizontal manner for the apple and the greater
number of pears.
893. Planting. — The plants should be placed on hillocks higher or lower
according to the depth which the ground has been moved in preparing the
border, in order that in two or three years, when the ground shall have
finally settled, the collar or part of the stem whence the first roots proceed
shall be between two inches and four inches above the general surface of the
ground. The distance of the collar from the wall, when newly planted,
should be for the more delicate-growing trees, such as the peach, from six
inches to nine inches ; and for the more vigorous-growing kinds, such as the
apple, pear, and cherry, from nine inches to a foot. We say nothing as to the
season of planting, or the mode of performing the operation, these and every
part of culture generally applicable to ligneous plants, having been treated of
in detail in those parts of the work with which the reader is supposed to be
already familiar.
SUBSECT. II. — fruit-trees for espaliers and dwarfs.
894. Espaliers are commonly planted in lines parallel to the main walks in
kitchen -gardens ; and next to the boundary -wall, and the correctly-edged
and highly-kept gravel- walks, there is nothing which so much characterises
the garden of a private gentleman, and distinguishes it from that of the
market-gardener. No person, we think, who has a cultivated feeling for
regularity and harmony of forms and lines, can think a walled kitchen-
garden complete without espalier-railings bordering the walks. Lines of
dwarf fruit-trees, or of fruit-shrubs, such as the gooseberry and currant, are
so far good ; but they are far from having the effect of espalier- railings.
Their forms bear no relation to that of the walls, whereas the espaliers are
counterparts of them, and keep up the harmony of form. There is com-
monly an espalier-rail on both sides of all the walks, excepting the sur-
rounding one next the wall-border. On that border espalier-trees are not
generally planted, though there are some exceptions. The espalier- rail is
generally placed at three feet or four feet distant from the walk, and on the
inner side of the rail there is commonly a foot-path, two feet wide, at two or
three feet distance ; so that these trees have a space eight feet wide, which may
be considered as exclusively devoted to their roots. If the main walks are
of flag-stone, supported on piers, or if they are formed of a thin layer of
gravel on good soil, then we may add half the width of the walk, in addition
to that already mentioned. If the six feet of border is not dug and cropped,
but only slightly manured on the surface, and once a year gently stirred
with the three-pronged fork, the trees will bear abundantly ; but if the
ground is dug and cropped, or if flowers are grown on it, the crop, from
the roots being forced to descend to the subsoil, and to produce more wood
than they can properly ripen, and the trees being thus forced to take a
habit of luxuriance rather than of fruitfulness, the fruit produced will be
few and without flavour.
FRUIT-TREES FOR ESPALIERS AND DWARFS. 425
89,5. If dwarfs or standards trained in the conical manner are substituted
for espaliers, the stems of the trees should be five feet or six feet from the
walk, and the path in the inside should be at an equal distance from them.
This will give a border of ten feet or twelve feet in width, besides the width
of the path ; and if the ground is not dug and the trees carefully trained, an
immense quantity of fruit will be produced. If the trees are standards,
trained in the spurring-in manner, the line of trees need not be farther than
three feet from the walk, and the footpath in the inner side may also be at
three feet distance, which will give a border six feet in width. As the
spurred-in trees will grow twelve feet high, and if on dwarfing-stocks, and
the border not dug, will bear abundantly, we know no mode in which so
much fruit can be produced on so limited a surface of ground, excepting
always the espalier mode, by which the trees do not occupy above a foot in
width. In order to prevent the roots of espaliers, dwarfs, cones, and all
other border-trees from extending among the culinary vegetables, they may
be cut off every three or four years about a foot from the inner path, and
the soil being there enriched, abundant nutriment will be supplied to keep
the trees in a bearing state.
896. Espalier-rails are variously constructed. The simplest mode is to
drive in stakes, which may be of young larch trees, or of any other young
wood disbarked and steeped in Burnett's composition, at two feet apart, with
temporary stakes of a slight description between ; the latter being for the
purpose of training forward the grow-
ing shoot of each horizontal branch
from one permanent stake to another,
during the growing season. Thus in
fig. 332, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4, represent
permanent stakes, and a, &, tern- Fig. 332. Progressive Espalier-rail.
porary ones. These latter may be removed from between Nos. 1 and 2 when
they are no longer of any use there, and placed between Nos. 2 and 3 till the
growing shoots obtain a bearing on the stake No. 3, when they may be
removed to the space between Nos. 3 and 4, and so on.
Another mode is to drive in stakes of the proper height, and eight inches or
nine inches apart, beginning at the centre of each tree, and extending them on
each side as the tree advances in growth. In the first stage of training, the stakes
require to stand as close together as twelve inches or fourteen inches, and to be
arranged in regular order to the full height of five feet, with a rail slightly
fastened on the top of them for neatness' sake, as well as to steady them.
Jf stakes of small ash, Spanish chesnut, or the like, from coppices or thin-
nings of young plantations, be used, they will last for three or four years,
provided they are from one and a half to two inches in diameter at a foot
from the bottom. They need not be extended further, in the first instance,
than the distance to be considered probable the trees may reach in three
years' growth : at that period, or the following season, they will all require
to be removed, and the new ones may be placed on each side, to the extent
that the trees may be thought to require while these stakes last, finishing
the top, as before, with a rail. As the trees extend their horizontal branches
and acquire substance, the two stakes on each side of the one that supports
the centre leader of the tree can be spared, and removed to any of the
extremities where wanted. And as the tree extends further and acquires
more substance, every other stake will be found sufficient ; and the centre
426
FRUIT-TREES FOR ESPALIERS AND DWARFS.
stake can be spared also, after the leader has reached its destined height and
is of a sufficient substance to support itself erect. When such a form of
training is completed, and the branches of sufficient magnitude, about six,
eight, or twelve stakes will be sufficient for the support of the horizontal
branches, even when they have the burden of a full crop of fruit. At any
other time, about six stakes to each tree will be all that are necessary.
897- A wooden espalier-rail, of great neatness and durability, is formed
of stakes of young larch-trees, or spruce firs, charred at the lower ends, driven
two feet into the ground so as to stand five feet high, and connected by a rail at
top, forming a cap to the uprights. The larch-trees should be girdled (777)
a year before being cut, and it has been found that they will last longer if
not deprived of their bark. There are many handsome espalier-rails of
this kind in Scotland ; for example, at Yester, in East- Lothian. When
the Scotch pine is used for stakes the bark should be removed, as it does not
adhere like that of the larch and the spruce fir.
898. Espalier-rails of cast-iron consist of a top and bottom horizontal
rail, into which upright rails are fixed at from six inches to nine inches
apart, with standards at every ten feet or twelve feet, which are let into
blocks of stone, firmly fixed in the soil, as shown in fig. 333. Wrought
wooden espalier-rails are also formed in the same manner as cast-iron
rails, and the standards let into iron sockets, which are fixed in stone
posts.
0 A
i A
Fig. 333. Cast-iron Espalier-rail.
899. Espalier-rails of wrought-iron may be formed of hoop and wire
iron, either single or double, as shown in figs. t>7 to 69 in p. 231 and 232, of
the Sub. Arch, and Landscape Gardener ; or of strained iron- wire, as shown
in fig. 334. This forms by far the handsomest, cheapest, and if occasionally
painted, will doubtless also form one of the most durable of espalier rails. It
was first erected in the kitchen garden at Carclew, and a full account of the
manner of putting it up will be found in the Gardener's Magazine for 1839.
The total cost at Carclew was from Is. Gd. to 2s. per linear yard. Strained
wire may be put up in this manner, either for espaliers or pleasure-ground
fences, not only in straight lines, but in curves of every description. This
is effected by means of underground braces, or underground perpendicular
FRUIT-TREES FOR ESPALIERS AND DWARFS.
427
posts, and these posts may be either of stone or of cast-iron, and they may
be built into masses of masonry where the soil is soft, or has been moved,
several feet in depth. No brace need ever ap-
pear above ground, as at &, 6, in fig. 334 ; nor
should the posts ever appear to rise out of the
naked soil, as do a, a, a, in the figure, but always
out of a block of stone. Where the soil is
on turf, this block, which may be six inches
square, need not rise more than an inch above
the surface ; but where the ground is to be dug
as in a kitchen garden, the upper surface of the
block may be nine inches, or a foot square, and
may rise two inches, or three inches above the
surface of the soil.
The reasons for a stone base are as follow :
— All materials which have been prepared for
the purposes of construction are considered as
thus rendered subject to the laws of architec-
ture ; and the first law is, that every superstruc-
ture must have an architectural base, on which
it is placed. Thus, speaking with reference to
design, every perpendicular line must rest upon
a horizontal one ; and speaking with reference
to materials, this horizontal line must be of the
same, or of a kind analogous to that of the per-
pendicular; of a kind which must at all events
be equally, if not more firm and durable than
it is. Live wood, that is, growing trees, may
rise out of soil, but never architectural wood,
that is, squared posts, which ought always to
rise out of stone. If this be true of wood, of
course it must be much more so of iron, which,
though harder than either wood or stone, yet
is not nearly so durable as the latter mate-
rial, which consequently forms a proper base
for it to rest on.
Espalier-rails and pleasure-ground fences of
this kind are put up in the best and most
economical manner by Porter and Co., of
Thames-street, London ; and by Cottam and
H alien, of Winsley-street, Oxford-street.
900. Dwarfs may be allowed to take their
natural shape, but they harmonise much better
with the regularity and symmetry of a walled
garden when they are trained in regular shapes,
which may be formed of wooden rods, stakes
with the bark on, or iron-wire. Trees spurred
in, or trained in the conical manner, require
no framework as guides. It is scarcely neces-
sary to add that all dwarfs, and all standards to be trained in the conical
manner or spurred in, should be grafted on dwarfing stocks.
FRUIT-TREES FOR ESPALIERS AND DWARFS.
901. Select list for espaliers,
spurred in; none are marked * a
of equal merit : —
Dessert Apples.
Oslin.
King of the Pippins.
Wormsley Pippin.
Golden Reinette.
Hughes' Golden Pippin.
Court of Wick.
Ribston Pippin.
Adams's Pearmain.
Pearson's Plate.
Golden Harvey.
Court Pendu Plat.
Reinette du Canada.
Braddick's Nonpareil.
Old Nonpareil.
Scarlet Nonpareil.
Boston Russet.
Downton Nonpareil.
Kitchen Apples.
Dumelow's Seedling.
Royal Russet,
Alfriston.
Brabant Bellefleur.
Kentish Codlin.
Pears.
Jargonelle.
Citron des Carnies.
Dunmore.
Hessel.
Beurre de Capiaumont.
Flemish Beauty.
Duchesse d'Angouleme.
Marie Louise.
Beurre Bosc.
dwarfs, or standards trained, conically or
3 being preferable, as the whole are nearly
Louise Bonne (of Jersey).
Napoleon.
Glout Morceau.
Nelis d'Hiver.
Hacon's Incomparable.
Chaumontel.
Pa'sse Colmar
Knight's Monarch.
Ne plus Meuris.
Beurre Diel.
Easter Beurre.
Beurre Ranee.
Cherries.
*May Duke.
•Morello.
* Kentish.
Royal Duke.
•Elton.
Knight's early Black.
Bigarreau.
Late Duke.
Florence.
Plums.
Royale Hative.
* Green Gage.
Orleans.
*Fotheringham.
* White Magnum Bonum.
*Blue Perdrigon.
Purple Gage.
Washington.
Ickworth Imperatrice.
Coe's Golden Drop.
Kirke's.
Other fruit- trees, the mulberry, quince, medlar, service, and filbert, are
sometimes introduced as espalier trees or dwarf standards, especially where
there is no orchard, and perhaps some varieties of walnut and sweet chestnut
might be so introduced.
902. The plants may be procured either one year grafted or some years
trained. All those to be planted on espaliers should be trained in the
horizontal manner ; and in planting, the greatest care must be taken to place
the plants on hills, so that when the ground has finally settled, their collars
may be an inch or two above the surface. The distance at which ^they
are placed from the espalier-rail may be from six inches to nine inches, and
the distance from plant to plant may be as follows :—
FRUIT-SHRUBS.
429
To be trained as espaliers, — apples on crab stocks, twenty to thirty feet ;
cherries, fifteen to twenty feet ; pears on free stocks, twenty-five to thirty
feet — on dwarfing stocks, twenty to twenty-five feet ; plums, twenty to
twenty-five feet ; mulberries, twenty to thirty feet, with gooseberries or
currants as temporary plants between ; quinces, medlars, and services, fifteen
to twenty feet ; and walnuts and sweet chestnuts, where they are tried on
espaliers, thirty to forty feet.
To be trained as dwarfs, — apples and pears, ten to fifteen feet ; cherries
and plums, ten to twelve feet.
903. Standard fruit-trees we would on no account admit in the open
garden, for reasons already given. If we made any exception, it would be
in favour of a mulberry ; but in that case we would surround it with a circle
of turf, which, while it would save the dropping fruit from being injured,
would prevent the ground from being dry. If in any case it were absolutely
required to have standard fruit-trees in a walled garden, we would place
them in a compartment by themselves, and never dig or crop the ground
under them. This would be to plant an orchard within a walled garden,
to which we see little objection except that it would require a greater
extent of walling than if the orchard were exterior to the walls.
SUBSECT. III. — Fruit-Shrubs.
904. Gooseberries and currants are frequently planted as espaliers or dwarfs
along the margins of walks; but to train these fruits on espaliers is to pro-
duce them at an unnecessary expense, unless the saving of room is a material
object ; and as dwarfs they are in general too low to make an effective sepa-
ration of the walk and its border from the interior of the compartment. They
are therefore, in our opinion, much better cultivated in plantations by them-
selves. The distance may be ten feet between the rows, and six feet
between the plants in the row. Gooseberries and currants require an open
airy situation, and a cool moist loamy soil.
Raspberries prefer a situation somewhat shaded, as in a west or east
border ; or for a late crop in a north border.
The Cranberry, where it is grown as a fruit-shrub, requires a peat soil
kept somewhat moist, and with the bilberry and some other wild fruits may
be conveniently placed in the slip.
905. Select list of fruit-shrubs, those marked * being preferable, especially
for small gardens : —
Gooseberries, Red and Small Sorts. \
*Red Champagne.
* Raspberry.
* Rough Red.
Red Turkey.
Small dark, rough Red.
* Scotch best jam.
Miss Bold's.
Large Sorts.
*Boardman's British Crown.
Melling's Crown Bob.
*Keens's Seedling.
Hartshorn's Lancashire Lad.
Red Rose.
* Leigh's Rifleman.
* Farrow's Roaring Lion.
*Red Warrington.
Gooseberries, White, Small Sorts.
* White Crystal.
* White Champagne.
*Early White.
White Damson.
* White Honey.
*Woodward's White smith.
F P
430
SELECTION OP FRUIT-TREES
Largo Sorts
*Dixon's Golden Yellow.
Prophet's Regulator.
Prophet's Rockwood.
*Wellington's Glory.
* Taylor's Bright Venus.
*Cleworth's White Lion.
*Saunders's Cheshire Lass.
Stringer's Maid of the Mill.
Cook's White Eagle.
Gooseberries, Green, Small Sorts.
*Early Green Hairy.
"'Hepburn Green Prolific.
*Glenton Green, or York Seedling.
"Pitmaston Green Gage.
Green Walnut.
Large Sorts.
Lovart's Elisha.
Hopley's Lord Crewe.
Parkinson's Laurel.
* Collier's Jolly Angler.
Briggs's Independent.
*Massey's Heart of Oak.
*Edwards's Jolly Tar.
Large Smooth Green.
Gooseberries, Yellow, Small Sorts.
Sulphur.
* Yellow Champagne.
* Early Sulphur.
* Rumbullion.
* Hepburn Yellow Astor.
Red.
Currants,
Red Dutch.
* Knight's Large Red. ^
*Knight's Early Red.
*Knight's Sweet Red.
Currants, White.
*White Dutch.
^Champagne, which is pale red or
flesh-coloured.
Currants, Black.
*Naples.
Grape.
Raspberries.
Early Prolific.
*Red Antwerp.
* Yellow Antwerp.
* Twice-bearing.
*Barnet.
Cornish.
90(5. Plants of gooseberries and currants may be procured from the
nurseries, of one, two, or three years' growth ; care should be taken not
to plant them too deep ; if against espaliers, they are trained in the perpen-
dicular manner (808); but if in compartments, or along walks, as dwarfs,
they are best left to take their natural shapes ; thinning out the branches so
as to give free access of light and air to the ulterior of the bush. Raspberries
being suffruticose plants, the wood formed in one year dying down the next,
can only be procured of one year's growth, and they require little pruning
except that of shortening the shoots. Their management, and that of the
gooseberry and currant, will be found in our Fruit Catalogue.
SUBSECT. IV. — Selection of Fruit-trees adapted for an Orchard.
907. Few kitchen-gardens can produce a sufficient supply of apples, pears,
and nuts within the walls, and therefore it commonly happens that a planta-
tion or orchard is formed either in the slip, or in some spot adjoining the
kitchen-garden. This plantation should always be separated from the
culinary departments by some appropriate line of demarcation. This may
frequently be a dwarf wall, on which, if the aspect is suitable, young fruit-
trees may be trained for the purpose of removal, to fill up occasional blanks in
the principal walls. In the plan, fig. 330, hi p. 419, the semicircular plot
at the south end of the garden might be separated from the walled garden by
a dwarf wall, at the same distance from the main wall as the side fences are
distant from the main side walls, and the space so walled-off would form a
very convenient area for the orchard ; provided it were suitable in all
ADAPTED FOR AN ORCHARD. 431
other respects. Sometimes the trees are distributed in groups over a lawn
or paddock, so as to constitute the main part of the woody scenery of a
small villa. They are also occasionally mixed in with ornamental trees and
shrubs ; a most incongruous assemblage in our opinion, and one which can
never form an efficient substitute for an orchard. In whatever situation
standard fruit-trees are planted, the subsoil should be rendered dry, and the
surface soil put into good heart by manure. A loamy soil on a dry firm
clayey or loamy, or rocky, subsoil, is preferable to a sandy soil on gravel,
more especially for apples ; but pears and cherries will grow on a drier and
lighter soil, provided it be of some depth. Wherever the common hawthorn
grows luxuriantly with a clear healthy bark, there orchard fruit-trees will
thrive.
908. The plants may be dwarfs, if the plantation is to be exclusively
devoted to fruit-trees, and the ground neither cropped nor laid down in grass ;
but standards are preferable, as admitting more light and air. A very
convenient and economical mode is to plant rows of standards and dwarfs
alternately : the dwarfs, being on dwarfing-stocks, come first into bearing,
and may be removed as the branches of the standards extend themselves.
Gooseberries, currants, and raspberries may be planted in the intervals,
and retained there for two or three years ; but they ought to be removed as
soon as they are in the slightest degree shaded by the trees. As this is very
generally neglected, we should prefer having no fruit-shrubs at all, but
leaving the surface naked to be occupied entirely by the roots of the dwarfs
and standards. All the plants ought to be set on little hills, more especially
if the subsoil is such as to be readily penetrated by the roots, or if the ground
has been previously trenched ; the great object being to preserve the roots
near the surface. The distances at which the trees may be planted are : —
For standards, apples, and pears, from thirty feet to forty feet in a medium
soil ; or in a thin soil and exposed situation, from twenty-five feet to
thirty feet ; and in a rich soil, from forty feet to fifty feet. Cherries and
plums, from twenty-five feet to thirty-five feet, according to soil and situ-
ation. For dwarfs on free stocks, one -half the above distances will suffice ;
and where dwarfs on dwarfing-stocks are to be planted among standards,
three dwarfs may be planted for every standard : that is, there may be a row of
dwarfs between every two rows of standards, and a dwarf alternating with
every standard in the row. The standards, if they have been two or three
years grafted, will probably require to be supported by stakes, to which the
stems a short distance below the head ought to be carefully tied with hay-
bands. Sheathing the stems of standard trees, especially when they have
been late planted or have not abundance of roots, should not be neglected,
for reasons already given. The sheathing, which may be of mgss, fern,
or straw, tied on with matting, or simply of straw or hay ropes wound
round, maybe left on till it drops off of itself. Mulching (831) is also
of great use in late planting.
909. Select list of standard fruit-trees, adapted for an orchard or plantation
subsidiary to a kitchen-garden ; those marked with t being preferable : —
Apples.
tEarly red Margaret,
t Irish Peach.
fSummer Golden Pippin.
tOslin.
Duchess of Oldenburgh.
White Astrachan.
tKerry Pippin.
FF2
432
SELECTION OF FRUIT-TREES
Dutch Codlin.
Kilkenny Codlin.
tManks Codlin.
tKeswick Codlin.
Alexander,
t Hawthornden.
Hollandbury.
tWormsley Pippins.
tKing of the Pippins,
t Blenheim Pippin.
tGolden Reinette.
tFearn's Pippin,
t Hughes' Golden Pippin.
tClaygate Pearmain.
Hicks's fancy Gravenstein.
tCourt of Wick.
tPearson's Plate.
tBeacham well .
t Dutch Mignonne.
Scarlet Pearmain.
tRibston Pippin.
Golden Pippin.
tMargil.
tSyke House Russet.
Sam Young.
Barcelona Pearmain.
tMaclean's Favourite.
tPennington's Seedling,
t Adams's Pearmain.
tHubbard's Pearmain.
tHerefordshire Pearmain.
tGolden Harvey.
Coe's Golden Drop.
tCourt Pendu Plat.
tBoston Russet.
Lamb Abbey Pearmain.
t Reinette du Canada.
tLondon Pippin.
Newtown Pippin.
tBraddick's Nonpareil.
tDownton Nonpareil.
tOld Nonpareil.
tScarlet Nonpareil.
tCornish Gilliflower.
tDumelow's Seedling,
t Royal Russet.
tAlfriston.
tBedfordshire Foundling.
tBrabant Bellefleur.
Sturmer Pippin,
t Rhode Island Greening.
Hambledon Deux Ans.
Gloria Mundi.
Pears.
tCitron des Cannes,
t Ambrosia.
tDunmore.
t Althorp Crassane.
tSummer St. Germain,
t Flemish Beauty.
tMarie Louise.
tDuchesse d'Angouleme.
Doyenne Blanc.
Doyenne Gris.
tBeurre de Capiaumont.
Fondante d'Automne.
tAutumn Colmar.
tBeurre Diel.
tBon Chretien Fondante.
Louise Bonne (of Jersey).
tBeurre Bosc.
tHacon's Incomparable,
t Thompson's.
tNapoleon.
t Winter Nelis.
tGlout Morceau.
t Passe Colmar.
tKnight's Monarch.
Ne Plus Meuris.
tEaster Beurre.
tBeurre Ranee.
Obs. — A greater quantity of the last
six varieties should be planted than
of any of the other sorts. In fact, be-
ing the latest keeping sorts, the sup-
ply will chiefly depend on them for
the half of the season ; and conse-
quently a proportionate number of
trees of these varieties should be
planted. Formerly many gardens
had not a single winter or spring pear,
though they possessed a superabun-
dance of autumn ones. In future
this will certainly be provided against ;
more especially if the proper means
be resorted to for preserving the fruit
during winter and spring: that is,
packing them in earthenware vessels,
or large new garden pots, and placing
them in a cool, dry cellar.
ADAPTED FOR AN ORCHARD.
433
Cherries.
Duke.
tRoyal Duke.
tKnight's early Black.
tElton.
tDownton.
fBigarreau.
tBlack Eagle.
Early Purple Guigne.
tLate Duke.
tKentish.
tMorello.
Biittner's October Morello.
Plums.
tRoyal Hative.
tGreen Gage.
Dessert Plums.
t Purple Gage
t Washington.
fCoe's Golden Drop,
t Jackworth Imperatrice.
White Imperatrice.
tKirke's.
fCoe's fine late Red.
tDrap d'Or.
f Drapee Rouge,
t Nectarine.
Virgin.
Kitchen Plums.
Shropshire Damson.
Orleans,
t Early Orleans.
Mirabelle.
910. Training. — All the trees may be allowed to take their natural shapes,
taking care, by pruning them for some years after they are planted, to give
their main branches an upright direction, diverging from the main stem at
an angle not greater than 45°, that they may be the better able to support
a load of fruit. With many kinds, however, such is the divergent or pen-
dulous character of the branches that this direction cannot be given to them,
in which case the object should be, to increase the number of main branches
so as to lessen the load to each. This is particularly necessary in the case
of apples and pears.
911. Culture of the soil. — Where fruit is the main object, the soil ought
never either to be cropped with vegetables or laid down in grass, because hi
both cases the trees are deprived of nourishment. In the case of grass, air
is excluded ; and in orchards where culinary vegetables are grown, the roots
are prevented from coming up to the surface, and being forced into the sub-
soil, feed there on a more watery nutriment, which produces shoots of
spongy wood without blossom-buds, and in many cases infested with canker.
Where the surface is kept in grass, there is less danger from canker and
spongy shoots, provided the trees have been planted on hills ; but in this
case, from want of nourishment, the fruit will be smaller and less succulent.
If, however, the soil is naturally good, and occasionally manured on the
surface, more and better flavoured fruit will be produced in such an orchard
than in one cropped with culinary vegetables. As no orchard can be pas-
tured unless each separate tree is inclosed, which, where the ground is
properly covered with trees, would probably cost more than the pasture
was worth, it will in general be found better, where grass must be intro-
duced, to mow it and supply manure, till the stems of the trees are so large
as to be able to protect themselves. It is almost unnecessary to observe,
that as soon as the branches of the trees approach within two feet or three
feet of each other, the branches of the temporary trees should be shortened
in (759), and soon after removed by degrees, so as at all times to leave a clear
space of five feet or six feet round the head of every tree.
434 CROPPING,
CHAPTER II.
CROPPING AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF A KITCHEN-GARDEN.
912. The fruit-trees and fruit-shrubs being planted, the former against
the walls and espalier-rails, and the latter in plantations by themselves in
the compartments, the remaining part of the garden is devoted to herbaceous
vegetables. The number of these required to be grown in every kitchen-
garden is considerable, and, as we have seen (177 and 535), the soil ought to
be managed and the crops sown or planted according to some preconceived
system. With respect to the soil, this consists in changing the surface in the
manner explained (536), in stirring and manuring it, weeeding, watering,
&c., on the principles detailed in 832, 813, and 821 ; and we shall now
explain the system of cropping and rotations.
SECT. I. Cropping.
913. The herbaceous vegetables grown in kitchen- gar dens are of two
kinds : perennials which remain several years in the ground, such as aspa-
ragus, seakale, rhubarb, horse-radish, artichokes, and perennial sweet herbs,
and strawberries. The first of these crops remains on the same piece of
ground seldom less than ten or twelve years, and the others are renewed
generally about half that period or oftener. The other and by far the more
numerous crops are annuals or biennials, and many of them only remain on
the ground during a part of the year. The proportion of the perennials
being fixed on, little more trouble is required with them ; but the annuals
being numerous and of short duration, the proportionate quantities that
require to be sown or planted to supply the demands of the kitchen, and yet
to be in due proportion to the extent of the ground to be cropped, and the
kinds of crops which ought to succeed each other, require the constant
exercise of the gardener's judgment. The first point is to determine the
proportion of different crops, and the next is their succession : though
the proportions will depend to a certain extent on the peculiar taste or
wants of the family, and whether they reside on the spot or at a distance —
whether they have a farm for growing the winter supply of potatoes, &c.,
yet some rules or hints may be devised which are generally applicable.
914. General proportions of crops. — The greatest breadth of surface in
almost every garden requires to be sown with peas ; but as this crop only
lasts at an average about six months, a second crop may be planted on the
same ground in the same year. The cabbage tribe, including cauliflower,
broccoli, savoys, Brussels sprouts and borecoles, occupy the next greatest
space in most gardens, and they very generally succeed the crops of peas.
Turnips are perhaps the next most extensive crop, unless indeed the main
summer crops of potatoes are grown in the kitchen- garden, which is not
desirable where they can be grown on the farm ; the potato being a crop
that, for some reason or other which we do not pretend to explain, is seldom
found so mealy and high-flavoured when grown in a garden as when grown
in a field. There are next several crops, each of which have nearly an
equal claim for space, viz. — carrots, onions, beans, kidney -beans, celery, and
winter spinach. Jerusalem artichokes and red-beet crops may come next in
the order of space required ; and then leeks, garlic and shallots, salsafy
ROTATION OF CROPS. 435
and scorzonera. Lettuce, endive, radish, cress, mustard, chervil, parsley,
and other summer salading, garnishings or herbs, may in general be grown
among other crops, or in the front margin of wall-borders.
915. In determining the extent of each crop, the nature of the produce
must be taken as a guide. It would be of little use to have a less quantity
of any crop than would not at a single gathering produce a dish sufficient for
a family of several persons. This for such articles as asparagus and peas
requires considerable breadth of ground ; but this breadth once planted and
in bearing, will afford several or perhaps many gatherings during the time
it is in season. On the other hand, where a succession of crops of turnips or
carrots is wanted, if only two or three square yards were sown each time,
that space would afford one or two dishes. For such articles as salsafy and
scorzonera, which in most English families may perhaps not be asked for
above two or three times in a season, a very small surface will be sufficient.
When a gardener enters on a new place, before he determines on the extent
of particular crops, he ought to consult the cook or housekeeper as to the
style of cookery, the ordinary amount of company, and the seasons when
extraordinary supplies are wanted, with the periods when vegetables and
fruits require to be sent to a distance, with other particulars bearing upon the
kind of crops to be grown. Having formed general ideas on the extent of
each crop, he will next be able to determine on a system of succession, or, as
it is called, rotation.
916. The quantity of seed for crops, proportioned as above described for a
garden of an acre and a quarter, may be as follows :— Peas, thirty quarts ;
white cabbage of different kinds, six oz. ; savoys, one and a half oz. ; Brussels
sprouts, two oz. ; cauliflowers, three oz. ; broccoli, seven oz. ; borecoles,
two oz. ; red cabbage, one oz. ; kohl rabi, one oz. ; turnips, white, eight oz. ;
yellow, two oz. ; early potatoes, one bushel ; carrots, seven oz. ; onions,
eight oz. ; beans, broad, six qts., narrow, three qts. ; kidney beans, three
qts. ; scarlet runners, two qts. ; celery, three oz. ; Flanders spinach, one qt. ;
summer spinach, two qts.; Jerusalem artichoke, one peck; red beet,
four oz. ; parsneps, four oz. ; leeks, two oz. ; garlic, half Ib. ; shallots,
three Ibs. ; salsify, half oz. ; scorzonera, half oz. ; lettuce, Cos, five oz.,
cabbage, three oz. ; endive, two oz. ; radish, three pts. ; cress, one pt. ;
mustard, one qt. ; parsley, two oz.
SECT. II. Rotation of Crops.
917. Crops in horticulture are made to follow each other according to two
distinct plans or systems, which may be termed successions! cropping and
simultaneous cropping ; the former is generally followed in private gardens,
and the latter in market gardens.
918. Successional cropping is that in which the ground is wholly occupied
with one crop at one time, to be succeeded by another crop, also wholly of
one kind. For example, onions to be followed by winter turnips, or potatoes
to be followed by borecole. Simultaneous cropping is that in which several
crops are all coming forward on the ground at the same time. For
example, onions, lettuce, and radishes, sown broadcast ; or peas, potatoes,
broccoli, and spinach, sown or planted in rows.
919. The object to be attained by a system of cropping is that of procuring
the greatest quantity and the best quality of the desired kind of produce, at
the least possible expense of labour, time, and manure ; and in order that
436 ROTATION OF CROPS.
this object may be effectually obtained, there are certain principles which
ought to be adopted as guides. The chief of these is to be derived from a
knowledge of what specific benefit or injury every culinary plant does to the
soil, with reference to any other culinary plant. It ought to be known
whether particular plants injure the soil by exhausting it of particular
principles ; or whether, as has been lately conjectured by De Candolle, and
as some think proved, the soil is rendered unfit for the growth of the same
or any allied species, by excretions from the roots of plants ; while the same
excretions acting in the way of manure, add to the fitness of the soil for the
production of other species. The prevailing opinion, as every one knows,
has long been, that plants exhaust the soil, generally, of vegetable food ;
particularly of that kind of food which is peculiar to the species growing on
it for the time being. For example, both potatoes and onions exhaust the
soil generally ; while the potato deprives it of something that is necessary
to insure the reproduction of good crops of potatoes ; and the onion of some-
thing which is necessary for the reproduction of large crops of onions.
According to the theory of De Candolle, both crops exhaust the soil generally,
and both render it unfit for the particular kind of crop : but this injury,
according to his hypothesis, is not effected by depriving the soil of the
particular kind of nutriment necessary for the particular kind of species ;
but by excreting into it substances peculiar to the species with which
it has been cropped, which substances render it unfit for having these
crops repeated. Both these theories, or rather perhaps hypotheses, are
attended with some difficulty in the case of plants which remain a
great many years on the same soil; as, for example, perennial-rooted
herbaceous plants and trees. The difficulty, however, is got over in both
systems : by the first, or old, theory, the annual dropping and decay of the
foliage are said to supply at once general nourishment and particular nourish-
ment ; and by the second, or new, theory, the same dropping of the leaves,
by the general nourishment which it supplies, is said to neutralize the parti-
cular excretions. A wood of the pine or fir tribe standing so thick that
their roots will form a net-work under the surface, will not poison each
other ; but remove these trees, and place a new plantation on the same soil,
and they will not thrive ; owing, as we think, to the principles most condu-
cive to the growth of coniferous trees being exhausted, as is explained
chemically by Liebig. The practical inference from either theory is much
the same — that is, a change of crops; which is also in conformity with
the experience and observation of those who believe in the old theory.
The rules adopted by the best gardeners are as follow :—
1. Crops of plants belonging to the same natural order or tribe, or to the
natural order and tribe most nearly allied to them, should not follow each
other. Thus, turnips should not follow any of the cabbage tribe, sea-kale,
or horseradish ; nor peas, beans.
2. Plants which draw their nourishment chiefly from the surface of the
soil should not follow each other, but should alternate with those which
draw their nourishment in great part from the subsoil. Hence, carrots and
beets should not follow each other ; nor onions and potatoes.
3. Plants which draw a great deal of nourishment from the soil should
succeed, or be succeeded by, plants which draw less nourishment. Hence a
crop grown for its fruit, such as the pea ; or for its roots or bulbs, such as
ROTATION OP CROPS. 437
the potato or the onion ; should be followed by such as are grown solely for
their leaves, such as the common borecole, the celery, the lettuce, &c.
4. Plants which remain for several years on the soil, such as strawberries,
rhubarb, asparagus, &c., should not be succeeded by other plants which
remain a long time on the soil, but by crops of short duration ; and the soil
should be continued under such crops for as long a period as it remained
under a permanent crop. Hence, in judiciously cropped gardens, the straw-
berry compartment is changed every three or four years, till it has gone the
circuit of all the compartments; and asparagus beds, sea-kale, &c. are
renewed on the same principles.
5. Plants, the produce of which is collected during summer, should be
succeeded by those of which the produce is chiefly gathered in winter or
spring. The object of this rule is, to prevent two exhausting crops from fol-
lowing each other in succession.
6. Plants in gardens are sometimes allowed to ripen their seeds ; in which
case two seed-bearing crops should not follow each other in succession.
These rules, and others of a like kind, apply generally to both systems of
the successional crops ; and they are independent altogether of other rules or
principles which may be drawn from the nature of the plants themselves ;
such as some requiring an extraordinary proportion of air, light, shade,
moisture, &c. : or from the nature of the changes intended to be made
on them by cultivation, such as blanching, succulency, magnitude, &c. We
shall now notice the two systems separately.
920. Successional cropping. — The plants calculated for this mode of crop-
ping are such as require, during almost every period of their growth, the
fullest exposure to the light and air, and remain a considerable time in
the soil : these are, the turnip, the onion, the potato, the carrot, &c. If
any of these crops are raised and brought forward under the shade of
others, they will be materially injured both in quality and quantity ;
though at the same time, while they are merely germinating, shade will not
injure them. Hence successional cropping may be carried on in breadths of
20 or 30 feet, between rows of tall-growing articles, without injury ; which
approximates this manner of cropping to the simultaneous mode, which,
wherever the soil is rich, is by far the most profitable.
921. The simultaneous mode of cropping is founded on the principles that
most plants, when germinating, and for some time afterwards, thrive best in
the shade ; and that tall-growing plants, which require to receive the light
on each side, should be sown or planted at some distance from each other.
Hence, tall-growing peas are sown in rows 30 or 12 feet apart ; and between
them are planted rows of the cabbage tribe ; and again, between these are
sown rows of spinach, lettuce, or radishes, &c. Hence, also, beans are planted
in the same rows with cabbages (an old practice in the cottage gardens of
Scotland), and so on. The great object, in this kind of cropping, is to have
crops on the ground in different stages of growth ; so that, the moment the
soil and the surface are released from one crop, another may be in an advanced
state, and ready, as it were, to supply its place. For this purpose, when-
ever one crop is removed, its place ought to be instantly supplied by plants
adapted for producing another crop of the proper nature to succeed it. For
example, where rows of tall marrow-fat peas have rows of broccoli between
them, then the moment the peas are removed, a trench for celery may
be formed where each row of peas stood ; and between the rows of broccoli
438 ROTATION OF CROPS.
in the places where lettuces were produced early in the season, may be sown
drills of winter spinach.
922. Of these two modes of cropping r, the first is the one best calculated for
poor soils, or for gardens where the supply of manure is limited ; the second
cannot be prosecuted with success, except in soils which are light and
extremely rich. It may be proper to observe here, that a system of cropping
can be carried to a much higher degree of perfection in a commercial garden,
on a large scale, than in a private one ; because in the former whenever one
crop is in perfection, it is removed and sent to market at once ; whereas, in
a private garden, it is removed by dribblets. Hence in small gardens, where
labour and manure are of less consequence than economising the extent of
surface, it will often be found desirable to have a small reserve garden, with
several frames, pots, and other requisites. As soon as one plant, or a few
plants of any crop in a condition for gathering, are removed, the soil should
be stirred, and a plant or plants (which should have been some days before
potted in preparation) should be turned out of the pot, its fibres being care-
fully spread out, and water supplied, so as to make it commence growing
immediately. The use of potting is to prevent the plant from experiencing
the slightest check in its removal ; and in autumn, as is well known, the loss
of a single day, by the flagging of a plant, is of the utmost consequence. —
(G. M.< vol. xii. p. 481.)
023. Successional and simultaneous cropping combined. — The following is
from an excellent article on cropping, published in the Gardeners Chronicle.
The writer divides kitchen- garden crops into — 1. Perennial or stationary
crops — 2. Rotation crops, which include all the principal annual crops, and
— 3. Secondary crops, such as salads, spinach, &c., which are usually
sown in vacancies between rotation crops.
924. Order of rotation. — 1st year, peas and beans, succeeded by broccoli,
savoys, winter greens, collards, spring cabbage ; 2nd year, carrots, parsneps,
beet, scorzonera, and salsafy ; 3rd year, onions, cauliflowers, turnips, suc-
ceeded by spinach, spring onions, and other secondary crops; 4th year,
savoys, broccoli, winter greens, red cabbage, leeks ; 5th year, potatoes ;
6th year, turnips, cabbage, broccoli ; 7th year, celery ; 8th, French beans,
&c.—(Gard. Chron., 1841, p. 180, with additions.)
925. Secondary crops are those of the shortest duration, such as lettuce,
radishes, small salads, annual herbs, and very early peas and beans (sown
in November), very early cauliflowers, very early turnips, and early pota-
toes, all of which will require a wTarm south border. — (Ibid.)
926. Times of sowing and planting. — Peas and beans should be sown
from February to June ; the first crop of peas will be clear for early
broccoli in the end of June, and for the other seasons until September for
later broccoli, savoys, borecole, Brussels sprouts, collards or coleworts, and
spring cabbage ; this crop should have a slight coat of manure. Broccoli
ground will be cleared of early sorts by winter, and should be ridged up all
winter for a crop of carrots, which should be sown as early as possible ; the
later broccoli, colewort, sprouts, &c., will make way by April or the begin-
ning of May for beet, parsneps, scorzonera, and salsafy. 1st year, carrots,
beet, and parsneps, will be clear in the beginning of November, when the
ground must be again ridged up for winter, and have a good coat of dung,
ready for cauliflowers, onions, garlic, and shallots ; 2nd year, the two latter
being planted in November, and also the principal crops of turnips sown
PLANTING, SOWING, AND CULTIVATING. 439
in the end of March and April. Cauliflowers, onions, and turnips, will be
clear from July to September ; the cauliflowers and shallots, &c., in July ;
—for autumn, spinach and endive ; the onions for winter spinach, and the
turnips for spring onions, winter lettuce, and other secondary crops.
Spinach, endive, and spring onions will be clear by the end of May for
savoys, winter greens, red cabbage, cauliflowers, and leeks, all of which
require a moderate coat of manure. Savoys, winter greens, red cabbage,
&c,, will be ready for early potatoes in April and May. Potatoes will
make way in July and August for turnips, spring cabbage, late broccoli, and
such crops, if wanted. Turnips, cabbage, broccoli, may be cleared in May
for celery, and cardoon trenches — if all the ground is wanted ; but if not,
the cabbage may be allowed to remain for sprouts during all the summer.
The intermediate spaces between the trenches may be planted with lettuce,
or any other secondary crops ; dung must be given for celery, of course.
Celery and similar crops will in part make way in autumn, when the ground
should be ridged up for winter, and the remainder as soon as the entire crop
is clear ; the ground will then be ready for French beans, scarlet runners,
cauliflowers, cucumbers, and tomatoes, in the end of April or beginning of
May. French beans will be clear by November, when the ground should
be again ridged up all winter to be ready for peas and beans, as at first
begun. This will make eight or ten years between the return of the prin-
cipal crops to the same place ; and by judicious management of the secondary
crops (925) among the rotation crops, every space of ground between one
crop and the other may be occupied to advantage during the intervals of
cropping.— (Gard. Chron. for 1841, p. 180.)
SECT. III. Planting, Sowing, Cultivating, and Managing.
927. In general all crops should be planted or sown in rows from south
to north, in order, as already observed (723), that the sun may shine on
every part of the soil between the rows, and equally on eveiy side of the
plants in the row. Beds, also, such as those of asparagus, should be made
in the same direction and for the same reasons. When asparagus, sea-kale,
and rhubarb are to be forced in the open garden by hot dung, the alleys or
paths between the beds should be of double the usual width, and all the
beds intended to be subjected to a course of forcing should be placed toge-
ther. The secondary perennial crops, such as mint, thyme, sage, savory,
perennial marjoram, rue, &e., should always be planted together, and in an
open airy situation, and not, as is frequently the case, in the shade.
928. Management of the fruit-tree border^. — The wall- borders, the
borders in which the espaliers are planted, and the ground among planta-
tions of fruit-shrubs or fruit-trees, should 'on no account be cropped or even
deeply dug, for reasons which we need not repeat. The soil may be loosened
on the surface in spring with a three-pronged fork, and in autumn a top-
dressing of putrescent manure may be given and slightly turned in with the
spade, or left on the surface till the spring-stirring. If the borders are
narrow, and the trees, after having filled it with their roots, appear to
require additional nourishment, a trench may be cut along the front of the
wall-border next the walk, three feet or four feet in width, and of such
a depth as to cut through all the roots, not, however, deeper than eighteen
inches. A part of the soil taken out of the trench may be removed alto-
gether, and a rich compost of rotten dung and leaf-mould mixed with the
440 PLANTING, SOWING, AND CULTIVATING.
remainder and filled in; or if mixed with good maiden loam, so much
the better. This is in imitation of a plan, long followed with success,
by the Lancashire growers of prize gooseberries ; all the difference being
that they use an excessively rich compost (see Gooseberry, in our FRUIT
CATALOGUE), which we do not think would be so suitable for peaches,
apricots, &c., as for that fruit and the vine. Where the tree trained
on espaliers appeared to require a similar treatment, we would take
up a narrow trench between the espalier and the walk, or on the other side
of the espalier just beyond the footpath ; and where dwarfs or standards
seemed to require additional' nourishment, we would dig a circular trench
round them, at three feet or four feet from the stem ; and in all these cases
fill it up with rich compost. It might be advisable to do this work by
degrees rather than all at once, by taking out every third yard, in the case
of wall and espalier borders, and the third part of a circle in the case of
dwarfs and standards. The second yard might be taken out in two years,
the third in two years more, and at the end of the sixth year the operation
might be recommenced, because the rich soil would very soon be filled with
fibrous roots. In this operation, as in every other of the kind, the gardener
or the amateur must exercise his own judgment, bearing in mind that the
object is not to produce luxuriant branches, but blossom-buds.
929. Management of the culinary crops. — All culture must necessarily
consist in the application of general practices, or in the performance of such
operations as are required by particular species or for particular objects.
The former are given in the different subsections on the operations of
culture (p. 239 to p. 411), and the latter will be found when treating of
the culture of each particular culinary plant in our catalogue of CULINARY
VEGETABLES.
930. Gathering, storing, and keeping of fruit. — " The principles on which a
fruit-room ought to be constructed are, darkness, a low and steady tempera-
ture, dryness to a certain point; for apples are found to keep best, as regards
appearance, in a rather damp atmosphere, but for flavour a moderately dry
air is preferable, and exclusion of the external air. If the light of the sun
strikes upon a plant, the latter immediately parts with its moisture by per-
spiration, in proportion to the force exercised on it by the sun, and inde-
pendently of temperature. The greatest amount of perspiration takes place
beneath the direct rays of the sun, and the smallest- in those places to which
daylight reaches with most difficulty. Now, the surface of a fruit perspires
like that of a leaf, although not to the same amount. When a leaf perspires
while growing on a tree, it is immediately supplied with more water from
the stem, and thus is enabled to bear the loss produced by light striking on
its surface ; but when a leaf is plucked it withers, because there is no longer
a source of supply for it. So it is with a fruit : while growing on the tree,
it is perpetually supplied by the stem with water enough to replace that
which is all day long flying off from its surface ; but as soon as it is gathered,
that source of supply is removed, and then, if the light strikes it ever so
feebly, it loses weight, without being able to replace its loss. It is thus that
fruit becomes shrivelled and withered prematurely. Light should therefore
have no access to a good fruit-room."
" Temperature should be uniform. If it is high, the juices of the fruit will
have a tendency to decompose, and thus decay will be accelerated ; if, on the
contrary, it is below 32°, decomposition of another kind is produced, in con-
PLANTING, SOWING, AND CULTIVATING. 441
sequence of the chemical action of freezing. In any case, fluctuations of
temperature are productive of decay. A steady temperature of from 40° to
45°, with a dry atmosphere, will be found the best for most kinds of fruit.
Some pears of the late kinds are better for being kept in a temperature as
high as 60°, for this ripens them, renders them melting, and improves their
quality very essentially. We do not, however, conceive that the general
construction of the fruit- room ought to be altered on their account ; we
would rather make some special arrangement for such cases." (Gard. Chron.
vol. i. p. 611.)
The air should be kept moderately dry, but ventilation should not be
used except for the purpose of removing offensive smells, arising from the
putrefaction of the fruit. Ventilation by continual currents of air carries off
from fruit the moisture which it contains, and thus acts in the same way as
light, in producing shrivelling, and destroying that plump appearance which
gives its beauty to fruit. Another reason against ventilation is, that an equable
temperature is scarcely to be maintained when the air is constantly changed.
The sweating of fruit throws so much moisture into the air that ventilation
is necessary to remove it ; but the sweating ought always to be carried on in
a place provided on purpose.
Great care should be taken in gathering, handling, and storing the fruit,
placing each kind by itself, and keeping wall fruit apart from standard fruit.
Gather in baskets, and place them on the shelves side by side with their
eyes downwards. When gathering and stowing are completed, shut the room
as close at possible, and only open it when the fruit is wanted. (Ibid. p. 61.)
The best mode of packing fruit which is to be sent to a distance, has been
already given, (860,) and the ordinary modes, as they have nothing peculiar
in them, need not be described.
931. Management of the fruit-room. — The general principles of gather-
ing and keeping fruit have been already laid down (856). No fruit ought
to be allowed to drop from the tree, nor should it be beaten down or shaken
off. Except in wet or late seasons, it ought not to be gathered till it is
quite ripe, which in stone fruits and berries is known by its softness and
fragrance, in kernel fruit by the brown colour of the seeds, and in nuts by
the opening of the husks. It ought in every case to be gathered by hand ;
and in addition to ladders of different kinds there is the orchardist's crook, fig.
335, the use of which is to take hold of one branch with the hook, and draw it
°Perator > an(*
then, by put-
Fig. 335. Orchardist's crook. a ting the sliding
piece, a, over
another branch, that branch is held in that position by the obliqueness of the line
of pressure, which prevents the sliding piece from moving : thus leaving the
operator free to use both hands in gathering the fruit. The fruit ought to
be put into baskets, placing each kind in a basket by itself, and laying it in
so gently as to run no risk of bruising it ; and not only keeping each kind
of fruit by itself, but keeping wall fruit apart from standard fruit, because
the former will be soonest fit for the table. The fruit laid on shelves should
be placed with their eyes downwards, and so as not to touch each other ;
but baking apples and pears may either be spread on a cool floor, or laid in
heaps and covered with a blanket to produce a gentle fermentation, by
442 THE FORCING DEPARTMENT.
which the fruit is deprived of a portion of its moisture, and is thought by
many gardeners to keep better, while others disapprove of it as giving the
fruit a bad taste. In whatever manner fruit is placed in the fruit-room or
fruit-cellar, the doors and windows of the apartments should be kept closely
shut, so as to keep the atmosphere of as uniform a temperature and moisture
as possible. It should, as we have already observed (930), never be lower
than 40°, nor higher than 45°, if possible in close mild weather to keep it so
low, with the dew point indicating a very slight degree of dryness occasion-
ally. There are, however, exceptions, such as in the case of ripening off, or
keeping such kinds in that temperature which experience proves to be most
conducive for producing fine consistence and flavour. This requires one or
more separate compartments having a command of heat, wherein the tem-
perature may be graduated as circumstances may require. The external
air ought only to be admitted when that within is rendered offensive
by the decomposition of the fruit. If at any time the temperature should
fall below 32°, still no artificial heat ought to be applied, but thawing
allowed to take place in the dark, when the weather changes as gradually
as freezing had done. Table apples and pears which are expected to keep
for some months, are kept on shelves singly, or in shallow drawers, or packed
in boxes, jars, or pots, with dried fern or kiln-dried straw. New garden
pots are found to answer remarkably well for keeping fruit, any damp being
readily absorbed by the dry, porous, unglazed materials of which they are
usually composed. Fruits which are thus packed do not require to be
examined till the time when they are expected to be fit for the table,
which should always be marked, along with the name, on the label attached
to the jar or box ; but fruits exposed to the air on the open shelves require
to be examined almost every day, in order to remove those which exhibit
symptoms of decay. Walnuts, sweet chesnuts, and filberts, may be kept in
boxes or casks, placed in the fruit-cellar on account of its low but uniform
temperature. Summer fruit, such as peaches, nectarines, plums, are seldom
kept more than a day or two in the fruit-room, but they are sometimes
kept in the ice-house for a week or more, but with some loss of flavour.
CHAPTER II.
THE FORCING DEPARTMENT.
THE principles of constructing plant-houses, together with those of culture
in artificial climates, having been already given (480 to 522), we proceed to
show their application to the pinery, vinery, peach-house, fig-house, cherry-
house, cucumber and melon pits and frames, and the forcing in frames and
pits of such culinary vegetables as it is desired to have produced out of
season. We have already seen (488 to 508) that artificial heat may be applied
in plant structures by dung or other fermenting substances, by hot water, by
steam, or by smoke-flues ; or by two or more of these modes of heating
combined. Fermenting substances are almost always the safest, and hot
water generally the best ; but, as we have observed (492), the same result
may be obtained by smoke-flues, and is still obtained in many parts of
the country, though not without extra care on the part of the gardener.
CULTURE OF THE PINE-APPLE. 443
With respect to the form of house where low plants, such as pines,
melons, cucumbers, strawberries, or kidney- beans, are to be grown or forced,
low structures, such as pits or frames, are generally found most eligible ;
but where trees, such as the pine, peach, fig, &c. are to be grown, houses of
the ordinary height of garden- walls are preferred, at least for general crops.
The reasons are obvious in both cases.
SECT. I. Culture of the Pine-apple, and Management of the Pinery.
We shall first give the natural data on which the culture of this plant is
founded, and next the routine practice of one of the most successful growers
of the present day. The botanical and horticultural history of the pine-
apple, and an account of the principal varieties cultivated in Britain, will be
found in our Fruit Catalogue.
SUBSECT. I. Natural data on which the culture of the Pine-apple is founded.
The pine-apple is an evergreen monocotyledonous plant, a native of
countries tropical or bordering on the tropics, and found in low situations on
or near the sea-shore, or on wide rivers. It grows almost always on sandy soil,
dry on the surface, but moist at the depth of a foot or two beneath. It is
indigenous, or cultivated, in various similar situations, as in South America,
at Rio Janeiro ; in the West Indies, at Grenada ; and in Africa, at Sierra-
Leone. As an evergreen monocotyledonous plant, it is without buds, and
consequently not intended by nature to be long, if at all, in a state of
repose ; as a native of the sea-shore, it is not calculated for enduring a great
difference of temperature between summer and winter; and as a native of
the sea- shore within the tropics, it is calculated for growing in a high tem-
perature throughout the year. The temperature of various places at or
near the equator, as given by Humboldt, exhibits an average of about 83°
for the warmest month, and 72° for the lowest ; thus giving a difference
botween the summer and winter heat adapted for the pine-apple of only
11°. But in the small island of Grenada, in the West Indies, where the
pine-apple luxuriates, the temperature in the shade never exceeds 85° and
never falls below 80°; thus giving a difference of only 5°. It is clear,
therefore, that there ought to be very little difference between the summer
and winter temperature of the pine-apple. With respect to soil, in the
neighbourhood of Rio Janeiro, it consists chiefly of a calcareous sand, always
dry on the surface, but always moist beneath, in consequence, we suppose,
of the vicinity of the sea or the river, and the attraction of cohesion between
the particles of sand ; but this water can never be altogether stagnated, owing
to the rise and fall of the tides. The temperature of the soil in Grenada during
summer, and at one foot beneath the surface, we are assured on good
authority (Gard. J/a0.,vol.vi., p. 438,) is 85°. With respect to the water of the
atmosphere in the countries where the pine-apple thrives, there is generally
a dry season and a rainy season— the latter much shorter than the former.
In the dry season there are heavy nightly dews ; and the rainy season,
which is like the spring of temperate climates, produces such an exuberance
of growth as to throw the plants into fruit. In the neighbourhood of Rio,
there are heavy rains at intervals from October to April j the suckers from
the roots are taken off in April or May, which is about the end of their
summer, and planted in the fields from one foot and a half to two feet from
each other. The strongest of them produces fruit in the following year,
which weighs between 3 Ibs. and 4 Ibs. each ; and those which do not fruit
444 CULTURE OP THE PINE-APPLE.
the second year, produce fruit the third year, often weighing from 10 Ibs. to
12 Ibs. each.— (G. M., iii. 443.)
932. The conclusions to be drawn from these data, and which are at the
same time confirmed by the experience of the successful and unsuccessful
growers in England, are, — that the temperature of the pine-stove ought
never to be more than a few degrees lower than 80° in summer, or a few
degrees lower than 70° in winter. As our days are much shorter in winter
than they are between the tropics, a lower temperature ought to be allowed
for that season, because growth in the absence of light would be of no service
to the plant from its immaturity. In winter, therefore, 70° may be adopted
as the standard heat of the atmosphere, and in summer the temperature
may vary between 80° and 90°, or in the fruiting-house from 90° to 95°.
With respect to the temperature of the soil, as the soil in all countries, at
a short distance under the surface, is found to average 2° or 3° higher than
the atmosphere, owing to earth having a greater capacity for heat than air,
and parting with it more slowly, if we allow a bottom-heat of between 75°
and 80° in winter, and between 85° and 90° in summer, we shall probably
be in accordance with what takes place in nature.
933. With respect to soil, it is almost unnecessary to say that plants in
a wild state are not always found in a soil that is best adapted for bringing
them to a high degree of perfection, but rather in one that is best adapted
for their propagation, in consequence of the surface of the soil being fre-
quently moved, or renewed, or rendered moist. Experience has proved
that the pine-apple will thrive in any free loamy soil, well enriched with
mild manure, or in sandy soil so enriched, or in peat-soil ; the latter being
that in which it is generally grown, and that to a high degree of perfection,
in the neighbourhood of Paris.
934. With respect to water, it is clear that, if a proper heat is kept up,
that element of growth may be liberally supplied both at the root and by
watering over the head in the evenings. The great art is to keep the plants
continually in a state of vigorous growth till the fruit is cut, when nature
intended that the parent stock should die ; and therefore if it die leaving
a crown or a sucker, these should be treated as new plants, and urged on to
the production of fruit, till they die in their turn ; and so on for ever. The
plants may be planted in beds of soil or in pots. The latter is the most
convenient mode, and that best adapted for artificial culture, because more
completely under the control of the cultivator. From what has been stated,
the grand cause of the want of success in the culture of the pine-apple with
many persons will be sufficiently obvious. The temperature during winter
is kept too low, by which means the vital energies of the plants are so far
injured that they are never fully recovered. There are various other causes
of failure, but this, we are convinced, is the principal one, because many
gardeners apply the doctrine of rest to the pine-apple in the same way as
they do to other plants.
SUBSECT. II.— Culture of the Pine-Apple in British Gardens.
The most abundant crops of pines raised in the shortest time, arid in the
most economical manner, that we have seen hi the neighbourhood of London,
have been at Oakhill, near East Barnet ; and the following account of the
practice there was furnished to us on purpose for this work by Mr. Forsyth,
CULTURE OF THE PINE-APPLE.
445
now of Alton Towers, but at the time this account was drawn up, journey-
man gardener under Mr. Dowding at Oakhill.
935. Construction of the pit. — Our nursing and growing departments are
pits, 7 feet deep at back, 6 feet wide, and sloping at an inclination of 1 foot
in three, heated by fermentation, having no fire-heat apparatus. Our prin-
cipal fruiting pits (fig 336) are each 40 feet long, heated by one fire, and
.726
Fig. 336. Section of the pife pit at Oakhill.
G, a, Flues occasionally filled with fer-
6, Bark-bed. menting matter.
c, Rubble brickwork raised of a suf- f,f. Coping stones to the walls.
ficient height to support the flue. | #, Gutter to receive the water from
d, Steam pipe for occasional use. the sashes.
e, Arches, supporting the pathway, ft, ft, Ground line.
supplied with steam, conducted along the front wall, a little above the flue,
through an iron pipe of one inch bore from a portable boiler. The sashes,
composed of a wooden frame with copper sash bars, and glazed with crown
glass, are supported on cast-iron rafters. Shutters, composed of reeds fixed
in a wooden frame to fit on each light, which are used in cold nights, give our
pits the appearance of thatched cottages. As fermenting ingredients we use
for linings, tan, dung, and leaves ; and for beds in the pits, tan only. As
fuel, we use coke from the gas works with a little coal and brushwood in
kindling, and wet coal ashes in moderating the fires. This is far preferable
to coals, being a cheaper and cleanlier fuel, and making more efficient and
easier-managed fires.
936. Kinds grown. — Our stock consists of nearly equal numbers of green
and black pines ; we generally have about 1200 plants, and we fruit about
500 annually. The sorts we cultivate are, Queens, Providences, Jamaicas
foi' the principal stock, and Antiguas, Envilles, Brown and Striped Sugar-
loaves, Globes, and Antigua Queens ; but of these latter sorts, we have only
a few specimens.
937. In watering and sprinkling we use pure water, pumped into a leaden
cistern, and exposed at least one day to the sun in summer ; and from tanks,
&c., in a tepid state, from the forcing-houses, in winter.
GG
446 CULTURE OF THE PINE-APPLE.
938. Worms. — "We destroy worms in the pots by watering with lime-
water, in the proportions of one bucketful of lime to three of water ; and in
the tan around the edges of the bed, by stirring powdered lime into the
infested tan. Insects have been eradicated from young pine plants here by
immersing them thirty- six hours in water medicated with soft soap, in the
proportion of four ounces to a gallon.
939. Heat, air, and moisture. — We are extremely careful at all times to
supply any want of heat, air, or moisture, and control their extremes; as
also to remove all obstacles that might hinder the full action of light, espe-
cially in winter : to effect which we are obliged, sometimes more than once
during winter, to take off the lights, and clear away a green glutinous sub-
stance that collects inside about the laps of the glass ; using a scrubbing-
brush and a piece of coarse flannel, with plenty of water, for the purpose.
940. We never tie up the leaves of pines in moving the plants, being per-
suaded that the leaves of any well-grown pine plant cannot be tied up with-
out injuring them : neither can the height of a plant be so well determined,
nor the side that has been inclining towards the sun so well reversed in
plunging, when the leaves are tied up, as when they stand in their natural
position.
941. Jamaica Pines are esteemed here as being the best for maturing
perfect fruits in the winter months. The plants of this species are of lazy
growth, impatient of disrooting and shifting, and not easily started into fruit
before they attain a good size. Their fruits, also, are heavy in proportion to
their bulk ; and unlike many others, they will swell their pips flat at all
seasons. During the time that our pine plants are without roots, whether
crowns, suckers, gills, or stools fresh potted, or plants disrooted, we prefer
keeping them in a close, moist, atmosphere, at a temperature not under 65*
by night, nor over 90° by day, shading them from the scorching rays of the
sun, with a bottom-heat (at least till the roots have reached the sides of the
pots) of 100°. Late suckers have been successfully wintered here, struck
in a layer of half-spent bark, on a bed of good tan, in a pit near the glass.
The greatest defect in this system is, that the plants are apt to get down too
far from the glass, unless the frame or pit be moveable, and made to sink
and follow them. Good Jamaica suckers generally mature their fruit here
in two years, Providences about two months less, and Queens in from sixteen
to eighteen calendar months.
942. In starting pine plants into fruit we simply increase the temperature,
keeping up a moderate supply of moisture ; the starving, parching, and
scorching system of starting pines, formerly practised, being now, by all
good cultivators, generally discarded ; for examples are not wanting of large
pine plants which had been thus starved, &c., whilst the fruits were ready to
emerge from their sockets, showing crowns, on straw-like foot-stalks, without
a pip at all.
943. Air. — In winter we often admit fresh air into our pine-stoves for
other purposes than counteracting heat : as to prevent drawing and blanch-
ing* by allowing the condensed steam to escape, and to dry the plants.
944. Propagation. — The fruits having been cut (say off Providence
plants), and no suckers appearing, we shake them out of the pots, pick off
a few of their lower leaves, and shorten the rest ; then cut off two inches
or three inches of the stump to which the old roots are attached, and pot
the stools in 32-sized pots, and treat them as suckers, when they will pro-
CULTURE OF THE PINE- APPLE. 447
duce two or three races of suckers; and by this method we generally
increase our stock of the shy-breeding black sorts. By cockscomb-like
crowns (that is, several crowns grown together), also, we increase the
Providence tribe rapidly. From gills (suckers on the foot-stalk of
the fruit), potted in thumbs or 60-sized pots, after a length of time, we
obtain good plants. Suckers, crowns, or gills, being got, are laid in some
convenient space in the stove to dry, for a few days ; after which we
pare off the ragged part of the stumps of suckers, and pick off as many of the
lower leaves of both crowns and suckers as seem necessary, in order to fasten
the plant in the pot, and then pot them in pots proportioned to their sizes ;
if above a foot long, in 32-sized, and so of the rest to a gill of an inch long
in a thumb-pot. The soil used for this purpose is generally pure loam,
with about one -eighth of silver-sand. Being potted, they are wintered as
detailed of our practice for Queens (949), and in the month of March
every rooted succession pine- plant not in a fruiting-pot is turned out of
its pot, and has its roots examined and shortened according to its age and
sort, and the end it is expected to serve. Young plants of green pines we
disroot freely; older ones now about to be shifted into fruiting-pots, expected
to mature fruit late in autumn if the roots are lively, are potted now, pre-
serving their balls entire ; Providences, Envilles, &c., we disroot moderately,
carefully cutting off any dead or sickly roots, and, by means of a pointed
stick, removing all sodden and wasted soil. In shifting Jamaicas, we are
careful to preserve every living fibre of root, yet we displace from their
balls all drainage and worthless soil before repotting them.
945. Bottom-heat. — Being potted, they are plunged about two-thirds in
a bottom-heat of not less than 95°, and the temperature of their atmosphere
gradually increased (say March 22, 65° at sunrise; and April 11, 70° at
sunrise ; the maximum, June, 90°). As to the time of shifting again,
that the state of the plants must determine : say June 1, and again, the
middle of August ; a uniform bottom-heat of not less than 90° being kept
up throughout — maximum of atmospheric temperature 100°, minimum 70°.
In the evenings of bright sunny days, we sprinkle the internal surface
lightly with a fine rose to resemble a heavy dew.
946. As the season declines the temperature is lowered, and the standard
for winter is fixed at 60°, say November 1 ; the fruiting-pits are filled with
the best of the plants in fruiting-pots that were potted in August, the bark-
bed having been previously filled with tan (if not all new, new being far
preferable, at least all good), warm and well trodden, and the pots plunged
about two inches, with tan laid up between them, to be levelled around the
pots as the heat declines without disturbing the plants. When they are
wanted to start into fruit, expected to be matured by June 1, we begin by
increasing the minimum temperature, say on Dec. 10, to 65° ; on 17th, to
70° ; and on 31st, to 75°, which temperature is maintained till the fruits
appear emerging from their sockets, with a rise of 4° by day with artificial
heat, or with sun-heat 10°. The fruits being in sight (say Jan. 10), we
reduce the night-heat to 72° till they have done flowering (say March 5),
keeping the atmosphere moist, and supplying them with plenty of water at
their roots, and reducing the temperature (fire- heat being injurious to fruit
swelling) to 70° minimum, maximum 110°, by close and moist heat. We
raise the bottom-heat if possible to 110°, moistening the dry surface of the
bed, and filling in more fresh tan between the pots, to facilitate which the pots
G G 2
448
CULTURE OF THE PINE-APPLE.
are plunged in rows across the bed. During the time that the fruits are
swelling, sprinkling is particularly attended to ; as the fruits begin to change
colour, plenty of air is admitted, and all sprinkling is dispensed with. Under
this mode of culture are obtained splendid specimens of fruit at all seasons.
which, though inferior in size to the twelve or fifteen pound specimens grown
elsewhere, may rank as a generally fine crop with that of the first culti-
vators of the day, taking the age of the plants into consideration. The
fruits of 100 plants contained in a pit here, weighed, when cut, each from
5 Ibs. to 7 Ibs.— (G. M., vol. xi. p. 258.)
947. Culture of the Queen pine so as to have the fruit ripe in February
and March. — At this season Queen pines are worth two-thirds more in the
market than they are in July and August.
Pit. — Fig. 337 is a section of the pit, and figs. 338 to 342 are sections of
the pots in which the culture about to be described was carried on.
i III
ii I I II
Fig. 337. Section of a pit for fruiting Queen Pines at Qakhill.
a. The bark-bed.
6, Pit for linings,
c, Fire-flue along the front
and both ends,
rf, Open brickwork,
e, Open cavity.
/, Tile cover of open cavity,
with plug-holes.
g, g, Walls of bark-bed.
A, Rubblework.
t,i,«, Brick walls, coped with stone.
&, Stone bracket supporting a plank
for walking on.
/, Gutter to receive the water from
the sashes,
w, W2, Ground level.
948. Sizes of the pots in which the plants are grown. — The sections (figs. 338
to 342) represent the different kinds of
pots employed. Fig. 338 is a No. 48, 6|- T—
inches wide at top, 2^ inches wide at bot-
tom, and 4.1 inches deep Fig. 339 is a
No. 32, 6|- inches wide at top, 3^ inches
wide at bottom, and 5^ inches deep. Fig.
pot. 340 is a No. 24, 81 inches wide at top,
5 inches wide at bottom, and 6f inches deep. Fig. 341 :
is a No. 16, 9^ inches wide at top, 5£ wide at bottom, and 8 inches deep.
CULTURE OF THE PINE-APPLE.
449
Fig. 342 is a No. 12, 11^ inches wide at top,
-- and 10-i inches deep.
f Though it seldom hap- ,^-
pens that a Queen pine ~A
plant can go through all \\
these sizes if well grown,
yet it is considered ne-
cessary to give the di-
mensions of the complete
set of pots used at Oak Hill, as they are often
referred to both in this and in the preceding
inches wide at bottom,
Fig. 340. A No. 24 pot.
Fig. 341. A No. 16 pot.
949. Culture of queen pines for early fruit. — The suckers being from
twelve inches to twenty inches in length, and proportionately strong, were
taken off the stools in the beginning of
August ; and having lain exposed, in the pine-»
stove, in that state about a week, were
dressed and potted in No. 32 -sized pots, in
poor light soil, and plunged two-thirds the
depth of their pots in a bark bed, in which a
thermometer inserted that depth stood at 80°.
Till the roots had reached the sides of the
pots we did not water the soil, but syringed
the plants overhead at shutting up in the
Fig. 342. A NO. 12 pot. evenings of warm days, about twice a
.week. As the plants increased, they were watered at their roots, as
toiey appeared to be in want of that element. The temperature of the
house by day was not allowed to exceed 80°, and till about the middle
of September would generally be found about 65° a little before sun-
rise ; using no artificial heat (besides the bark-bed) as long as the natural
temperature of the atmosphere exceeded 55°, at which temperature (viz. 55°)
we kept the house by night during the winter months, till the third week
in March, when we shook the plants out, and shortened their roots about
one-half, and repotted them in the same-sized pots prepared as follows : — The
pots, if not new ( new ones being preferable), being well cleaned, an oyster-
shell about the size of a penny is placed over the hole, around which broken
bones (such materials being best), or potsherds broken to about the size of
kidney -beans, and sifted to exclude the dusty particles, are laid about hadf
an inch deep ; over which is placed a layer, about a quarter of an inch deep,
of the thready part of half-decayed loamy turf; and the remaining space is
filled up with the following compost : turfy loam chopped to the size of
walnuts, bruising it as little as possible, six parts ; night soil, one part ; leaf
mould, one part ; and silver sand, one part. The plants being potted in this com-
post, were plunged in a bark bed, in a dung-heated pit, two-thirds of the depth
of their pots (at which depth a thermometer inserted stood at 90°), shading
them from the more powerful rays of the sun, and keeping them as close as
possible, yet not allowing the temperature to exceed 90°, the minimum by
night being generally from 05° to 70°. In the course of about fourteen
days, we exposed the plants to the full sun ; from which time they required
to be plentifully supplied with water, and the greatest attention to be paid
to the watch-sticks (sticks stuck in the bark, to be occasionally taken out
450 CULTURE OF THE PINE-APPLE.
and felt, to ascertain the heat), lest the roots, on reaching the sides of the
pots, should be burned. At this stage we gave air at 80°, and allowed the
temperature to rise to 95°. As the season advanced, we sprinkled the plants
overhead more frequently : in April, about once a week ; in May, about
once in four days ; and in the hottest weather, every other evening. In
June, we turned them out of the pots, leaving their balls entire. We then
potted the largest of them in No. 12-sized pots, leaving the surface of the
soil lj inch below the top of the pot ; the balls of the rest we partially
reduced, and potted in No. 24-sized pots. The bark bed was then forked
over, and made good by sifting out the rotten bark from the top and sides,
and adding fresh at the bottom, After the bed had been well trodden and
levelled, we replunged the plants in it about two-thirds the depth of their
pots, keeping them close and shading them, &c., as before. The tempera-
ture at sunrise was now about 75° ; the maximum by day was 100°, giving
air, as before, at 80°. The second week in August, we shifted the plants in
No. 24-sized pots into No. 12's, top-soiling at the same time those already in
12's. The pots of the latter size at this time were full of roots ; and their
lower leaves confining young roots in their sockets, we displaced them, and
replunged the pot about three inches deep in a heat which at that depth was
100°, plunging and treating the plants newly potted as we did those potted
in June. The plants being now finally stationed in the finishing pit above
described (fig. 337), on a bark bed 4-| feet deep, with dung and fire-heat at
command, showed fruit generally on the 1st of September. The maximum
by day, with plenty of air, was now 110°, and at sunrise about 80°. About
Sept. 20th, several of the plants were in flower. As the season declined,
we lowered the temperature, our standard for the winter being 60° at sun-
rise, and the maximum by day 90°. In cloudy damp weather, we fired by
day to 63° or 70°, for the purpose of giving air to carry off the damp. When
a dry sunny day occurred, we generally seized the opportunity to sprinkle
the plants overhead with clean water, in a tepid state, in the early part of
the day, for the purpose of dislodging the mouldiness that settled on the
fruit from the closeness and humidity of the atmosphere. As the fruit began
to colour, towards February, more fire-heat and more air were given. The
maximum by day, with sun-heat and a flue seldom cold, was now 100°, and
at sunrise 60°. Under this mode of treatment three specimens were grown,
which were exhibited at the gardens of the London Horticultural Society on
May 10, 1834, along with three dishes of grapes, for which their gold medal
was awarded to Mr. Dowding. (Idem, p. 24.)
950. Growing the pine-apple in beds of soil. — This has not been much
done in Britain ; but in Munich, in 1828, it had been practised for five years
in the royal kitchen-gardens there. It is attended with far less trouble than
any other mode of pine culture, and has this immense advantage, — that as
there are suckers on the stems in all stages of growth, fruit is produced
at all seasons of the year. At Munich, the court-gardener, Mr. Lang,
informs us (G. M. v. 430) that he had practised the mode of growing pine-
apples in beds of soil in low pits for five years, and had cut ripe fruit from
the plants every month in the year during the whole of that period. The
only objection that can be brought against this mode is, that the fruit is not
very large ; but we can affirm, from having seen the fruit thus produced at
Munich, and also in the royal forcing-ground at Versailles, that it is of a
very fitting size for a small family. By the aid of hot water, peat soil,
CULTURE OF THE PINE-APPLE. 451
abundant surface-manuring, and earthing up, a greater weight of fruit
might perhaps be grown in a limited space and time by this mode than by
any other. The source of bottom heat might be a tank of water or of liquid
manure, of the same length and breadth as the interior of the pit, and over
this the soil might be supported on a flooring of pierced tiles, so as to admit
of the roots passing through them into the liquid manure. Or, it might
be a bed of stones or coarse gravel, heated by steam, a mode which has been
successfully employed in various parts of the country. (See G. M. vi. p. 50.)
Whichever mode of heating be adopted, all the minor details will readily
occur to those who have perused the preceding chapters of this work.
£51. Fruiting suckers on the stools, and retaining the suckers on the stools
for some months or weeks after the fruit has been cut, are practices occasion-
ally resorted to for the sake of gaining time, and of employing the vigour
remaining in the old stock. Sometimes the suckers are earthed up, and
retained on the stock till they produce their fruit ; and sometimes they are
taken off and potted, and being supplied with abundant heat and moisture,
soon show fruit afterwards. Mr. Marsland, of Stockport, has been very
successful in his treatment of the pine in this manner, and the following
extract will give a good idea of his practice : — " In November, 1819, as soon
as the fruit had been cut from the pine-plants, which were then two years
old, all the leaves were stripped off the old stocks, nothing being left but a
single sucker on each, and that the strongest on the plant. They were then
placed in a house where the heat was about 60°, and they remained till
March, 1820. At this period the suckers were broken off from the old
stocks, and planted in pots from eight to twelve inches in diameter, varying
according to the size of the sucker. It may be proper, however, to observe
that the length of time which the young sucker is allowed to remain attached
to the mother plant depends, in some degree, upon the kind of pine : the tardy
fruiters, such as the black Antigua and others, require to be left longer than
the queen and those which fruit readily. After the suckers had been planted,
they were removed from the house, where they had remained while on the
old stock, to one in which the temperature was raised to 75°. Immediately
upon their striking root, the largest of the suckers showed fruit, which
swelled well, and ripened between August and November, being on the
average ten months from the time the fruit was cut from the old plant, and
seven months from the time the sucker was planted. The fruit so produced,
though, as may be expected, not of the largest description, I have invariably
found to be richer and higher flavoured than that grown on older plants.
The suckers of inferior strength will not show fruit in the same season, but
in the following they will yield good fruit, and strong suckers for a succeed-
ing year's supply. Those suckers are to be preferred which are produced on
plants that have ripened their fruit in November; for those taken from
plants whose fruit is cut in August, or earlier, are apt to show fruit in Janu-
ary or February, while yet remaining on the mother-plant. But whenever
this happens, the sucker should be broken off immediately upon being per-
ceived, and planted in a pit so as to form a root of its own to maintain its
fruit." (Hort. Trans, vol. iv. p. 392.)
952. To grow the pine-apple to an extraordinary size. — Begin with a
healthy vigorous sucker or crown, and supply it with abundant nutriment,
heat, and light, in so far as the two latter elements are under control, shifting
it frequently from the smallest-sized pot to the largest, and gradually
452 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE-VINE.
increasing the temperature from 70° to 90° or 95°, with atmospheric moisture
in proportion. In this way queen pines have been grown to the weight of
five or six pounds, and New Providence pines from twelve pounds to fifteen
pounds.
953. Insects. — Where a proper temperature and atmospheric moisture
are kept up, the pine will be little troubled with insects ; but in consequence
of careless treatment they are sometimes infested with a species of coccus,
which is got rid of by immersing the plants, when being shifted, in a mix-
ture of soft soap, sulphur, and tobacco water. The proportions do not seem
of much consequence, for they are very different with different gardeners.
Mr. Dall takes 4 Ibs. of soft soap, 2 Ibs. flower of sulphur, 1 Ib. of leaf
tobacco, and 2 oz. of nux vomica, and boils them in eight gallons of rain
water. After shaking the plants out of the pots and trimming their roots,
he washes them well with this mixture., and also the sides and ends of the
interior of the pit, and all the inner part of the house, excepting the roof. Mr.
Glendinning takes — sulphur, 2 Ibs. ; soft soap, 2 Ibs. ; tobacco, 1^ Ibs. ; mix
vomica, 2 oz. ; camphor, 1 oz., dissolved in a wine-glassful of spirit of tur-
pentine ; and boils the whole in eight gallons of water for an hour. When
the mixture has fallen to 120°, he immerses each plant in it separately,
keeping the liquid as near as possible to that degree of heat. (Practical hints
on the culture of the pine-apple^ p. 51). Plants subjected to the mixture
either of Mr. Dall or Mr. Glendinning have an unsightly appearance for
some months afterwards ; but when they commence growing, the new part
of their foliage assumes the usual healthy, vigorous hue. Where there is
room in the pine pit for laying down a quantity of fermenting horse-dung,
the steam produced is perhaps the best destroyer of every description of inse ct
and it does no injury to pines. This was Baldwin's remedy.
II. — Culture of the grape-vine under glass and on walls.
SUBSECT. I — Natural data on which the culture of the grape-vine is founded.
954. The grape-vine is a deciduous ligneous climber, indigenous or culti-
vated in a considerable portion of the temperate parts of the northern hemi-
sphere. It is found wild in Greece, Turkey in Asia, and Persia, the Morea,
and near the Black and Caspian Seas, and in many other places ; but the
countries in which it is found in the highest degree of perfection are Armenia
and Syria. In Armenia and Syria, judging from their latitudes, the mean
temperature of the coldest winter month in the region of vine culture is
probably between 45° and 50°, and the mean temperature of the warmest
summer month between 75° and 80°. It is certain, however, that the vine
will bear a much lower winter temperature than 45° ; for on the hills in
Germany, where several kinds are cultivated with success, and the vines are
every winter buried under the snow, the temperature for two or three
months cannot be much above 32°. It is also found in our forcing-houses
that the vine will bear a summer temperature of between 70° and 80°. It
may, we think, be assumed that the vine is not calculated to sustain unin-
jured a winter temperature much below 40° ; and this is confirmatory of the
excellence of the practice of British gardeners, in wintering the shoots of
vines grown under glass under some kind of protecting cover : such as
between outer and inner front sashes, or tied loosely up in mats or in thatch,
so as to keep them quite dry without excluding the air.
955. With respect to atmospheric moisture, it can only, as far as we know,
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE-VINE. 453
be stated on general principles, that when the vine is in a growing state the
air must be keep moist, more particularly in the evenings and during night.
This may always be effected by syringing the plants before shutting up the
house in the afternoons, and when the sun goes off a south wall, and by
watering the soil. When the fruit is ripening, the air should be drier ; not
only because growth being completed, less moisture is wanted, but because
excess of moisture, either in the soil or in the atmosphere, is known to be
injurious to the flavour of all fruits.
956. The soil in all countries where the vine is cultivated successfully is
dry, and experience has proved that it admits of being enriched to an
almost unlimited extent. The temperature of the soil may be determined
from general principles to be a degree or two higher than that of the atmo-
sphere ; u therefore the most favourable climate for the vine lat. 35°, which
passes through Syria, will have a mean terrestrial temperature of 67°. In
spring, when vegetation begins in the vine, it may be estimated at not lower
than 60°. By the time the blossom expands it will have reached 70°, or
nearly so ; and 80° will certainly be within the limits of its summer tem-
perature."— (Penny Cyc., art. Grape-Fine.) "The mean temperature of
the earth in the climate of London is about 51°, from which that of spring-
water differs little throughout the year. In winter, when early forcing of
the vine is commenced, the border in which the roots are extended will
sometimes be below 40°, and if we even say 45°, whilst the vine has its
branches and blossoms in a temperature of 75°, still we have a disparity of
30° ! These conditions are not by any means transient, for the earth retains
its state of winter cold till late in the spring. In summer, from the greater
length of the days at this season than in more southern latitudes, the earth
acquires a tolerably high and nearer corresponding temperature ; but before
this occurs the crop of grapes has received checks which more favourable
circumstances cannot remedy. To this disparity of temperature between
the root and the top of the vine may be certainly ascribed the bad setting,
spotting, and shrivelling of grapes." — Ibid. A writer in the Gardeners'
Magazine, vol. xiii. p. 16, has forcibly illustrated the importance of a cor-
responding atmospheric and terrestrial temperature, and he concludes by
recommending all exterior vine-borders to be securely thatched, so as to
exclude all rain and melting snow during winter and spring, and not to
remove the covering till the temperature of the natural rain which falls on
the border is 60°. The thatching, he says, if put on in time in autumn,
will preserve a temperature in the soil through the winter of between 45°
and 50°, and the rain foiling on the soil at a temperature of 60° will part
with 10° of its heat, and, after moistening the soil, pass off by the drainage.
Repeated showers at an increased temperature, aided by the effect of the
sun, will gradually raise the temperature of the border from 45° or 50° to
75° or 80°, according to the warmth or coldness of the summer. The process,
he says, may be greatly accelerated by stirring the surface, or inverting it by
digging where it has been well heated by the sun's rays, so as to turn up a fresh
portion to their influence. A considerable degree of heat might thus be as it
were " worked in," and the remainder of heat required would be effected by
the percolation of showers and the direct influence of the sun. The effect of
melting snows and early spring rains, at probably 40°, in cooling the soil,
shows the necessity of choosing a porous and naturally thorough-drained
soil for vineyards in countries having cold winters ; because as it is imprac-
454 PROPAGATING, PRUNING, AND TRAINING THE VINE.
ticable to prevent the snow from melting or the spring rains from falling
and cooling the soil, the only mode of counteracting the evil is so to arrange
that the water shall be carried rapidly off by the subsoil. Every shower
which succeeds will be at a somewhat higher temperature, at least till mid-
summer, and as it nitrates through the soil will leave in it a portion of its
heat, till showers falling at 70°, or upwards, will leave the soil at that
temperature.
957. Form of house. — It is almost unnecessary to observe that the vine
ma}- be cultivated in any form of structure with a glass roof, from a cucum-
ber-frame to a house ; the most common form and dimensions of which
in use in British gardens are as follow : — Length, thirty feet ; width,
fourteen feet ; height at back, nine feet, at front, two feet. The end and
front walls to be on arches, and the whole to be heated by one fire. The
furnace to have a door one foot square, and the sides of the fuel-chamber
to be of Welsh lumps ; and the rise from the bars of the furnace to the
bottom of the flue to be eighteen inches. The flue to run two feet from
the front- wall, and to return within two and a half inches of the back- wall,
with a chimney in the back- wall over the furnace. The flue to be eighteen
inches deep, with the covers and bottoms of one-foot tiles. Doors at each
end of the house, or at the fire- end, if but one door. Rafters fixed ; the
sashes moveable in two lengths, lapping in the middle ; the top lights to be
one inch wider than the lower ones, and the lower ones to run up and down
in a groove formed in the rafter under the top light, so that the top and
bottom lights may run free of each other. A trellis of wire to be fixed to
the rafters fifteen inches from the glass, and the vines to be planted between
the front-wall and the flue. If hot water is employed instead of smoke
flues, then the pipes may be placed in exactly the same situation as the
flues ; they may be four inches in diameter, and there may be two upper pipes
and two lower ones ; one of the upper pipes and one of the lower ones may
form a distinct circulation from the other two, so that when only a small
degree of fire heat is required, the circulation may be stopped in half
the extent of piping. For early forcing, the house, if still to be managed
with one fire, may be somewhat narrower and the roof steeper. In houses
of this kind the vines are wintered, not by withdrawing them, but by the
removal of the sashes. — (G. M., xvii. 310.)
SUBSECT. II. Propagating, Pruning, and Training the Vine.
958. The vine is commonly propagated by eyes or cuttings (606) and some-
times by layers, and a year may generally be gained by procuring rooted
plants from the nurseries. To make sure of having the sorts true to their
names, however, many gardeners raise their own plants. On the Continent
the vine is generally propagated by cuttings of from a foot to two feet in
length, taken off with a piece of the preceding year's wood attached ; and
this used also to be the custom in this country, till about the time of
Speachley.
959. In pruning the vine never cut close to the eye, because the wood
being spongy, dies back more or less, and consequently injures the bud ; but
cut in the middle of the internode, which leaves a sufficient space for the
wood to die back before it reaches the bud. The cut ought to slope away
from the eye, in order that in case of bleeding the eye may not be injured.
The summer pruning of the vine consists almost entirely in stopping the
PROPAGATING, PRUNIMG, AND TRAINING THE VINE. 455
laterals, pinching off the tendrils, and when the fruit is beginning to ripen
cutting off portions of the leaves, or sometimes entire leaves, to admit the
sun's rays to the fruit. In taking off leaves, the French very seldom remove
the petioles, but only the disk, or a portion of it.
960. Training. — There are three modes in common use for pruning and
training the vine : — The long, or renewal system, by which the largest fruit
is obtained ; the short, or spurring-in system, by which the greatest number
of bunches may be grown in a limited space ; and the fan system, by which
the plant is made to ramify and spread out its branches, so as to have the
general appearance of a common fruit-tree. There are several other modes
of training the vine, because, as we have seen (793), the vine may be
trained in every form adapted for common fruit-trees ; but we shall only
notice the Thomery system, chiefly used in France, though in a less perfect
form it is adopted on the walls of cottages in some parts of England. The
vine differs from all other fruit-trees in this, that pruning cannot be dis-
pensed with even for a single year; this arises from the much greater
quantity of wood produced than is necessary for a crop of fruit. A peach-
tree, or any other tree, if totally neglected, may continue to bear annually
high-flavoured fruit on the outsides of its branches, because there they
would be exposed to a sufficiency of light and air; but the bunches of
grapes on a vine which had been left for a few years to itself, would be so
shrouded in leaves and shoots as to be small and without flavour.
961. The essential points to be borne in mind when pruning and training
the vine, whatever mode be adopted, are to shorten the wood to such an
extent as that no more leaves shall be produced than can be fully exposed
to the light ; to stop all shoots produced in summer that are not likely to
be required in the winter pruning, at two or three joints, or at the first large
healthy leaf from the stem where they originate ; and to stop all shoots
bearing bunches at one joint, or at most two, beyond the bunch. As shoots
which are stopped generally push a second time from the terminal bud, the
secondary shoots thus produced should be stopped at one joint ; and if at
that joint they push also, then a third stopping must take place at one joint,
and so on as long as the last terminal bud continues to break. Bearing
these points in mind, nothing can be more simple than the pruning and
training of the vine.
962. The long, or the renewal system of pruning, is by many gardeners, and
also by Clement Hoare, the author of the best Treatise on the vine which has
ever been published, considered as decidedly preferable to all the other modes.
It recommends itself, he says, " by its simplicity; by the old wood of the vine
being annually got rid of ; by the small number of wounds inflicted in the
pruning ; by the clear and handsome appearance of the vine ; and by the
great ease with which it is managed, in consequence of its occupying but a
small portion of the surface of the wall." — (Practical Treatise, §c., p. 95.)
Supposing a cutting planted where it is finally to remain, in autumn or in
early spring, then in the autumn folio whig it may be cut down to three
good eyes, as in fig. 343.
The second year rub off all the buds but the terminal one, the shoot
produced by which is to be cut down to three good eyes, as in fig. 344.
The third year allow only the two uppermost buds to push ; and in
autumn head down the strongest one to six feet or eight feet, for bearing fruit
the following year, and the weakest to three good eyes, as in fig. 345. If
456
1'ROPAGATING, PRUNING, AND TRAINING THE VINE.
JL
the wall or trellis is low, the system need not be carried farther ; the long
shoot will produce the fruit-bearing shoots of next year, after which it will
be cut out, and its place taken by the shoot pro-
duced from the short shoot ; which, having pro-
duced its fruit, will be cut away in its turn, to
Fig. 343. Renewal niake room for the young shoot that will have
priming, first year, been produced on the other side; and thus the
operation might be carried on for a number of years. Fig.344.
The fourth year. Supposing the wall or the trellis to be of a^me
the usual height, then the fourth year bunches will be shown
at every joint of the long shoot, but it will weaken the vine too much to
allow more than two or three to come to maturity. Two shoots will be pro-
>. duced from those cut down, and probably
a third from the base of the stock. These,
in autumn, when the leaves have dropped,
should be cut down, as in fig. 346. The
house or the wall we may now suppose
filled from top to bottom ; the fruit in
the lower part of the wall or house being
produced by the young wood a,&, and that
in the upper part from the young wood
c, d, in fig. 346.
The fifth year, the crop being produced
on a, 6, and c, d, a shoot will have been
produced from &, which will reach the
top of the wall and take the place at the
winter pruning of the long shoot, 6, c, rf,
while the shoot from e will take the place
of a, &, as shown in fig. 347. Next year
Fig. 345. Renewal the shoot from e becomes the main shoot,
pruning, third year, and the shoot from /, the secondary shoot
— the middle one being cut out ; and thus the alternation
of shoots may go on for a great number of years.
963. The spurring-in method of pruning consists in re-
taining only one shoot the entire height of the wall or trellis,
and shortening the laterals at every winter's pruning to two
or three eyes ; or when the vines are very strong, cutting
the laterals entirely off, leaving the young fruit-bearing
shoots to be produced from the adventitious buds at their
base. In general every alternate bud is cut out, so as to
have only half the number of laterals as the shoot has
produced buds ; and sometimes two buds are cut out for
one that is left, when the vine is of a sort that has a large
leaf or a large bunch ; the object being to prevent the shoot
from being too much crowded by laterals.
Fig. 346. Renewal
pruning, fourth year
964. The fan-system of vine -training is effected by short-
ening the shoots as they advance in growth during summer, so as to cause
them to divaricate and produce the appearance of a common fan-trained
fruit-tree. It is sometimes used in vineries where one plant fills the whole
house, and requires no farther description.
965. The Thomery system of training is chiefly calculated for the open
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE-VINE UNDER GLASS.
457
wall. The vines are planted at a short distance from the wall, and only
two branches are allowed to proceed from each main stem. The length of
these branches is greater or less, according to the
strength of the soil. At Thomery, where the soil is
poor, the ordinary length of a main branch is about
four feet ; but on the royal grape-wall at Fontainebleau,
the branches are from five feet to six feet in length,
the soil being richer and more liberally supplied with
manure. Fig. 348 represents a portion of a mud-
wall, eight feet high, covered with a trellis, on which
vines are trained, according to the Thomery system.
The fruit is produced on the short lateral shoots, which
are shortened in at the winter pruning to two or three
buds ; and each shoot produced by a bud is allowed to
mature two bunches of fruit. Nothing can be more
perfect than this system of pruning and training, as it
appears at Thomery ; since it makes certain of cover-
ing every part of the wall with wood equally strong,
and equally supplied with nutriment from the roots,
because every plant has an equal extent of branches,
eight feet, supplied from one stock or root. An im-
perfect imitation of this mode of training may be seen
on the cottages of some villages in Hampshire, particu-
larly in Broughton and Stockbridge. — (See Scott, in
Gard. Mag. for 1842.)— On asking the opinion of an
eminently scientific English gardener of the Thomery
mode of pruning and training the vine, his answer was :
" It will not do in this climate and soil. When fol-
lowed strictly, the two arms, each four feet in length,
do not give sufficient extent ; for the eyes may all break
prematurely. In my opinion, the best mode of train-
ing vines on a wall, is to lay in all the shoots at an
angle of 45°, or even with a greater slope, if the
rr^^j*^ ,-,_. soil is very rich, or the variety of grape which is grown
Fig.347. Renewal pruning, IS of Very Vigorous growth.'
fifth year,
SUBSECT. III. — Culture of the Grape- Vine under Glass.
The grapes grown at Oakhill having been long equally celebrated with the
pine-apples grown there, we shall adopt Mr. Forsyth's account of the mode of
proceeding, first giving a general treatise, and next a diary of a course of
culture.
966. Vine-border. — Loamy turf that has been pared quite thin, and
stacked in narrow tiers, for one year at least, three parts, and one part of
the following mixture: — any dry, well aerated animal manure, that can
most conveniently be got, such as horse-droppings, or those of cattle, deer, or
sheep, without litter, laid in alternate layers with old plaster or old building
lime mortar (the older the better) ; no matter if there be a few brickbats in
it. Let the whole be well pounded and mixed with the dung, which ought
to be in a proper state, as to moisture, to ferment a little ; after which let it
458
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE-VINE UNDER GLASS.
1)0 frequontly turned, always keeping it rather dry ; it may then be wheeled
into the bed or border. The loam when put into the bed or border should
be in pieces about the size of bricks and half-bricks, brought from the stacks
-*•'" 4r- **--'•' w~
Fig. 348. Fines trained according to the Thomery system.
or tiers where they were originally piled, mixed with the manure, and laid
once for all in the place where they are finally to remain, without any turn-
ing, chopping, or pounding whatever, which only injures the loam, and ren-
ders it too compact, and too much akin to puddle, for vine-roots to prosper
in. About 16 feet wide, and from 2 feet 6 inches to 4 feet deep, may be
considered a moderate width and depth for a vine- border, on a substratum of
draining, at least one foot deep.
967. Planting. — On the top of this the vines reared in the manner here-
after stated may be planted. If out of doors, plant the vines 3 feet from the
front of the house, just covering the root-ball of each about 2 inches, over
which place a hand-glass. This will keep off rain and concentrate heat.
Then lay the cane about 2 inches under ground, till it enters the aperture
or arch into the house, and over this place another hand-glass ; or, instead of
hand-glasses, a layer of hot dung or leaves, 1 foot thick and 6 feet wide, may
be laid along it. It is presumed that the border has been made in autumn,
in which case this planting is to be done in February, especial care being
taken that the border does not get either too wet or too dry. In the former
case thatch it, and in the latter mulch it with fermented dung from old
linings or the like, and water it with clean water.
968. To raise the plants, get some eyes from plants which you have seen and
proved, cut them at half-an-inch above and below the eye, (606), and insert
them singly in pots (of the size 60) about half-an-inch under the soil, about
Christmas. Keep them growing in a moist heat, (say 60° Fahr.,) and shift
CULTURE OP THE GRAPE-VINE UNDER GLASS. 459
them regularly as they require it, training their stems against the wall or
trellis in the hothouse. With good culture, in twelve months, they will
have stems as thick as the little finger, with 4 feet of well-ripened cane, and
plenty of vigorous roots.
969. When planted in the vinery, let them he grown in a like heat till
autumn, when the house may he uncovered to ripen the wood ; but care
must be taken to prevent their freezing. In winter cut back till you find
the wood of a firm texture and good size. Under good culture from 6 feet
to 9 feet of firm short-jointed wood may be got. It is always better to leave
the canes rather short than otherwise. The leader may be stopped 5 feet or
6 feet beyond where it is expected to be cut to in the winter pruning. When
you commence growing in the spring, which should not be too early (say
Feb. 15th,) let the temperature be low, (say 50° Fahr.,) and the atmosphere
moist, that the vines may break at all the eyes. The canes, for this purpose,
ought to be laid quite level ; and, as soon as the shoots have been protruded
from the eyes, the canes may be fixed to the trellis, and the temperature in-
creased ; but by no means allow them to bear fruit yet (unless, perhaps, a
cluster on each vine to prove the sorts). If it is intended to force for early
fruit the third year, to save repetition, reference may be had to the " Diary
of Forcing," hereafter given (971.) To have grapes in their proper season,
begin to excite the vines in the middle of March, by keeping the temperature
about 50° or 55° Fahr. ; if it will keep at this without fire heat, so much the
better. When the vines are coming into flower, 60° Fahr. would do them
good ; and after that is over, and the fruit thinned, they will do very well at
55° Fahr. as a minimum, and at 85° Fahr. as a maximum, of sun heat. The
fruit should be borne on lateral shoots or spurs, which should be stopped at
one joint beyond the fruit ; and spurs in the winter pruning should be cut
back to one eye. The following may be considered as a summary of
culture for three years : —
Jan . 1 , 1 836. Vine eyes potted .
Nov. 1, 1836. Vine border finished.
Feb. 14, 1837. Vines planted.
Jan. 1, 1838. Canes winter- pruned,
or cut back.
Feb. 14, 1838. Vines excited.
Sept. 1, 1838. Vines uncovered.
Jan. 1, 1839. Canes pruned.
March 15,1839. Vines excited.
July, 1839. The fruit ripe.
970. The sorts preferred at Oakhill, are — Muscat of Alexandria, Dutch
Sweetwater, White Frontignan, White Muscadine, Black Hamburgh, Black
Prince, Black Frontignan for vineries, and Black Esperione and White Mus-
cadine for walls,
971. A diary of the course of culture applied to the grape vines at Oakhill.
— The vinery is 34 feet long, 16 feet wide, with 2 feet of mason- work, and
2 feet of upright glass in front, and the roof is at an inclination of 27°. The
whole interior is heated by a surface of hot- water piping, equal to 312 square
feet. A tan pit, erected on piers of brickwork, occupies the centre floor of
the house, except only a space of 3 feet 4 inches all round, which is taken
up by the pathway and hot- water apparatus. At the back wall of the house
the soil is prepared to the depth of 6 feet ; and at the further extremity of
the border (16 feet wide) there are 3^ feet of soil, comprised of equal parts
of the following earths : — Turfy loam, (the top spit of a very old undisturbed
piece of pasture occupied as a rickyard,) two parts; rotten dung, one part ;
lime rubbish, one part ; gritty mud, (the same as road-drift,) one part, The
460
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE-VINE UNDER GLASS.
vines are planted inside, there are twelve plants, and they are kept single-
stemmed to the top of the house. When pruned the spurs are cut back to
one bud. The sorts cultivated are, Black Hamburgh and Dutch Sweet-
water.
The vinery open, the wood ripe, not pruned. We
have had two slight frosts.
The vines pruned; the vinery shut up; no artificial
heat applied.
Vines pared; the loose and rough bark only taken
off.
Tan -pit filled with new tan, (twelve loads). Soil,
pathway, &c., kept wet.
Vines washed with soap-suds by means of a
painter's sash-brush, the suds being in a tepid
state.
Vines anointed with a mixture of soft-soap, and
black and white sulphur dissolved in warm
soap-suds ; the mixture applied to the vines at
about 100° of heat. Vines laid down on the
tan, and moistened with a fine syringe twice
a day. The tan forked every other day.
Forked the border about 3 inches deep ; laid on
turfy loam and old lime mortar about 2 inches
deep; then old hotbed dung, well rotted, 2
inches ; the roots being near the surface, hav-
ing been planted as shallow as possible.
Walls whitewashed with lime and sulphur.
Laid leaves on vine border, 1 foot thick ; and fresh
hot dung, 1 foot ; protected the above from
rains, &c., by reed covers used at other times
for pine pits.
The floor dressed with a coat of road-drift for the
sake of sprinkling.
Fire heat applied, and all the steam that can be
raised produced.
Sprinkling of pipes and pathways performed at all
times, for the sake of steam and moisture ; the
heat of dung on border, 70°.
Weather favourable ; the nights often 60° or 52°,
seldom under 40° ; we have had only four
frosts, the most intense as low as 26°.
Buds perceived to be swelling ; heat of dung on
border 90°.
Cease to syringe vines; the sprinkling of soil,
pipes, and path, continued.
Buds breaking generally ; heat of dung on bor-
der, 96°.
Weather wet and windy ; nights, 45° to 50°.
1833
Nov.
8
Maxim,
by day.
Minim,
at night
DEGS.
DKGS.
9
60
45
12
—
—
16
60
45
19
—
—
22
60
50
25
—
—
26
27
—
—
30
Dec.
1
65
55
8
67
56
15
69
57
22
70
58
29
1834.
Jan 5
72
74
59
61
12
76
63
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE-VINE UNDER GLASS.
461
Maxim.
Minim.
1834.
T n
by day.
at night.
DIARY.
Jan.
DKGS.
DECS.
—
15
78
64
Shoots 2 inches long.
17
78
75
19
79
66
Heat of dung on border, 65°.
20
79
67
21
80
68
Largest spurs 1 foot long ; flower-buds as large as
mustard-seeds (white) ; bunches, 1 inch.
3
81
(59
Shoots topped at one joint above fruit ; if a lateral
is produced it is topped beyond one leaf; if it
break again, top it again beyond one leaf.
25
82
70
29
83
71
In dull days when the weather is cold, and there
is not sunshine, give a little air, keeping the
Feb.
temperature at 74°.
1
83
72
Dung on the border nearly cold.
8
84
73
The flowers of one bunch (near the hot-pipes) ex-
panded ; the first that have been.
12
—
74
15
85
75
The vines in flower generally.
19
—
76
Began to thin a bunch or two.
22
85
76
Was thinning all day (at the top of the house.)
Mar.
8
85
74
The berries of all set now; those of the Hamburgh
as large as hazel-nuts ; those of the old St.
Peter's, the size of peas of the early frame
kind ; for the sake of the Dutch Sweetwater,
maintained 76° instead of 74°, the proper tem-
perature for the Hamburgh. After shutting
up at night the tan-pit is forked sometimes,
and sprinkled every night. The pipes are
sprinkled at least eight times in twenty-four'
hours.
85
73
Began to give air always when the temperature is
4° above that of the night heat.
12
85
72
Dung, leaves, &c., cleared off the border, to admit
sun-heat, &c. ; the border forked over.
14
—
—
Finished shouldering the Hamburgh, and thinning
the Sweetwater and St. Peter's (neither of the
two latter wants shouldering much). All
spurs tied to wires ; laterals cut clean out ;
bunches supported.
29
85
72
Sweetwaters discovered to be changing colour for
April
ripening.
12
83
72
First berry of the Hamburgh beginning to change
colour ; moisture withdrawn ; plenty of air
admitted ; border watered with dung water
(dry weather).
18
—
—
About half of the berries of the Hamburgh red-
462
CDLTDRE OF THE GRAPE-VINE UNDER GLASS.
Maxim.
Minim.
1834.
by day.
at night.
DIARY.
April
DKGS.
DEOS.
dened ; about one-third of those of the Sweet-
water perfectly ripe; the berries generally,
each 3^ inches round.
22
All watering of the soil for the vine roots, and
sprinkling of the house to prevent dust, &c.,
performed when plenty of air is given, that
shanking (shrivelling) may not be induced in
the berries ; the border watered with drain-
water ; fruit swelling rapidly.
24
Cut fruit of Sweetwater.
May
1
.
Three days past have been cloudy and rainy. To
colour the fruit of the Hamburgh we used
firing to 77° by day, (with front air, if rainy,)
and 72° by night, allowing ingress to a little
air all night, the laps of glass being puttied.
6
The fruit of the Hamburgh in high perfection,
many of the berries each 3^ inches, and in
some few, 4 inches round.
7
The fruit of the St. Peter's changing colour ; and
berries in a bunch a little brown.
81
70
Grapes exhibited at the gardens of the London
Horticultural Society, for which the large gold
medal was awarded.
A little air left all night when thermometer stands
above 50° out of doors ; otherwise shut from
ten till four.
10
The soil well watered to prevent the leaves decay-
ing, and, consequently, unnatural hardening of
/
the wood, which ought to be ripened in a de-
liberate manner, aided by the shade and sur-
face of the leaves, according to the order of
nature.
The leaves are now of amazing size, green and vi-
gorous, measuring, independently of the foot-
stalks, 18^ inches by 15 inches ; and this not in
a solitary instance.
30
—
—
Soil inside the house, and border outside, wa-
June
tered.
K-
7
—
—
Grapes again exhibited at the gardens of the Lon-
don Horticultural Society, along with six pines.
Both were accounted the best productions ex-
hibited, and prizes were awarded as such.
9
80
—
Ceased to make fires. With a supply of air left as
above, the temperature stands usually above
65°.
20
—
—
The fruit of the Hamburgh fine ; that of the
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE-VINE UNDER GLASS.
463
1834.
June
July
1
10
Maxim,
by day.
Minim,
at night.
DIARY.
St. Peter's ripe; the leaves still green and vigo-
rous. All possible air admitted by day, when
fine. Protected from rain for the sake of the
fruit only. Shut up close from dusk till
dawn.
Fruit all cut. Left open with lights on.
Lights off.
The lights being off, no culture of any kind is
given, except occasional waterings in very dry
weather, to prevent a sudden and unnatural
termination of the processes which actuate
growth.
DKGS.
DKGS.
972. Growing two or three crops of grapes in one house. — The grape is so de-
sirable a fruit, and one so well adapted for the dessert at every season of the
year, that wherever there is only one vinery, various plans have been
adopted, and that with perfect success, to produce two, or even three, crops
of grapes in it in one year; and there can be no doubt that four crops might
be grown. It is not uncommon in pine stoves to have two vines for each
rafter planted outside the house, and when one, after having produced its
fruit, is withdrawn, to introduce the other. If two crops can be so grown
there is no reason why three should not, provided the border be extensive
enough to admit of keeping the roots of each vine apart ; which may be
done by vertical underground partitions. The front sashes must of course
be made to take out entirely at pleasure ; or if there are no front sashes,
then the lower sashes of the roof must be made to take out or lift up, so as
to admit of withdrawing, and reintroducing the vines without injuring them.
We shall state the practice at Hungerton Hall, in Lincolnshire, and at another
place in Essex.
973. Growing three crops of grapes in one house together with pines. — The pine
pit is built on arches, so that there is a free current of air under it from back
to front, which, however, can be stopped at pleasure. A movable partition
of boards, or in part of sashes not in use, is placed on the back wall of the
pit, so as in effect to shut it in completely up to the roof. In the space
between the back wall of the pit and the back wall of the house, that is, in
the back path, the vines for the first crop are planted, and trained imme-
diately under the glass. The back wall is flued ; the lower flue being con-
tiguous to the roots of the vines, which places the period of commencing
their growth completely in the power of the cultivator. Here the more
delicate and perfumed grapes, such as the Purple and White Constantia, and
the Grizzly Frontignan, ripen their fruit in April ; and when it is all cut in
May, the vertical partition is put up, and remains so till December, when it
is taken down, and forcing in this back part commences. The second or inter-
mediate crop is obtained from plants planted in the front path and trained up
the rafters. They produce their fruit, which is chiefly the Hamburgh,
Sweetwater, and Muscat, in June and July ; and when it is all gathered in
August the vines are taken out, and others planted in the front border intro-
duced in their place. This crop ripens in September and October, and the
H H£
464 GROWING THE GRAPE ON OPEN WALLS,
vines are taken out in December, when those growing in the back path are
begun to be forced by taking down the temporary partition. It is necessary
to observe that the front flue is not, as is usual, between the path and the
front wall of the house, but between the path and the front wall of the pit,
and that there is a double partition of glass in front, between which the vines
are wintered. Various minor details it is unnecessary to enter into.
974. Another mode of growing three crops of grapes in one house. — This was
practised for ten years at a place in Essex, a part of which time it was under
the care of a journeyman, who sent us the following account of it. The
house was 45 feet long and 18 feet wide, a pit occupied the centre in whicli
pines were fruited. The flue entered the back of the house at one end, and
was carried round the front of the pit, and under the back pathway into the
chimney at the same end the flue entered. Vines were planted in the front
pathway next the pit, ono under each rafter. These produced the first
crop of grapes. They were begun to be forced in the beginning of February,
and they were ripe by the middle or latter end of June. Those for the
second crop were planted outside the house in the front. They were intro-
duced into the house hi the latter end of March, or the beginning of April,
and trained under the roof over the front flue and pathway, as well as up
some of the rafters : these ripened their fruit in August. The vine pro-
ducing the last crop was planted at the front corner of one end outside. It
was carried with a single stem up the end rafter to the back wall, where it
was trained just under the coping to the full length of the house. Laterals
from the main stem were left so as to come in under each rafter to which they
were trained. This vine was taken in about the beginning of September, by
entirely removing the end of the house for the purpose, the end being replaced
as soon as the vine was properly fixed. About this time the vines which
had produced the first crop of grapes were taken across the flue and wintered
outside the house till the February following. Grapes have been cut from the
vine against the back wall, up to the 8th of February, and they were then
in excellent condition. Our correspondent has known it ripen off up wards of
300 bunches, with the berries well swelled and coloured and never shrivelled.
The kind was the Black Hamburgh Valentines. — (G. M. 1841, p. 74.)
975. Keeping Grapes. — Ripe Grapes may be retained on the branches for
several months, provided the air of the house be kept dry and cool. To
absorb moisture from the air without heating it, the floor of the house is
sometimes covered with dry sand, coal ashes, decayed granite or trap stone.
Grapes may also be preserved for an indefinite period by cutting off the
bunches with a joint or two of wood below the bunch, and applying hot
sealing-wax so as completely to shut out air from the wound. The bunches
are then suspended in a cool, airy room, and will keep from October till
May. Care must be taken that they are neither exposed to heat nor damp,
nor to a current of very dry air. — (G. M. 1841, p. 646.)
SUBSECT. IV. Growing the Grape on open Walls, and onCottages.
South of London this might be practised to a great extent, and the grapes
brought to a high degree of perfection, as has been proved by Mr. Clement.
Hoare, whose excellent Practical Treatise on the Cultivation of the Grape
Fine on open Walls, we most strongly recommend to all who intend to culti-
vate this fruit in the open air. In the southern counties of England, where
vines are grown on cottages, Mr. Hoare is of opinion that five times the
AND ON COTTAGES. 465
quantity of grapes of superior flavour might be annually produced on the
same extent of surface ; and that for every square foot of cottage wall on
which vines are now trained, there are now twenty that are either entirely
vacant, or occupied in a useless manner. As a general result of his calcula-
tions, he says, that for every pound of grapes now grown, one hundred
pounds might be annually produced on the existing surface of walling.
" Every moderate-sized dwelling-house having a garden and a little walling
attached to it, may, with ease, be made to produce yearly, a quarter of a
ton weight of grapes, leaving a sufficient portion of its surface for the pro-
duction of other fruit." (p. 19.) The grand error which prevails in the
culture of the vine on walls and cottages consists in the mode of pruning,
which is far from being sufficiently severe. Nine parts out of ten of the
current year's shoots, and all those of the preceding year, should if possible
be cut off; and this is so different to what is required for other fruit-trees,
that few persons have the courage to attempt it.
976. Fruit-bearing powers of the vine. — This Mr. Hoare has ascertained
by experiment from the quantity of fruit which any vine can produce without
checking its growth or injuring its vital powers. After a great many expe-
riments, performed between 1825 and 1830, Mr. Hoare ascertained that if
two and a half inches be deducted from the circumference of the stem of
any vine measured just above the ground, the capability of the plant will
be equal to the maturation of 10 Ibs. of grapes for every remaining inch of
girth. No vine is considered fit to bear until its stem measures three
inches in girth. For every pound weight of grapes extracted from a vine
before it has grown to that size, 10 Ibs. will be lost during the next five
years. Having calculated the weight of grapes which a stem may be allowed
to produce, the next point is to determine what weight wrill be produced by
the shoot developed by a single bud. This Mr. Hoare has ascertained to be,
for those sorts of grapes usually cultivated on the open wall, half a pound
weight for every good bud ; the two bottom buds on every shoot being
rejected, as seldom producing blossom-bearing shoots. Thus, u if the stem
of a vine measure five inches in girth, its capability is equal to the matura-
tion of twenty-five pounds weight of grapes, and therefore the number of
buds to remain after pruning will be fifty," (p. 38.) Nothing can be more
definite, satisfactory, or easily understood than this system, which has now
stood the test of nearly twenty years. It is, however, to be understood
that, where the climate is sufficiently congenial to mature a more luxu-
riant production of wood, the fruit-bearing power of the vine is infinitely
greater.
977. Aspect. — Warmth and shelter are the grand requisites. The per-
spiration of the foliage of the vine is so great that it is carried to an injurious
extent by the slightest wind. Mr. Hoare has found that, during the space
of twenty-four hours, when the wind has blown briskly, the shoots exposed
to its influence have not perceptibly grown at all, while, shortly afterwards,
the wind having entirely sunk away, the same shoots have grown upwards of
three inches in the same space of time, the temperature of the air in a sheltered
situation being alike during each period," p. 41. The best aspects for vines
on the open wall in the south of England are those which range from the
E. to the S.E. both inclusive ; and the next best from S.E. to S. Those
which range from S. to W. are good, provided they are sheltered ; but N.
or W\, though they may sometimes produce tolerable grapes, yet are very
4(56 GROWING THE GRAPE ON OPEN WALLS,
uncertain both for the ripening of the grapes and of the wood. E. by N.
Mr. Hoare finds a very good aspect. On a wall facing this point the sun
shines till about eleven o'clock in the morning, and Mr. Hoare has for many
years past brought several sorts of grapes, including the Black Hamburgh,
to great perfection in this aspect. It would thus appear that if a cottage,
the general outline of the ground-plan of which is a square or a parallelo-
gram, is placed so that a south and north line shall form a diagonal to it,
vines may be planted against every part of the walls and trained over the
whole of the roof. We have shown in the Supplement to the Encyclopaedia
of Cottage Architecture (J 2237) the immense importance of placing every
cottage so as to have the diagonal a south and north line, without reference
to the front or any of the sides being parallel to the adjoining road or street.
" We wish it to be distinctty understood, that it forms no part of our plan
to have either the front or the back of the cottage next to, and parallel
with, the road ; on the contrary, we prefer, in almost every case of single
cottages, to have next the road an angle of the building, by which the views
across the road will be oblique, instead of being direct ; as the former, in
every case, exhibits a longer perspective, which must consequently contain
a greater number of objects." — (Supp. Cott. Arch., p. 1138). The walls
and roofs of cottages so placed, north of London, may be covered with the
apple, pear, cherry, plum, and, in some cases, the apricot ; and those south
of London may be covered with the grape vine.
978. Soil. — Light, rich, sandy loam, not more than eighteen inches in
depth, on a dry bottom of gravel, stone, or rock, forms the most desirable
soil and subsoil for the vine. Mr. Hoare truly observes, that " one of the
principal causes of grapes not ripening well on the open wall in this country
is the great depth of mould in which the roots of vines are suffered to run,
which, enticing them to penetrate in search of food below the influence of
the sun's rays, supplies them with too great a quantity of moisture ; vegeta-
tion is thereby carried on until late in summer, in consequence of which the
ripening process does not commence till the declination of the sun becomes
too rapid to afford a sufficiency of solar heat to perfect the fruit," (p. 47.)
It is hardly possible, Mr. Hoare observes, to form the vine border of
materials too dry or porous. Stones, brickbats broken moderately small,
lumps of old mortar, broken pottery, oyster-shells, and other materials
which retain air and heat, and permit heavy rains to pass quickly through,
should be mixed up with two-thirds of light rich soil, such as the sweepings
of roads, or the top spit of a field of good arable land. The border should
never be cropped or digged, and only stirred occasionally with a fork to the
depth of two inches, to admit the sun and air. Where borders cannot be
prepared for vines, they may be planted in pits eighteen inches square, and
eighteen inches deep, filled up with suitable soil ; and if the situation is dry,
the roots will soon push themselves into some suitable place ; for, as Mr.
Hoare observes, the roots of the vine possess an extraordinary power of
adapting themselves to any situation in which they may be planted, pro-
vided it be a dry one.
979. Manure. — As the vine border once properly made ought never to
be disturbed, it follows that the manure incorporated with the soil at making
should be of a permanent nature, decomposing from time to time to supply
the nutriment extracted by the plants. Top-dressings and liquid manure
may also be added when the border is made, or at any subsequent period.
AND ON COTTAGES. 467
Some of the best permanent manures are bones, horns and hoofs of cattle,
bone-dust, the entire carcases of 'animals, cuttings of leather, woollen rags,
feathers, and hair. Bones Mr. Hoare considers by far the most valuable
manure that can be deposited in a vine border, and he recommends theiF
being buried in the soil whole, and as fresh as possible, and of every size
from the smallest bone of a fowl to the largest bone of an ox, (p. 58.)
Excess of manure deteriorates the flavour of grapes, and produces an exces-
sive and unnatural growth of long -jointed wood, with nothing but leaf-buds.
We may here notice a manure for the vine recommended by Mr. Hayward.
Tliis gentleman has tried a great variety of compounds as food for plants,
and has found that one quart of cider, or cider- grounds, added to two gallons
of water, brings a grape vine to a more perfect prolific state than anything
else. This mixture must be supplied in such quantity as will saturate the
earth, like water, to the depth of the roots, and all over the surface occu-
pied by the roots. It must only be given once in the year in June ; and if
repeated the second year, its good effects will be sustained for several years
afterwards without further supplies. The apple and pear, and the fig, are
alike benefited by this compound. — (Gard. Chron., voL i. p. 413.)
980. Walls. — In an unsheltered situation, exposed to W. and S.W. winds,
Mr. Hoare has never seen prime grapes produced much higher than eight
feet from the ground ; but in sheltered situations, and in S. and S.E. aspects,
grapes may be matured at any height from the ground. The lower part
of the wall, however, will always enjoy an increased degree of warmth
from the reflexion of the ground. Hence grapes growing within two
or three feet of the bottom of a wall facing the south will, in general,
ripen from ten days to a fortnight earlier than those growing on the
upper part of it. It may be observed, that the higher the wall the
warmer will its southern aspect be, and the colder its northern aspect.
There is a disadvantage, however, in training grapes near the ground, as it
respects their remaining on the vine after being ripe. If grapes can be kept
perfectly dry, they will hang on the vine and improve in flavour for a long
time after they are ripe ; but if dampness or moisture of any description
reach them, the consequences are quickly seen in the decay of the berries.
After the middle of October, therefore, it will be found a difficult matter
to preserve grapes that hang within two feet of the ground, on account of
the damp exhalations that continually arise from the soil at that period of
the year," (p. 68.) Blackening the surface of a wall,' Mr. Hoare finds
productive of a considerable increase of heat as long as the sun shines upon
it; but while that surface is in the shade, it parts with the heat so rapidly as
soon to become colder than if it had not been blackened. Hence he would
only blacken walls with an aspect due south, because the absence of the
sun from such walls is so much less that the wall has not time to cool, and
the heat produced by blackening on a clear day, when the sun is in the
meridian, is frequently from 10° to 20° more than that on a wall which has
not been blackened, (p. 7l.) Projecting copings to vine walls preserve the
shoots from late frosts in spring, and the blossoms from cold dews and heavy
rains ; they also keep the grapes in good condition for some time after they
have become ripe ; they prevent the escape of heat, and are convenient for
fastening netting, bunting, &c. to, when it is necessary to protect the fruit
from birds and insects. The disadvantages of copings are, that they exclude
light, air, dew, and rain, which are very beneficial from the time the fruit
468 GROWING THE GRAPE ON OPEN WALLS,
has set till it begins to ripen. The width of the projecting part of the
coping Mr. Hoare regulates by the height of the wall and its aspect. " If
the height be less than four feet, and the aspect south, the coping ought not
to project at all, as the light and solar heat excluded by it will be a serious
drawback on the healthy vegetation of the vines. But if the wall be four
feet high, then the coping may project as many inches ; and if this width
be increased an inch for every foot that the wall increases in height up to
twelve feet, the principal advantages arising from the protection which a
coping affords will be secured, in conjunction with the smallest portion of its
disadvantages," (p. 73.) If the aspect be east or west, the coping must be
as narrow as possible, as every inch of projection in these aspects causes a
considerable diminution in the duration of sunshine on the face of the wall.
At the same time a coping that projects less than four inches is calculated
to do more harm than good, as the drip will fall on the blossoms and the
fruit. Movable wooden copings (-463 and 471) produce, Mr. Hoare
observes, all the benefit of fixed copings, without any of their disadvantages.
All garden walls whatever should have iron brackets built in immediately
under the stone coping, in order to admit of temporary wooden copings
being applied at pleasure. Temporary copings should be applied, from
the 21st of March to the middle of May, to protect the young shoots, from
the first expanding of the buds until the berries are well set; and again from
the berries showing symptoms of ripening till the fruit be all cut from the
vines.
981. Propagation. — Mr. Hoare prefers cuttings containing two buds taken
off in autumn, and planted in spring in the open garden, and sometimes
where they are finally to remain. The uppermost bud of the cutting
must have an inch of the blank wood remaining beyond it, and the lower
end must be cut transversely, just below the bud. Bury the upper bud
about a quarter of an inch, and press the soil quite firm to the lower one.
Keep the soil moist by soap-suds or liquid manure.
982. Pruning. — Mr. Hoare, as we have already seen (962), gives a
decided preference to the long system of pruning ; his objections to the
other modes being founded on the quantity of proper juice required annually
to clothe the naked old wood with a new concentric layer of alburnum,
thereby lessening the quantity of juice sent down to the roots. Naked vine
branches are consumers, but not producers ; therefore the grand object of
pruning should be to leave a sufficient supply of bearing-shoots on the least
possible proportionate quantity of old wood. Tried by this test, the long
method will be found preferable to all others. Prune as soon after the 1 st
of October as the gathering of the fruit will admit ; and never prune in
March, April, or May.
983. Training. — From a main stem, one horizontal shoot to the right
and another to the left, are maintained of a sufficient length to produce all
the bearing wood required, for the age of the vine, the height of the wall,
&c. These shoots are laid in about a foot above the surface of the soil,
and the vertical shoots which proceed from them are trained in a serpentine
form, to check the too rapid ascent of the sap. " If a summer shoot, every
time it is nailed throughout the season, be bent or pointed in a different
direction to that in which it grew at the preceding nailing, the vigour of its
growth will be checked, and the sap will immediately accumulate and
expend itself in forming round, short-jointed wood, and in the development
AND ON COTTAGES.
of the finest description of fruit-buds. This is the key to the production
of large bunches of fruit, which are not the necessary consequence of very
large-sized bearing shoots, but rather of sap that has been accumulated and
highly elaborated by slowness of growth in combination with full exposure
to the sun's rays," (p. 106.) In nailing, linen or cotton shreds are by some
preferred to woollen ones, as being less retentive of moisture ; but, on the
other hand, they produce a greater chill, in consequence of the more rapid
evaporation which they afford ; and they should in general be from three-
fourths of an inch to one inch and a half in breadth, according to the size
of the shoot.
984. Mr. Hoare's mode of training. — Figs. 349 to 353 will give an idea
of Mr. Hoare's mode of training, with some variations. Fig. 349 shows a
J vine of two years' growth, cut down to two eyes; but of the
JJP shoots produced from these eyes, one is rubbed off when the
Fig. 3^*Mr. other is firmly established, so that only one is matured. In
Hoare's mode November this shoot is cut down to two eyes, as in fig. 350.
ncond™™"— ^Q snoots produced next summer are treated as before, one
from the cut- only being left to come to maturity, and that one is cut down in
ting. the November of the fourth year to three eyes, as in fig. 351.
Next year three shoots will be produced, but as soon as two are firmly
established in June or July, the other is cut off, and two only are allowed
n to come to maturity. Tendrils, or any appearance
of bunches, are pinched off as soon as they appear,
- — ^Lw^ and the shoots, in the last week of August or
^oar^s mlde first week of SePtember> are stopped. The vine
of training, will now be four years of age, and have stood three Fig.
third year, years on the spot where it is finally to remain. The Hoare's mode
girth of the stem at the surface of the ground will be three inches, j^url^at^"lf'
and the plant may be permitted to bear fruit for the first time ; J
say not more than 5lbs. weight. For this purpose, Mr. Hoare cuts down
the two shoots to the seven lowermost buds on each ; and having trimmed
the shoots, they are to be nailed to the wall in a horizontal position, as in
fig. 352. This being done in Novem-
ber, then, in the February following,
cut out of each shoot the first, second,
fourth, fifth, and sixth buds, leaving
the third and seventh buds on each
shoot, to produce shoots, as at a, 6, c,
d, in fig. 352. In the course of the
summer these four buds will produce
four shoots, which may either be
trained upright, as at a, or, as Mr.
Hoare prefers, in a serpentine manner,
as at b; or, as a correspondent sug-
gests (965), they may be trained in Fig. 352. Mr. Hoare's mode of training, with
a sloping direction, as at d. The variations, ffth year.
object of the curvilinear training, and also of the sloping direction, is to
equalise the breaking of the buds — the sap in vines, as every one knows,
being otherwise apt to expend itself chiefly at the extremities of the shoots.
If more bunches are shown than, at the rate of ^lb. each, will produce
470 GROWING THE GRAPE ON OPEN WALLS,
51bs., pinch them off as soon as they appear, or as soon as the berries are set.
Supply the plant with liquid manure during the summer ; stop the shoots in
the first week of September, and after the fruit is gathered cut back the
shoots at /and g in fig. 353, to within
a foot or J 8 inches of the mam stem,
and cut the others to the lowermost
bud, as at e and h in fig. 353. The vine
is now prepared for being treated ac-
cording to a regular system, which
consists in " alternately fruiting two
shoots, and training two at full length
for bearing wood in the following
year." Mr. Hoare considers it ad-
visable not to let the vine extend
itself farther on the wall, but, instead
Fig. 353. Mr. Hoare's system of training of this, to plant a Sufficient number
established. of plantg to coyer the wall Qr house?
with plants having two arms, as hi the figures 354 and 355, and seen more in
detail in fig. 348; the only difference being, that in the latter figure the bear-
ing wood is kept quite short. Vines treated in the manner recommended by
Mr. Hoare, with arms each 2|- feet in length, may have the bearing shoots
of any length under 8 feet or 10 feet ; and as the annual increase in the
girth of its stem will be about \ an inch, it may be allowed to mature an
additional 5 Ibs. of fruit annually, till the produce amounts to 60 Ibs., which
is the greatest quantity which will be produced annually from 50 square feet
of walling.
985. In training the vine on the walls of cottages, exactly the same system
ought to be pursued as in training it against walls, with these differences, that
a greater length of stem will generally be required, and that the length of
the arms will vary exceedingly. In order, however, to equalise the pro-
duction of fruit, and maintain a sufficient degree of vigour in the vines, the
length of the bearing wood ought to be shortened in proportion as the length
of the arms is increased beyond 2^ feet each from the main stem. It is of
no great consequence, as Mr. Hoare observes, what the length of the stem
of a vine may be before it reaches the point where the arms originate, and
which Mr. Hoare terms the fruiting point ; and this length of stem, even if
it should be 20 feet, or 30 feet, can easily be attained in three years by not
cutting off more from the extremity of every year's shoot than what may not
be thoroughly ripened.
986. The appearance of a portion of the front of a house covered with vines
in Mr. Hoare's manner is shown in fig. 354, in which there are seven dif-
ferent plants, marked a to g in the figure. The plant a has a long stem, and
arms rather shorter than usual for covering a portion of the wall equal to the
height of the bed-room windows; b covers a space equal to the height of the
parlour windows ; c covers the space between the parlour and the bed- room
windows : it has arms exceeding the usual length, every shoot bearing shoots
in the Thomery manner ; d has a very short stem, and long arms, with
short bearing shoots, for covering the space between the sill of the parlour
windows and the plinth ; e has a stem which reaches above the bed-room
windows, with very long arms and short shoots, in the Thomery manner,
AND ON COTTAGES.
471
for covering the space between the bed-room windows and the roof. The
other half of the front is shown covered with fruit trees ; h may represent an
apple, a cherry, or a plum ; i and /r, pears ; and / may be the same as h.
y d e f g hi k I
Fig. 354. The front of a plain house, covered with grape vines on the left side, and other fruit trees
on the right side.
Vines may be planted against houses in streets, as we see in many vil-
lages and country towns, the roots running under the foot pavement, and
even under the street, for no fruit tree is less particular in regard to soil,
provided that it be on a perfectly dry bottom. Of course the bearing arms
of vines grown in streets should be at such a height from the ground as to
be out of the reach of mischievous persons. For a variety of other details
we must refer to Mr. Hoare's work ; what we have selected from it, taken
in connexion with the contents of preceding sections, will enable any gardener
or amateur to grow grapes on open walls or on cottages to a high degree
of perfection, wherever the climate is suitable. The only objection which
we have ever heard made to Mr. Hoare's system is, the very limited
extent of branches which he allows ; for it is alleged that, in moister
situations and richer soils than that in which his practice lay, so much
shortening would break the eyes prematurely.
987. The walls and roof of a cottage of the most irregular architecture may
be covered with vines or fruit trees on the same principle as we have just
exhibited on the front of a plain house. In the perspective view, fig. 355,
thirty -five plants are shown, with stems and arms so adjusted as to cover
two sides of the building. To avoid confusion, only the stems and arms are
shown, and the position of the spurs whence the bearing wood is produced.
It will be observed that the stems «, a, are long for the purpose of covering
472
GROWING THE GRAPE ON OPEN WALLS, ETC.
the upper part of the roof; and 6, 6, for covering the upper part of the
gable : c, c, are for covering the lower part of the roof; d, d, the upper part,
of the wall ; and e, e, the lower part. The other stems speak for themselves.
c d e a c b b a d e
Fig. 355. Two sides of a cottage, covered with vines, trained in Mr. Hoare's manner.
988. Kinds of grapes most suitable for the open wall or for cottages. —
Mr. Hoare recommends Black Hamburgh, Black Prince, Esperione, Black
Muscadine, Miller's Burgundy, Claret Grape, Black Frontignan, Grizzly Fron-
tignan, White Frontignan, White or Royal Muscadine [? Syn.], Malmsley
Muscadine, White Sweetwater, Early Black July. For handsome, large,
and well-set bunches, no white grape equals the Royal Muscadine for walls
or cottages ; and the Black Prince ripens better than the Black Hamburgh.
SUBSECT. V. Insects, Diseases, fyc.
When the vine is properly cultivated, it is little subject to insects; but
under glass it is occasionally infested with the red spider, and with one or
two species of coccus. The former may be destroyed by washing the flues
or hot-water pipes with a mixture of quick-lime and sulphur, and shutting
up the house ; and the latter, by washing the wood, after the leaves
have dropped, and the whole of the interior of the house, with soft-soap,
which may also be mixed with sulphur. There is little danger, however,
from either of these insects, if the air of the house is kept sufficiently warm
and moist. The fruit, when ripe, is liable to be attacked by birds, wasps,
flies, &c., which may be excluded by netting or wire-gauze ; but on the
subject of insects we refer to what has already been stated in subsect. VII.,
p. 108. Bleeding, the result of pruning at an improper season, may in
general be left to cure itself by the expansion of the foliage.
SECT. III. — Culture of the Peach and Nectarine under glass.
SUBSECT. I. — Natural data on which the culture of the Peach is founded.
989. The peach (Amygdalus persica L.) is indigenous in Persia, where it
attains a high degree of perfection, and where Dr. Royle informs us, both
the free and cling stone varieties are known. It is also found in various parts
of Turkey in Asia, in India in different parts of the Himalayas ; and it is
CULTURE OP THE PEACH AND NECTARINE UNDER GLASS. 473
cultivated in China, Japan, North America, and in most parts of Europe.
Its range in Persia and Asiatic Turkey appears to be between 30° and 40° of
north latitude ; but very little is known of the temperature or moisture of
the climate in these and other regions where the peach is indigenous.
Judging from general laws, it would appear that the -winters are severe, the
springs cold or temperate, and the summers warm rather than hot ; but the
average temperature, or the extremes of heat and cold of these seasons, in the
countries mentioned, have not yet been ascertained. Our data for the culture
of the peach, therefore, must chiefly be taken from the practice in countries
where it is successfully cultivated, and in no country is it more so in the
open air than in the neighbourhood of Paris, or under glass than in England.
The writer of the article PEACH in the Penny Cyclopaedia, from facts
which we presume have been obtained in the Horticultural Society's
Garden, gives the following data, on which the practice of forcing the peach
may be safely founded.
990. Natural and experimental data. — If the mean temperature of Febru-
ary amount to 40° and that of March to 44° or 46°, the peach-tree will be in
full flower against a wall with a south aspect about the last wreek in March ;
and the general crop will be ripe in the last week of August, or first week of
September, provided the mean temperature of April be 49°, May 55°, June
61°, July (54°, and that of August 63°. The period required for the matura-
tion of the fruit from the time of flowering is, on the open wall, five months;
but it may be reduced to four by means of fire-heat and the protection of
glass. It cannot, however, be advantageously diminished any further. This
fact being borne in mind, it is easy for the gardener to know at what time to
commence forcing his peaches in order to obtain a crop in a given month.
From the natural climate and habit of the peach-tree, it is obvious that
when forced it must be flowered under a comparatively low degree of tem-
perature. It cannot therefore be well forced simultaneously with the vine ;
for the temperature of March, which in this climate serves to bring the peach
into flower, does not unfold the buds of the vine, this being only effected a
month or six weeks farther in the season by a mean temperature of 55°. The
peach may be subjected at first to a temperature of 45°, but not exceeding
55° till the flowering is over, after which it may be gradually raised to 60°, and
not exceeding 65°, till the substance of the stone is indurated ; and after this
crisis from 65° to 70° may be allowed. This is to be understood as referring to
the application of fire-heat. Even in the total absence of the latter, sun-heat
will frequently raise the temperature much higher ; but in this case a large
portion of air should be supplied, not, however, all at once after the tempe-
rature of the house is found too high, but gradually as the temperature
increases. Air should be always freely admitted through the day when the
weather is at all favourable.
Light is so essential, that unless peaches be trained near the glass, the
fruit will neither acquire due colour nor flavour. Vicissitudes of drynessand
moisture must be avoided. The roots should be well supplied with water
before the fruit begins to ripen off, because at a later period none can be
applied without deteriorating the flavour.
The management of the peach-tree can only be correctly understood by
those who are aware of the disposition of its buds and its mode of bearing.
The leaves on the shoots of the current season are produced either singly, in
pairs, or in threes from the same node. In the course of the summer, or
474 CULTURE OF THE PEACH UNDER GLASS
early part of autumn, a bud is formed in the axil of every individual leaf,
and these are termed single, double, or triple eyes, or buds, according as one
or more are produced at each node. In the following season, these buds
develop themselves, either as flower-buds or young shoots ; and, previously to
pruning, it is necessary to distinguish the one description from the other.
The flower-buds are plump and roundish; the wood- buds are more oblong
and pointed, and one of these is generally situated between two flower-buds in
the case of triple buds occurring at the same node. It is therefore expedient
in pruning to shorten a shoot to these triple eyes, or in their absence to a
leaf-bud, but never to a fruit-bud only ; for no shoot could be prolonged
from it, nor would the fruit attain perfection, owing to the want of leaves in
immediate connexion with its footstalk. The mode of bearing is solely on
shoots of the preceding summer's growth. — Penny Cyclopcedia,vol. xvii., p. 346.
SUBSECT. II — Culture of the Peach under Glass in British Gardens.
991. Construction of the peach-house. — The form of the peach-house
need not differ much from that of the grape-house, but in general it is made
narrower and not so high at the back wall. Mr. Torbron, an experienced
forcing gardener, recommends, length 30 feet, width 12 feet, height at back
9 feet, at front 2 feet. The front and end walls, and flues, to be on arches.
The flue to be within 3 feet of the front and end walls, and to be returned
interiorly, leaving between the flues a vacuity of 6 inches or a foot. A
trellis to be fixed to the rafters 15 inches from the glass, and the trees to
be planted between the front wall and the flue. The sashes, in two
lengths, to lap in the middle. The top-lights to be 1 inch wider than
the lower ones; and the lower ones to run up and down in a groove
formed in the rafter under the top light, so that the top and bottom lights
may run free of each other. The doors at each end, or one at the furnace
end. The rise from the furnace to the floor of the flue should be 18 inches.
The situation of the chimney-top should be in the back wall over the furnace ;
or if the coals produce a great deal of dense smoke, the chimney may be
carried up in the front wall of the back shed. If the heating is to be
effected by hot water, the pipes may be at exactly the same distance from
the front and end walls as that above-mentioned for flues, in case of their
being used. (957.)
992. Peaches and nectarines best adapted for forcing. — The nectarine is a
variety of the peach, and of both there are what are called ding-stones, in
which the flesh adheres to the nut or stone, and free-stones, in which the
flesh parts from the stone readily. The sorts of peaches best adapted for
forcing are — * Grosse Mignonne, * Royal George, Red Magdalen, Royal
Charlotte, * Bellegarde, Barrington, and Late Admirable. These sorts
ripen in the order in which they are placed ; the two latter kinds being late
peaches, are only proper to be planted where a prolonged succession is
required. The Bellegarde is not so subject to the attack of mildew as
many others are that have serrated glandless leaves. The best sorts of
nectarines for forcing are the Elruge and the * Violet Hative. All the
above are free-stone fruits, cling-stones not being favourites in this country ;
though in Italy and North America, where the summers are much warmer,
they are preferred.
993. Plants and mode of training. — Time is gained by procuring from the
nurseries, or from the open walls of the same garden, trees which have been
IN BRITISH GARDENS. 475
three or four years trained, which may be removed in November. The fan
mode of training, already described in sufficient detail (801), is unquestion-
ably the best for forced peaches. In lofty or wide houses it may be neces-
sary to introduce riders in order more speedily to cover the upper part of the
trellis, and these also should be three or four years trained ; but where the
peach has been properly treated on a garden- wall, and its roots encouraged
to run near the surface of the border, trained trees of almost any size may
be transferred from the open wall to the forcing-house at once, so as even to
bear a tolerable crop of fruit the first year. Mr. Errington removed a tree
from a wall to a trellis in a forcing-house, where it covered 480 square feet,
and ripened eight dozen of peaches the same year in which it was planted. —
(G. M. 1842, p. 123.)
994r Pruning. — The winter pruning of the peach under glass should
take place immediately after the fall of the leaf. The young shoots on the
lower branches should be cut back to two or three buds, that the trellis
may be furnished from the bottom with young wood. The shoots on the
upper or farther extended branches may be shortened back to half or one-
third of their lengths, according to their strength, provided they have been
well ripened, and are free from canker; but if the tree be anywise diseased,
they should be cut so far back as to get rid of the cankered or mildewed part.
The riders need not be pruned so much as the dwarfs ; the object being
rather to throw them into a bearing state, than to cause them to push very
strong shoots, which would not be fruitful. If they make moderately strong
shoots, and if these be well ripened in autumn, a good crop may be expected
on them next year. " Unless peach-trees be very strong," Mr. Thompson
observes, " the shoots should be more or less shortened, according to the
vigour of the tree. If this be not attended to, it will be impossible to prevent
the bearing wood from becoming naked at the base. The setting and
stoning of fruit situated at or near the extremity of a three-year-old branch,
having, perhaps, only leaves on the part produced during the last season,
is, indeed, very precarious."
995. The summer pruning consists in pinching off all foreright shoots as
they appear, and all such as are ill placed, weakly, watery, or deformed,
leaving a leader to every shoot of last year, and retaining a plentiful supply
of good lateral shoots in all parts of the tree. If any blank is to be filled up,
some conveniently placed strong shoot is shortened in a very early stage of
its growth to a few eyes, in order that it may throw out laterals. All lux-
uriant shoots should be stopped as soon as their tendency to over-luxuriance
is observed, in order that the sap, which would otherwise be wasted, may
be forced into the adjoining shoots and branches.
996. The fruit is thinned before and after the stoning season. — There
should be a preparatory thinning soon after the fruit is set, leaving, of
course, a sufficient number in case of imperfection that may only become
apparent at the period of stoning ; because most plants, especially such as
have overborne themselves, drop many fruit at that crisis. When this is
over, the thinning should be effected with great regularity, leaving the fruit
retained at proper distances ; three, four, or five, on strong shoots ; two or
three on middling, and one or two on the weaker shoots ; and never leaving
more than one peach at the same eye. The fruit on weakly trees should
be thinned more in proportion.
997. The peach border will be partly within the house, but chiefly on
476 CULTURE OP THE PEACH UNDER GLASS
the outside, where it may extend ten feet or twelve feet from the front
wall. The usual depth in medium soils and situations is from two feet to
three and a half feet ; but eighteen inches, or two feet, is much safer, for
reasons before given (880). The bottom should be previously thoroughly
drained, and covered with a stratum of gravel, broken bricks, or other
similar materials, to conduct away superfluous water. The best soil is a
fresh loam from an old pasture, mixed with numerous fragments of free-
stone (828). No stable-dung need be added, unless the soil should be
considered poor. " The peach," Mr. Errington remarks, " as well as most
other tender fruit-trees, is planted in borders far too deep as well as too
rich." The borders should be pointed and forked up after pruning, and a
little well-rotted dung or compost added where deemed necessary. The
part of the borders on the outside may, in addition, be covered with dung ;
and, after forcing is commenced, those in the inside may be occasionally
watered with liquid manure ; but no manure whatever is required till such
time as the trees are in a bearing state.
998. General treatment. — From the rise of the sap, it occupies, in some
sorts, about four months to make mature fruit ; in the later varieties, five
months ; and, when much of winter is included in the course of forcing, the
time is proportionally lengthened. To ripen moderately early kinds by the
end of May, begin to force on the 21st of December. Little is gained by
commencing sooner. Abercrombie directs to begin with a temperature of
42° minimum, 45° maximum, from sun-heat ; and rise in a fortnight to 45°
minimum, 50° maximum, from sun-heat, giving plenty of air ; in the pro-
gress of the second fortnight, augment the temperature from three to eight
degrees, so as to have it at the close up to 53° minimum, 56° maximum, from
sun-heat, admitting air in some degree daily. When the trees are in blos-
som, let the heat be 55° minimum, 60° maximum. Continue to aim at this
till the fruit is set and swelling. When the fruit is set, raise the minimum
to 60°, the artificial maximum to 65°, in order to give fresh air ; when the
sun shines, do not let the maximum, from collected heat, pass 70°, rather
employing the opportunity to admit a free circulation of air. A constant
stream of fresh air is to be admitted before beginning to force, and plenty of
air during sunshine throughout the whole progress of forcing. While the
fruit is in blossom, steaming the flues or hot-waterpipes must be substituted
for watering overhead ; at the same time, the roots may be watered now
and then gently, avoiding such a copious supply as might risk the dropping
of the fruit to be set. An important point to be attended to in watering is,
as we have seen (823), to let the water be warmed to the same temperature
as the air of the house. When the fruit is ripening, its flavour is improved
by direct exposure to the sun and air, by the removal of the glass, at least
during the day. When it is quite ripe, the border should be covered with
moss, or some soft substance, or nets suspended under the trees, to prevent
those which drop off from being bruised ; but the best flavour is obtained
by gathering the fruit a day before it is dead ripe, and ripening it for twenty
or thirty hours in the fruit- room.
999. Insects and diseases. — The red spider is the grand enemy to the
peach-tree ; but it is also attacked by mildew, the aphis, thrips, chermes,
and sometimes even by the coccus. Their ravages become apparent by the
leaves curling up, and often by the ends of the shoots becoming bunched
and clammy, which retards their shooting. In this case it is advisable to
IN BRITISH GARDENS. 477
pick off the infected leaves, and cut away the distempered part of the
shoots. Further to check the mischief, if the weather be hot and dry, give
the trees a smart watering all over the branches. Garden-engines, such as
Read's (440), will perform the watering much more effectually than
common watering-pot. It should be applied two or three times a week,
or even once a day. The best time of the day is the afternoon, when the
power of the sun is declining. These waterings will clear the leaves,
branches, and fruit from any contracted foulness ; refresh and revive the
whole considerably ; and conduce greatly to exterminate the insects. The
green fly is the principal enemy ; and if it appears before the leaves are
curled up, or the ends of the shoots have become clammy, the remedy
should be applied, viz. : a slight syringing to damp the leaves, and then a
good sprinkling with tobacco-dust.
3000. Peaches may be forced in pots in a peach- house, vinery, or even in
a pine-stove ; but the plants must be well established in the pots by three
years' culture previous to forcing (Ibid. 1841, p. 321). It may be well to
observe that the peach to be grown in pots, or to be transplanted when of
two or more years' growth, must be worked on plum-stocks, on account of
the much greater number of fibrous roots which these stocks produce than
almonds ; the latter are generally employed as stocks to the peach in France
and Italy, being found to answer well in these countries, where the peach is
seldom transplanted, and where the soil and climate are much dryer and
warmer than in Britain.
SUBSECT. III. — The details of a routine course of forcing the Peach for two years.
The following article, by Mr. P. Flanagan, F.H.S., gardener to Sir
Thomas Hare, Bart., at Stow-hall, Norfolk, is one of the best that has yet
been published on the subject of which it treats. It appeared in the fifth
volume of the Horticultural Transactions. Mr. Flanagan first describes
the plan he follows in planting the trees, and then details his system of
management during the first season; after which he gives the mode of
treatment in the second season, which last is equally applicable to all
future years : —
1001. " The soil which I generally use for peaches and nectarines, whether
in houses or on open walls, is the top spit of a pasture of rich yellow loam,
if it can be procured, without adding to it any manure whatever ; but if the
soil be poor or sandy, it should have a little rotten dung mixed with it. If
convenient, this mould should be laid up in ridges five or six months before
it is wanted, and turned over twice or thrice during that time.
1002. Border. — u When the house is ready, the borders, both inside and
outside, should be cleared to the depth of three feet, and be well drained, as
well as paved at bottom with slate or flat tiles, to prevent the roots of the
trees entering the bad soil which may be at bottom. This being done, the
new earth must be wheeled into the cavity of the border, and every layer
of it that is put on should be well trodden down, until the whole is filled up,
allowing a few inches above the level for settling, which will be, however,
very trifling.
1003. Planting. — " The best season for planting is the latter part of
autumn or beginning of spring. And the most expeditious way of furnishing
a house is, to plant clean well-worked maiden plants, previously grown in
good stiff loam, and trained against a wall three years before they are taken
1 1
478 FORCING THE PEACH.
for such purpose. At that age they will have gained such strength, and got
so well established in the soil, that they can be removed with large balls,
and with the greatest safety, into the places where they are to remain ; they
will scarcely feel their removal. I generally place a compost of three parts
loam, and one part rotten dung, immediately round the roots, in order to
encourage the plants to strike more freely into the border.
1004. Forcing in the first season. — " In the first season, the commence-
ment of the forcing is in the second week in February, when the lights are
put on the house. I begin to add a little fire-heat in the last week in the
month, and gradually increase this as the spring advances. I obtain a
temperature of from 63° to 55° from fire ; and I do not allow the sun-heat
to exceed 75°. The heat at night is kept uniform by means of a moderate
fire, and in the day by the admission of air.
1005. Watering and fumigating. — " The trees during the first summer
should have frequent bottom waterings, and be well syringed with clear
water two or three times a week ; this will greatly promote their growth
and keep them clear of insects. Should the green fly, or red spider, make
their appearance, two or three strong fumigations with tobacco, and frequent
syringing, will keep the trees clean.
1006. Summer pruning. — " If the trees appear to make luxuriant shoots
in any part, when bearing wood is wanted, the shoots should be stopped at
the third or fourth leaf ; and if they are still inclined to grow strong, they
must be stopped a second time : this will obtain kindly wood. Two or
three times in the spring the whole should be looked over, and the shoots
moderately thinned out, leaving those which are most kind and well placed
at regular distances for the next year's bearing. The first thinning of the
young shoots should be just after the fruit is set, and when they are eight
or ten inches long : when at that length, they must be laid in at such dis-
tances as to admit the sun and air to ripen the wood destined to bear in the
ensuing season.
1007. Routine treatment during the first season. — " The principal business
of the first season is to keep the young wood regularly laid in, to attend to
the top and bottom waterings, and to the free admission of air at all oppor-
tunities. If all this has been done, and the plants have been kept clean,
they will in this season have made plenty of good bearing wood for the next
year, and they will have nearly covered half the extent of trellis within the
house.
1008. Winter treatment. — " I generally take off the whole of the sloping
lights for the winter months, and cover the borders and flues with five or
six inches of light litter, to prevent severe frosts doing injury to either.
1009. Forcing in the second season. — u The glass should be put on in the
last week in January, the house be well cleaned all over ; and the flues, as
far as possible, should be white-washed; and then the trees should be
pruned. I have not laid down any rules for the winter pruning, as almost
every gardener seems to have a method peculiar to himself of performing
this work. — £See the article " Peach," in our Fruit Catalogue.']
1010. Applying a preventive composition. — "Previous, however, to tying the
trees to the trellis, I have the whole of their stems, but not the bearing
wood, washed with a composition, formed of one pound of soft-soap, one
ounce of tobacco, and a little flowers of sulphur, to which is added as much
boiling-water as will make the whole of the consistence of paint. This
FORCING THE PEACH. 479
composition is carefully applied with a painter's soft brush whilst it is milk-
warm. The process of cleaning should never be omitted at the pruning
season, as it prevents the trees ever contracting the brown scale. When
the trees are tied to the trellis, the borders must be dug ; this gives the
house a clean and neat appearance.
1011. Forcing in February. — " In the first week in February the house is
shut up every night, and plenty of air given in the day ; in the beginning of
the second week, moderate fires are made, just to keep the heat by fire from
45° to 50°, not exceeding 70° of sun heat ; in the third week, the fire heat is
gradually[increased from 50° to 55°, and not exceeding 75° sun heat. By
this time the trees will be getting into blossom. Whilst they are in bloom
I neither sprinkle nor steam the house, for I consider that sufficient moisture
arises from the earth in the house at this stage of forcing. I admit plenty
of air every day, when the wind is mild, and in a favourable quarter.
" When the petals have all dropped, and the fruit is fairly set, I give the
trees a gentle syringing on a fine morning, with clean water, and if any green
flies appear, they have two or three smokiugs with tobacco, as directed
before ; this will totally destroy the insects.
1012. March. — " At this period (March) particular attention must be paid
to the regularity of heat, which may be progressively increased a degree or
two as the season advances, but I do not allow it to exceed the last-named
temperature until the fruit is perfectly stoned, when I increase it from 55° to
60° at night, and from 77° to 80° of sun heat. At the medium of these the
temperature should continue during the remaining part of the season.
1013. Thinning the shoots and fruit. — " Attention must be paid to the thin-
ning of the young shoots, as directed in the first year's management, and
when the young fruit are about the size of damsons, they should then be
moderately thinned for the first time, leaving a sufficiency for selecting a
full crop by subsequent thinnings, which should be performed at two or
more different periods.
1014. Stoning. — " It is to be observed that a few days before, and a few days
after, the crops begin to stone, is the most critical period in forcing, and if
strict attention is not paid at that time to the due regulation of heat, and to
the free admission of air at all opportunities, a great portion of the fruit will
fall off. I have often seen three parts of the crops of peaches and nectarines
thus lost.
1015. Watering. — " The borders within the house must be occasionally
watered, after the stoning, until the fruit has arrived at full size, and begins
to change colour, then all watering should be left off, both with the syringe
and on the borders.
1016. Ripening. — " When this crop of fruit begins to ripen, which will be
about the second week in July, I gradually expose the house to the open
air on fine and dry days, by drawing down the lights as much as convenient
in the day, and shutting them again in the evening. It is this which gives
the fruit both flavour and colour.
1017. Duration of the Crop. — " This crop thus produced furnishes the table
from the second week in July until the middle of August, then a second
house should become ripe, and continue to yield a supply until the fruit
comes in on the open wall. The above practice is the result of many years'
experience." — (Hort. Trans., vol. v., p. 62.)
i i 2
480 CHERRY FORCING IN BRITISH GARDENS.
SECT. IV. — Culture of the Cherry under Glass.
SUBSECT. I. — Natural Data for the Culture of the Cherry.
1018. The Cherry in its wild state being indigenous to Britain, and as a
cultivated fruit brought to as high a degree of perfection in our climate as in
any other, very little requires to be said on the subject of natural data for
culture. The cherry is cultivated in Italy and the fruit attains a large size,
but in point of flavour it is inferior to the fruit of the same varieties grown
in England, or in central Germany. The cherry is forced in all the northern
countries of Europe, and as it produces fruit in the open air in three months
from the time of blossoming, it is ripened earlier in forcing-houses than the
fruit of any other tree. The temperature and moisture to be imitated are
those of April, May, and June. The general practice in British Gardens is
to begin at 40°, and throughout the first week to let the minimum be 40°,
and the maximum 42°, giving plenty of air. By gradual advances in the
second, third, and fourth week, raise the course to 42° min. 45° max. In
strong sunshine, admit air freely, rather than have the temperature above
52°, by collecting the warm air. In the fifth and sixth week, the artificial
minimum may be gradually elevated to 45°, but the maximum should be
restrained to 48° from fire-heat, and to 55° from sun-heat, until the plants
are in flower. After the blossoms are shown, and until the fruit is set, aim
to have the heat, from the flues or water-pipes, at 48? min. 52° max. At this
stage, maintain as free an interchange of air as the weather will permit ; and
when the sun-heat is strong, do not let the temperature within exceed GO0.
As the fruit is to be swelled and ripened, the requisite heat is GO0 min.
65° max.
The art of forcing cherries has been carried to a high degree of perfection
in the Royal Gardens at Kew and at Hampton Court ; and we shall, there-
fore, give a transcript of the practice at these places, as furnished to the
Gardeners Magazine by Mr. W. Lawrence, who was several years journey-
man in the gardens at Hampton Court.
SUBSECT. II. — The practice of Cherry Forcing in British Gardens.
When cherries are required at the earliest period at which they can be
produced in a forcing- house, which is about the middle of March, it is desir-
able to have a stock of plants in pots ; because the entire plant being under
the command of the forcer, can be excited much more effectually than if its
roots were in the cold soil, and only its head exposed to the action of the
warmth of the house.
10J9. The cherry house may be thirty feet long, fourteen feet wide, twelve
feet high at the back, and seven feet high in front. The ends should be of
glass, and both ends and front should be placed on brick walls two feet high
supported by arches. The front sashes may either be hung on hinges at the
tops, or at the sides, to open outwards ; or they may be made to slide in
grooves. The roof sashes should be in two lengths ; the lower ones to pull
up, and the upper ones to let down. As cherries require a great deal of air,
and this often during wet weather, above the upper sashes there should be a
projecting flashing of lead, to exclude the rain when the sashes are let down
an inch or two. The heating may either be by flues or by hot water ; and
in either case one furnace or one boiler, witli the flue or pipes going round
the house immediately within the front and ends, will be sufficient.
CHERRY FORCING IN BRITISH GARDENS. 481
1020. Kinds of cherries for farcing, potting plants, $c. — The May Duke
is decidedly the best cherry for forcing. The Morello forces well, but
requires more time to bring it to maturity ; and, though it looks well in the
dessert, it is not so agreeable to eat. The plants for potting should have been
three or four years worked, and should be such as are well furnished with
blossom-buds. The soil used in potting may be loam, such as that in
which melons are grown ; to which, if necessary, one-fifth part of thoroughly
rotten dung may be added ; bearing in mind that too rich a soil makes the
shoots too luxuriant, and causes them to gum. The season for potting is
September and October, or any time before forcing ; but the trees will do
quite well for late forcing, if they are not taken up and potted till they are
just about to be put into the house. After potting, before setting the trees
in the house, it is necessary to watch the operations of the sparrows, which
are very apt to pick off the buds of cherries in the winter season, probably
in search of the eggs or larvae of insects. If the trees potted are standards,
they may be set on the ground, or on a low stage ; and if they are dwarfs,
upon a higher stage, so as, in either case, to bring their heads within eighteen
inches of the glass. They may be set so close together as that their heads
may be within a few inches of touching each other.
1021. Time of commencing to force. — For the first crop shut up the house
and begin lighting fires about the middle of December. The thermometer,
for the first fortnight, should be kept at about 60° during the day, and 50°
during the night ; syringing the trees morning and evening with water that
has stood some days in the house, and keeping constantly one or two of the
sashes open a few inches at the end of the house next the fire, hi order to
moderate the temperature there. The second fortnight the heat is allowed
to rise to 00° during the night, and to 70° during sunshine. The trees in
pots should be watered, when they require it, at the root ; but for any that
may be planted hi the ground, the watering over-head will be sufficient.
When the trees come into bloom, the temperature must be lowered to 50°,
or even lower, both by night and day, except during sunshine, when the heat
may be allowed to rise a few degrees higher. During all this time air must
be admitted more or less, both during mild nights and by day ; but especially
in the day-time, and during sunshine. When fine weather prevails at the
time the trees are coming into bloom, a comparatively greater heat is required
at night than during the day ; because if they are kept cool at night, the
heat of the day is apt to expand the flowers before the stalks have grown to
their natural length ; and, if so, although all the flowers might set, (which
is not the case when they are short-stalked,) it would be impossible for a full
crop to swell off, as there would not be space enough for the cherries to
expand. Watering must be withheld from the tops of the trees during the
time they are in blossom, but given as required for their roots, and the
floor kept moist by sprinkling it morning and evening. No water should
be poured on the flues, because a powerful steaming at this season would
destroy the blossom.
1022. Progress. — Trees begun to be forced hi the middle of December will
come into blossom in the middle of January, set their fruit about the end of
the month, and stone it about the middle of February.
1023. Insects. — After the leaves expand, it very often happens that a
caterpillar, or some black fly, makes its appearance ; these are sometimes
scarcely to be met with in the day-time, but on going into the house at night
482 CHERRY FORCING IN BRITISH GARDENS.
the caterpillar will be found crawling on the leaves and eating them. Fumi-
gation with tobacco, and hand-picking, are the only remedies for these insects.
Ants sometimes make their appearance when the trees are in blossom ; and
though they are not so injurious to the cherry as they are to the peach, yet
still they ought to be destroyed, by pouring tobacco water into their nests.
Till the ants' nests are destroyed, the insects may be prevented from getting
at the blossoms, by tying pieces of paper round the stems of the trees, and
coating them over with a mixture of tar and grease : the paper should be of
a coarse spongy kind, so as to absorb the tar, and prevent it from running
down the bark of the stem when the temperature of the house is high — or
yarn may be used instead of paper. In either case, as soon as the tar becomes
hard, the ants will walk over it, and, in that case, it must be renewed. When
the trees are in blossom, it will facilitate the setting of the fruit if bees can
be introduced, which may easily be done, by setting in a hive, or, what is
preferable, by fixing a hive immediately in front of the lower part of one of
the front sashes, and so as to touch it, and having an entrance for the bees
at the back of the hive, as well as the usual one in front of it. Corresponding
with this back entrance, a small hole may be cut in the bottom rail of the
sash, and a stopper or slide fitted to it, through which the bees may be ad-
mitted to the cherry-house at pleasure.
1024. Thinning and stoning, &$c. — When the fruit is fairly set, it should
be thinned out with the grape scissors, removing from one-fourth to one-
third of the cherries, according to the vigour of the tree, and the number of
fruit it has set. When once the fruit is set it is not liable to be injured by
cold, as in the case of peaches and grapes. On the contrary, cherry trees, in
pots, have been turned out into the open garden, by way of experiment, after
the fruit was set ; and the frosts, which damaged the leaves, had no effect at
all upon the fruit, except to retard its growth. After the fruit has begun
to stone, (which is generally about a fortnight after it is set,) the trees should
be watered freely at the roots, but in eight or ten days, when the kernel
begins to harden, the quantity of water may be diminished. The tempera-
ture of the house, except in sunshine, should never exceed 60°, either by
night or by day, from blossoming up to the time of stoning ; but in three
weeks after setting, when the stoning will generally be found completed, and
the pulp of the fruit beginning to assume a pale red, the temperature may be
raised to 70° at night, and even to 70° or 80° in the day, during sunshine,
and when abundance of air is given. After the fruit is ripe, water should
be withheld till it is gathered. In every stage of the progress of the cherry
in a forcing-house, the plants may be watered with liquid manure, which is
found to strengthen their leaves and buds without injuring the flavour of the
fruit.
1025. Treatment of the plants in pots after they tire taken out of the house. —
Immediately after the crop is gathered the trees should be taken to a cool,
rather shady situation, set on the ground, and the pots surrounded up to the
rim with rotten tan, saw-dust, or any similar materials, to keep them cool,
and in an equable degree of moisture. If, on the other hand, a second crop
of cherries should be wanted late in autumn, the soil in the pots should be
allowed to be quite dry for a month ; and, by afterwards watering it freely,
and placing the trees in the house about the end of August, and treating
them in the same manner as was done in early spring, they will ripen their
fruit in October or November. Such trees, however, will not be again fit to
CHERRY FORCING IN BRITISH GARDENS. 483
force for two or three years to come ; and they should, therefore, be turned
out of the pots into the free soil, and allowed at least two years to recover
themselves, when they may be again re-potted and forced. While in the open
ground, all the blossoms produced should be picked off as soon as they
appear, to prevent them from weakening the trees. In the cherry, as in
most trees that produce their blossom on the wood of the preceding year, or
on spurs, the blossom-buds expand first, and next the barren or wood-buds.
The latter continue growing till the petals of the flowers drop off, when they
receive a check, and scarcely grow at all, till the fruit is set and begins to
swell ; after which they grow rapidly, and complete the shoots of the year,
by the time the fruit is stoned.
1026. To have a constant succession of cherries from the middle of March
till July, as soon as the trees of one house have come into blossom, those of
the next should have artificial heat applied, and the temperature and manage-
ment will be in every case the same as that which has been above described.
It may be observed here, that cherry -houses, with the trees planted in the
ground, are much less suitable, not only for early forcing, but for main and
late crops, than cherry-trees planted in pots. The cherry cannot, like the
peach and the nectarine, be forced for a number of years together ; and
hence, as a house in which the trees are planted in the ground must, every
three or four years, have a season of rest, the house during that season, having
the sashes taken off, is in a great measure of no use. — (Gard. Mag. vol. xiv.
p. 41.)
1027. Forcing cherries by a temporary structure. — Where a portion of
wall (especially with a southern aspect), already well furnished with May-
dukes, perfectly established, and in a bearing state, can be spared for forcing,
a temporary glass case may be put up against it ; the flue may be built on
the surface of the border, without digging or sinking for a foundation;
neither will any upright glass or front wall be requisite ; the wooden plate
on which the lower ends of the rafters are to rest may be supported by piles,
sunk or driven into the ^oil of the border, one pile under every, or every
alternate, rafter. The space between the plate and the surface of the soil
should be filled by boards nailed against the piles, to exclude the external
air, for the plate must be elevated above the level of the surface from
eighteen to thirty inches, or whatever height may be sufficient to let the
sashes slip down, in order to admit fresh air. This structure will suit well for
cherries, for such structures have been erected for forcing peaches with good
success, as well as for maturing and preserving a late crop of grapes.' —
(Torbron in Hort. Trans, vol. iv. p. 117.)
1028. German practice. — In the Royal Gardens at Potsdam, cherries are
frequently forced so as to be ripe by the end of February ; the gardener there,
Mr. Fintlemann, being remarkably successful in this department of forcing.
The plants are potted a year before they are forced. They are potted in
autumn, and the roots protected from frost through the winter by being
covered with litter.
In the following spring the blossom buds are broken off as soon as they
appear ; and, by the end of June, all the shoots which have pushed freely
have their points pinched off, so as to leave not more than six buds, which
buds by that operation become blossom buds.
Before the plants are taken in they must at least have sustained 14° Fahr.
484 CHERRY FORCING IN BRITISH GARDENS.
of cold, otherwise they are found to break very irregularly. The blossoms
are thinned out ; so much so, that where fifteen have appeared, not more than
three have been allowed to expand. The construction of the house in which
the forcing is commenced varies according to the season. When the trees
are taken in, in December and January, the glass of the roof must be much
steeper than when they are not taken in till February and March.
Heat is communicated by flues, commencing with 46° Fahr. The trees
are frequently sprinkled with lukewarm water ; and the roots, which ought
to have been kept quite dry for some time before the plants are taken in,
are well soaked with warm water. Mr. Fintlemann boils one-half of the
water, and mixes it with the other half; and he uses water of this tempera-
ture till within fourteen days of the trees coming into blossom.
When the buds break out into bloom, watering overhead with lukewarm
water is left off, but the stems are kept moist by rubbing them two or three
times a day with a wet brush. During the blooming season the temperature
is raised from 46° to 67°, every third day, 2^° more heat being added. Abun-
dance of air is given, and shade during bright sunshine. In boisterous
weather gauze is placed over the openings through which the air is admitted,
the advantage of which in moderating the violence of the wind, Mr. Fintle-
mann is well assured of, after eight years' experience. To cause the blossoms
to set, the branches and spray are frequently put in motion, but care taken
not to move the main stem, by which the fibrous roots might be injured.
When the fruit is setting and swelling, the temperature must be kept
between 541° and 65|°.
When the fruit is stoning, the temperature is lowered to 59° for two or
three weeks, during which period the house must be shaded in bright sun-
shine, and the plants watered overhead once or twice a day.
When the stoning is completed and the fruit begins to swell, the tem-
perature is again raised to 65°, and no more shade given, in order that the
fruit may acquire a high flavour through the operation of the sun's rays ; to
facilitate the action of which on the fruit, the superfluous leaves are removed.
By this practice, plants begun to be forced in December commonly produce
ripe cherries in February ; but Mr. Fintlemann has sometimes had them
even in January, though without a good flavour.
Recent experience has taught Mr. Fintlemann that cherries will force
remarkably wrell in sawdust, or chopped moss, mixed with some powdered
unburnt lime. Plants grown one year in two years old sawdust, and a little
powder of lime, put into the forcing-house on the 16th of January, gave a
ripe fruit by the end of February.
The kind of cherry forced by Mr. Fintlemann is the same as our
May Duke ; and some of the points of his practice, such as shortening the
shoots to produce blossom-buds, thinning blossoms, the previous exposure
to cold, and the use of warm water, seem worthy of the imitation of the
British gardener.— Gard. Mag.^ vol. iii. p. 65.
At the same time it must be borne in mind, that the atmosphere in Prussia,
and on the Continent generally, is much clearer than in Britain, and that
there are few days in which the sun during the short time which he is above
the horizon does not shine brightly. Hence as far as light is concerned in
forcing, the British gardener can never contend with the German one.
FORCING THE FIG IN BRITISH GARDENS. 485
SECT. V. — Culture of the Fig under Glass.
SUBSECT. I. — Natural Data on which the Culture of the Fig is founded.
1029. The Fig (Ftcus Cdrica, L.) is a native of Asia and the sea-coast of
Africa, and it is cultivated on the snores and islands of the Mediterranean,
in Italy, and in the South of France; but, like the olive, never far from the
sea-side, or at great elevations. The soil is generally light, but superin-
cumbent on a subsoil, which is supplied with water within the reach
of the roots. It would thus appear that the fig is not intended by
nature to endure a severe winter, a great degree of drought, or a very
hot summer; and this conclusion is in accordance with the succulence
of its wood, the retention of young fruit on its shoots throughout the winter,
and its broad succulent leaves. The spring and summer temperature suitable
for the grape vine has been found to answer for the fig, but the latter requires
a moister atmosphere, and more water at the root when in a growing state,
and the temperature should not be below 40° during winter. It is the nature
of the fig to produce two crops in the year, both when it is cultivated in
the open air, and when it is under glass. The first crop, which is produced
on the points of the shoots of the last year, ripens in Italy in May and June;
and on walls in the climate of London in September and October. The
second crop is produced on the shoots of the current year, and ripens in Italy
in October ; but in the open air in this country it never ripens at all, except-
ing a few of small size, which remain on through the winter, and constitute
the first crop, just mentioned, of the folio wing summer. Under glass, the first
crop ripens at various periods between March and June, according to the time
of commencing to force ; and the second crop, which in the open air never
attains maturity, is under glass that which is most to be depended on. The first
crop under glass ripens in four or five months from the time of commencing
to force, and the second crop in six or eight months. The fruit of the fig is
what is called a common receptacle for the flowers, but turned up in a tur-
binate or top shape, so as to inclose the florets and completely exclude them
from view. The fig, both in fig countries and in British gardens, is apt to
drop its fruit prematurely ; and in Italy and Greece the process of caprifica-
tion is employed to counteract this tendency. It consists in placing among
the branches of cultivated fig trees, branches of the wild fig, or even fruit
that has dropped off wild trees, in which a kind of gnat abounds, and which
enters the fruit on the cultivated tree, and passing over the anthers distributes
the pollen over the stigma. The utility of this practice is doubted by many ;
at all events, it is neither practised in France nor Britain, but as a substitute
for it, ringing the branch immediately behind the fruit has been found suc-
cessful in some British gardens.
SUBSECT. II. — The forcing of the Fig as practised in British Gardens.
1030. The Fig is not a favourite fruit in Britain, though since the peace of
1814 the taste for it has considerably increased. It is most generally forced
in pots, either placed in pits, or in peach-houses, vineries, or even pine-stoves;
and as the plants bear two crops in a year, it is not difficult to have a supply
of fruit at most seasons ; the chief dependence, however, is on the second
crop, or that produced on the wood of the current year.
1031. The construction of the Fig-house may be the same as that of the
peach-house (991) ; but the leaves being large, the trellis may be placed
486 FORCING THE FIG IN BRITISH GARDENS.
from six inches to a foot farther from the glass. The soil of the border
should be light, sandy, and thoroughly drained.
1032. The varieties best adapted for forcing are Pregussata, Figue blanche,
or White Marseilles, and Brown Turkey, or Ashridge forcing, to which
may be added the Nerii, which, it is said, requires less heat than the
other varieties. The plants may be trained in the fan manner, and
the mode of pruning should be such as to favour the production of
young wood over every part of the tree. For this purpose a portion
of the old wood requires to be cut out every year, from those parts
of the tree where young wood has ceased to be produced freely ; and
as this is seldom the case at any great distance from the root, most
old fig-trees consist of a number of main branches proceeding direct
from the root in the manner of suckers. Very little pruning is required for
the fig ; but by pinching out the points of the shoots after the fruit appears,
its progress is hastened, and the chance of its setting increased. The fruit is
very apt to become yellow, and drop off before it is fully swelled ; but this,
it has been found by Sir Charles Monck (Hort. Trans., vol. i., second series,
p. 395), may be prevented by taking off a ring of bark immediately behind
the fruit. By attending to this practice when it becomes necessary, the fig,
Sir Charles Monck observes, may be forced to produce abundant crops of
fruit, and bring them to perfect maturity.
1033. The time of beginning to force the fig is commonly the same as that
for forcing the grape or the peach, and the temperature is also much the
same as that for the vine, or somewhat intermediate between it and
the peach. The apricot, peach, plum, and cherry vegetate in March or
the beginning of April ; but the vine and the fig require the temperature of
May to bring them into vegetation even when growing against a south wall.
Hence, when forced, they require a proportionately higher temperature to
bring them into leaf.
The first crop of figs, which is that produced on the points of the
shoots of the last year, will ripen in May or June; but the second
crop will not ripen before September, though, as it does not ripen all at
once, it will last till December. The only difficult point in forcing the
fig is to preserve the embryo fruit formed on the points of the shoots of
the current year, so as that they may ripen as a first crop in the next year.
The fig will thrive at a greater distance from the glass than either the vine
or the peach, and also, according to Miller, with less air than any other fruit-
tree. It is very subject to the red spider, which should be kept under
by watering copiously over the leaves ; or, if that is not sufficient, by
washing the flues or hot- water pipes with a mixture of flowers of sulphur
and lime.
1034. The forcing of fig trees in pots is perhaps the best mode, at least
for small establishments, because, by having an abundant stock of plants,
fruit may be obtained nine months in the year, as indeed it is at Preston-
hall, in East- Lothian, where forty varieties are cultivated under glass.
M'Phail says, figs may be ripened at an early season, by planting them in
pots, and setting them into a hot-house or forcing-house. " The plants
should be low and bushy, so that they may stand on the curb of the tan-bed,
or they may be plunged in a gentle tan-heat, or in a bed of leaves of trees.
The best way to propagate plants for this purpose is to take layers or slips
which have good roots : plant them in pots in good earth, one plant in each
CULTURE OF THE MELON. 487
pot, and plunge them in a bed of tan or of leaves of trees, in which is a
very gentle heat : a brick bed will answer the purpose very well ; or they
will do in the forcing-house, if there be room for them. Let them be put
into the house in the latter end of February or beginning of March, and
keep them sufficiently watered. When they are two years old, they will
be able to bear fruit ; the pots in that time having become full of roots. In
the month of November or December, turn the plants out of the pots, and
with a sharp knife pare off the outside of the ball, by which the plant will
be divested of its roots matted against the inside of the pot : then place them
into larger pots, filling up the vacancy round the balls with strong loamy
earth. During the winter, let them be kept in the green-house, or in a
glazed pit of a like temperature, till the month of February ; which will
be a means of preventing the fruit from falling off before it comes to
maturity. In this manner let them be treated every year, till the plants
become too large for the pots ; then set them into the forcing-house, where
it is intended they shall ripen their fruit." — (Gard. Rem.)
1035. Winter treatment. — The glass of the fig-house should not be taken
off during winter, because it is an important object to preserve the embyro
fruit that are to produce the first crop in the following year. Hence,
wherever it can be accomplished, the sea-side temperature of Genoa or
Naples, which is rarely under 38° or 40°, ought to be maintained in the
fig-house throughout the winter months. This is most conveniently and
economically done when the plants are kept in pots or tubs, as they can
then be removed to a shed or cellar, as is the practice in Germany.
SECT. VI. — On forcing the Plum, Apricot, Gooseberry, and other
Fruit-trees and Fruit-shrubs.
In Germany, and more especially Russia, it is customary to force all our
hardy fruit-trees and fruit-shrubs, including even the currant and raspberry.
The plants are invariably kept in pots ; and, when the fruit is ripe, the pot
and the entire plant is placed on the dessert-table. The forcing is generally
carried on in the same house with various culinary vegetables, and being
ripened without the natural quantity of light and air, it is, as far as we have
tasted it, when in these countries in 1813 and 1814, without much flavour.
Plums and apricots are occasionally forced in Britain ; they are planted in
pots, and placed in pits, or in any forcing -house where there is room. The
temperature and treatment of the peach-house, it will readily be conceived,
is most suitable for them.
SECT. VII. — Culture of the Melon.
SUBSECT. I. — Natural and experimental data on which the Culture of the Melon
is founded.
1036. The melon (Cucumis Melo, L.) is an herbaceous trailing or climbing
annual, indigenous or cultivated in great part of the warmer districts of
Asia or Africa from time immemorial. In the warmer parts of Europe, it
has been cultivated at least from the time of the Romans. The melon is
extensively cultivated in Armenia, Ispahan, and Bokhara, and very generally
in Greece, Italy, and the shores of the Mediterranean. It succeeds in the
open air as far as 43° N. ; and its culture extends within the tropics, but
only when it is abundantly supplied with moisture. Its extremes of tern-
488 CULTURE OP THE MELON.
perature may be 70° and 80° for atmospheric heat, and some intermediate
degree, perhaps 75°, may he suitable for the soil. The atmosphere in the
countries where the melon is most successfully cultivated is so dry that the
plants depend almost entirely on surface irrigation and on dews. The soil in
which the melon is found to thrive best is a fresh loam, rather strong than
light, such as may be obtained from an alluvial meadow which is flooded
during the winter season. In Persia, pigeon's dung is used ; but in Britain
stable-dung, which has been thoroughly rotted, is commonly more or less
mixed with the soil ; but it is not desirable to introduce manure to such an
extent as to produce the same degree of luxuriance in the shoots which
might be desirable under a tropical sun. The melon in this country requires
all the light which it can receive, and therefore the plants must have their
shoots trained close under the glass, for which purpose a trellis is found
superior to the surface of the soil ; for unless this is the case, and abund-
ance of air is admitted, the fruit produced will be of very inferior flavour.
Early crops of the melon are with difficulty obtained in Britain, on account
of our cloudy atmosphere, by which evaporation from the foliage is checked,
and mildew and other diseases are produced. Late crops, it may easily be
supposed, are less liable to be affected in this way, from the greater degree
of light and heat admitting of more abundant ventilation. The varieties of
the melon belong to two races : the Persians and the Cantaloups. The
former are cultivated in this country with great difficulty, requiring a very
high temperature, a dry atmosphere, and an extremely humid soil. The
Cantaloups, which are so named from a place of that name in the neigh-
bourhood of Rome, are cultivated throughout Europe with great success,
and nowhere more so than in England.
1037. Summary of culture for the Cantaloup melons. — The following
summary is evidently by the author of the article " Peach," in the Penny
Cyclopaedia ; at all events it is unquestionably the most scientific abridge-
ment of melon-culture which has hitherto appeared : — "About four months
may be allowed, on an average, for the period between the sowing of melons
and the ripening of the fruit. The middle of January is found to be early
enough to sow ; and the young plants are so exceedingly tender that acci-
dents are then very likely to occur to them. It is on this account neces-
sary to make successive sowings, in order to be prepared for replacement,
if requisite, and also for continuing the supply throughout the summer.
A sowing for the latest crops will require to be made in April. Melons
may be grown by means of frames on hotbeds (489 and 841), or in pits
(515), heated according to some of the various modes of hot-water applica-
tion, now so generally adopted ; but whatever be the form of the pits or
the mode of heating adopted, one point of essential importance is to have
the sashes glazed with the British sheet glass, as being much clearer than
the best crown glass, and as admitting of being used in panes of any length
under five feet, and consequently requiring very few or no laps. The
seeds are sown in pans, or in small pots, and transplanted into other
small pots when their seed-leaves are about half an inch broad. It is
best to put only a single transplanted melon into each pot. While
this is done in a separate frame, that which is intended for their future
growth and fruiting is prepared for their reception by placing small
hills, rather more than a foot high, of light rich mould below each sash,
and nearer to the back of the frame than the front. Care must be
CULTURE OF THE MELON. 489
taken that this mould be of the proper temperature before the young plants
are introduced, which is to take place when they have made a few rough
leaves. As the roots extend, more soil should be added, of a gradually
stronger nature ; and ultimately the roots should have a depth of about
fifteen inches of such soil. The soil should never be introduced in a cold
state ; and if there be no means for previously bringing it to the tempera-
ture of at least 70°, it should be put into the frame in small quantities.
When water is required, it should never be much below the above-men-
tioned temperature, nor should it exceed 78°. It should not be applied
when the air of the frame is at a high temperature from sun-heat. Shading
is necessary immediately after watering, when the sun's rays have any great
degree of power : unless this precaution is attended to, scorching will be
induced, and the red spider will be likely to attack the foliage. With
regard to pruning and training the runners or vines of melon plants, it is
necessary that a sufficient number of these for filling the frame should be
made to ramify as close to the base of the main stem as can be conveniently
effected, by pinching off the top of the latter when it has made a few joints,
or four leaves above the cotyledons ; and the laterals, which in consequence
become developed, may be again subdivided by a similar process. Blossoms
of a monoacious character will soon after make their appearance. The male
blossoms, or at least a portion of them, must be retained for the purpose of
fertilisation, till the requisite quantity of fruit is fairly set, after which
those shoots which have only male blossoms may be dispensed with, in
order to afford more space for the foliage connected with the fruit. The
extremities of the fruit-bearing vines are stopped by pinching at the second
or third joint above the fruit. The vines must afterwards be kept regulated
so as not to over-crowd the frame with more foliage than can be duly
exposed to the light. The regulation should be early and frequently
attended to, so as not to have occasion to remove many vines from the plant,
or divest it of much foliage at any one time. A piece of slate or tile is
placed under each fruit, for the purpose of keeping it from the damp soil.
The heat must be fully maintained, or even considerably increased, as the
fruit approaches maturity, in order to allow the admission of a more free
circulation of air ; but if, at the same time, the bottom-heat be allowed to
decline, the plants will become diseased, and fall a prey to the mildew or
to the red spider." — Penny Cyc., vol. xv. p. 85.
To these excellent observations we have only to add, that the trellis
referred to in the preceding paragraph (1030) is raised from a foot to eighteen
inches above the soil, and within from ten inches to fourteen inches of the
glass. The trellis is formed in panels of the same size as the lights, and
rests on projections from the front or back of the frame, or pit, or is sus-
pended by hooks. The trellis may either be formed of wire fixed to a
wooden frame, and forming meshes five niches square to admit passing the
hand through to the soil beneath ; or it may be formed of laths three quarters
of an inch broad, and half-an-inch thick, also formed into squares, and nailed
at the intersections. In general laths are preferable to wires, on account of
their forming a flat surface for the fruit to rest on. The trellis is not
introduced to the frame or pit till the plants are grown sufficiently high to
admit of their tops being brought through it. The shoot having been
brought through the middle of the trellis, and grown three joints above it,
remove two joints with the finger and thumb, which will cause the plant to
490 CULTURE OF THE MELON IN BRITISH GARDENS.
throw out fresh shoots. Of these the top ones must be preserved, and
stopped at every other joint ; and such as present themselves lower down
the stem must be taken off. When those retained get sufficiently long, they
must be tied down to the trellis with care, and after making two clear joints
each they must be stopped back to one. In general four shoots, trained
towards the four corners of the trellis till they reach within a foot of the
outer edge of the bed, will be sufficient. There they must be stopped. They
will now produce laterals, which should be thinned, three or four only being
left on each of the four main shoots, and the others should be taken off close
to the main stem out of which they grew. — (Mills's Treatise, &^c.^ p. 60
and p. 7 ; and Duncan on the Melon, p. 44. )
SUBSECT. II. — Culture of the Melon as practised in British gardens.
The following article was written for this work by Mr. Forsyth, though
it has appeared in the 16th volume of the Gardeners Magazine: —
1038. The sorts I should cultivate are, a few Rocks, for their look at table
at expensive entertainments ; Green-fleshed, as being economical and fashion-
able (a middle-sized fruit about two Ib. weight being considered the best) ;
and Persians, such as the Sweet Ispahan and Hoosainees, for their rich
aqueous pulp, and as by far the most delicate and delicious of the melon
tribe.
1039. Very early melons may be grown in pots, one plant in each, to
mature one fruit, in the pine- stove, or in a house or pit on purpose, where a
wholesome high temperature is maintained of 75° or 80° ; the fruit may be
supported by being laid on a small earthenware saucer, inverted into a larger
one suspended from the roof.
1040. Seedlings. — Melons planted out on a ridge, on a bed of tan, dung,
or leaves, under glass, may be advantageously cultivated in the following
manner. In any house, pit, or frame, where an atmosphere as above
described is maintained, sow some seeds in thumb-pots, one seed in each
pot, which must be kept near the glass after the plants are above-ground,
and be allowed a free circulation of air, in order to rear the plants as robust
and short-stemmed as possible ; but, though I detail the process of rearing
seedlings, I must not be understood to mean that they are equal to those
raised from cuttings, which process I shall here detail : —
1041. Cuttings. — In an atmosphere as above described, let the cutting-pots,
prepared in the following manner, be placed half a day previous to their
being used, in order that the mould may be warm, to prevent a check by
cold soil to the bottom of an exotic cutting. If provided with a small crystal
bell-glass, or a small hand-light closely glazed, either of these may be used ;
but if provided with neither, which is nothing uncommon, you can doubtless
command as much glass in square or fragment, as will cover the mouth of a
48 sized pot.
The cuttings should be taken from the extremities of the healthiest
vines, cut close below the third joint from the tip, and inserted in thumb-
pots filled with leaf-soil and loam mixed, about half an inch below the sur-
face of the soil ; and these placed in the bottom of a 48-sized pot, and the
cavity between the two pots stuffed with moist moss, and the glass laid over
the top of the outer pot, which ought to be plunged in a hotbed up to the
brim : this is an improvement in striking cuttings which I have never made
known before, nor have I ever seen it practised by any one else. It is a
CULTURE OF THE MELON IN BRITISH GARDENS. 491
common way to fill a pot three-fourths full of soil, and in that to insert the
cuttings under a pane of glass ; and I have no doubt, when those that have
practised that mode come to see this simple improvement, so much more
workmanlike, and applicable not only to melon cuttings, but to all sorts of
cuttings, exotic, greenhouse, and hardy, they will feel nowise reluctant to
relinquish the old wray. The advantages of this mode are, when the cuttings
get up to the glass, which they generally do before they have struck root,
the outer pot can be changed for one a little deeper, and the moist moss serves
the twofold purpose of conducting heat and moisture ; and, as the heat of
the tan or dung bed will be 30° or 40° above that of the atmosphere of the
house or pit (a good tan bed will range about 110° at six inches deep), it
will be communicated through the outer pot to the atmosphere around the
cuttings, thereby accelerating their striking root : this high atmospheric heat
is an advantage possessed in common with the old system over the bell-glass
propagating pot.
1042. Planting out. — Plants being reared, either from seeds or cuttings,
healthy and robust, are, let us presume, in 32-sized pots, about nine inches high,
with leaves as large as the palm of the hand. The hotbed being made up to
within eighteen inches of the glass, and a ridge of loamy turf, mixed with one-
fourth its quantity of dung, pulverised to a mould, being laid along the centre
of the bed, about twelve or fourteen inches deep, a day or two previous to the
planting of the melons, and all fears of offensive steam from the bed or linings
being guarded against, the plants may be turned out of the pots along the
centre of the ridge, about one foot apart for a bed nine feet wide, or for a
six-feet bed about fifteen inches apart, with a fine sweet moist heat, such as
could be breathed comfortably, about 75° to 85°. Excess in quantity of
heat is not so much to be feared as inferior quality of heat. A strong heat
will rarify the air and cause ventilation; to facilitate which, a small aperture
should be left open, say a quarter of an inch, at the top of every light, and
this eighteen or twenty hours out of the twenty -four. The time that I
should shut up close, would be at uncovering in the morning (which should
be done as soon as it is light) ; and after syringing or steaming them in the
evening, when no more air is wanted for the day heat.
1043. General treatment. — Plants raised from cuttings show fruit with
less vine than those reared from seeds ; and this is the best remedy, in con-
junction with keeping them rather dry at the roots, for the ever-crying evil,
that the "vines have run all over the bed without showing fruit." I
should prefer leaving a plant reared from a cutting entire, without stopping,
until it shows fruit ; those raised from seed must be topped, as they gener-
ally draw up weak and long-jointed, if left entire. I should top them for
the first time as soon as they show the rough leaf, and again as they advance,
say when they have made two feet of vine, in order to produce fruitful
laterals. When fruit appears, they must be carefully managed to prevent
sudden atmospheric changes ; and, during the time that they are in flower,
water overhead must be dispensed with, and gentle vapour only occasionally
raised, to nourish the leaves, for it would be injurious to keep the flowers too
moist at this time. Every female blossom must now be carefully impreg-
nated ; and, as soon as the fruits are set and beginning to swell, plenty of
moisture and a closer atmosphere will be of the greatest service till they are
swelled full size, when moisture at the root, and also vapour on the leaves,
must be finally dispensed with. As soon as a reasonable number of fruits are
492 CULTURE OF THE MELON IN BRITISH GARDENS.
swelling favourably, say three to six on a plant, the rest, with every leaf and
lateral, for which some good reason is not pledged, must unsparingly be dis-
carded, leaving always one leaf, or perhaps two, beyond every fruit ; and let
every fruit be elevated on an inverted earthen saucer. To grow very early
melons dry heat is indispensable, as every leaf, in moist weather, ought to be
carefully dried once every day ; and, in hot weather, every leaf ought to be
as carefully moistened, by means of vapour or syringing. Before the fruit
appears, and also when it is ripening off, a well ventilated atmosphere is best ;
but, whilst the fruits are swelling, closeness and humidity will be found to
answer the purpose best. An occasional dusting of powdered charcoal and
lime, mixed with sulphur and Scotch snuff, will go far to prevent the ravages
of insect enemies.
The bed must be soiled over to the same depth as the ridge was origi-
nally made, at different times, as the progress of the roots shall dictate ; and
the roots must be supplied with soft well aerated water, as the firmness or
flaccidity of the leaves must determine. As little shading as possible should
be given, as the plants should be inured to the full sun as soon as possible ;
the minimum heat may be 70°, and the maximum 90°, though 100° would
do no harm, even with the lights close, provided the laps and crannies about
them were closed, or with the lights not closed, provided the transition were
not rapid. — A.F. These directions are equally applicable to melons trained
on a trellis, or on the surface of the ground.
1044. Persian Melons are very subject to burst ; but Mr. Knight found
that by raising the points of the fruit higher than the stems, so as to give it
an elevation of 30°, not one fruit failed to ripen in a whole and perfect state.
— (Hort. Trans, vol. i. 2nd series, p. 90.)
1045. Culture of the melon in the open air. — In the climate of London a
late crop of melons may be raised on beds of dung in the open air, the plants
when newly turned out being protected by hand-glasses. The customary
mode is to have the beds flat, about four feet wide and two feet and a-half
high ; and when the heat declines, casings of hot dung are applied, first on one
side, and, when that casing has ceased to be effective, on the other. The
better mode, however, is to form the bed in the direction of east and west,
with the north side supported by boards, so as to be perpendicular, and three
feet six inches or four feet high, and the south side sloping at an angle about
40° east and west, and open to the south. The situation must be well
sheltered from the north. Whichever description of bed is used, the plants
may be raised from seeds or cuttings in April or May, and turned out in the
first week of June. The plants should not be raised on bottom heat,
because the transition to the open air is found to give them such a check as
to turn the leaves yellow, and the entire plant sickly. There are two
decided advantages in growing the melon in ridges sloping to the south : the
first is, that the sun's rays are received at a much larger angle, in conse-
quence of which the temperature is raised from 10° to 15° higher than it is
in the shade ; and the next is, that a larger, and consequently a more
effective, casing can be applied behind. The only disadvantage is the diffi-
culty of maintaining a uniform degree of moisture in the soil, which must,
therefore, be frequently watered, and always with water at a temperature
of 65° or 70°. To retain the moisture, as well as to reflect the heat, the
sloping face of the bed may be covered with flat tiles or slates, but not over-
lapping, because that would conduct off the water. When the plants are
CULTURE OF THE MELON IN BRITISH GARDENS. 493
first inserted in the bed they are closely covered with hand-glasses, but as
soon as they have begun to grow the glasses are raised on bricks, so as to
allow the shoots to advance from beneath them ; and these shoots are care-
fully pegged down to preserve them from being deranged by the wind.
The first fruit from such beds is generally cut in August, and they will
continue productive till the plants are destroyed by frost in October. A
thin covering of canvas during nights would no doubt contribute to the
vigour of the plants by checking radiation. — ( Williams in Hort. Trans.,
vol. v., p. 364, and Mills s Treatise, p. 67.)
1046. Insects and Diseases. — The aphis, the red spider, and the thrip,
are the greatest enemies to the melon, and if once the plants are overrun
with any of them, it is scarcely possible to restore them to health. The
aphis may be destroyed by fumigating with tobacco, or the paper in which
it is packed, and the rope with which it is bound, on its importation to this
country. Any of these will do, and each must be a little moistened when
it is used. The best method of doing it is with the fumigating bellows,
the muzzle being introduced through a perforation in the front of the frame
or pit, nearly on a level with the surface of the mould ; the sashes should
be covered with mats at the same time, to prevent the escape of the fumes.
The operation should always be performed in the evening, and renewed the
following one ; not a drop of water, from any source, should be allowed to
touch the plants the next day. The frames are to be kept closed and
shaded, so far as can be done without injury, and not opened until the latest
desirable period. — (Duncan on the Melon, p. 69.) The increase of the
red spider, and thrip, may be prevented, in a great degree, by a well-
ventilated atmosphere, and a due degree of care in syringing occasionally in
the afternoons ; but if these insects should become numerous, they may
be destroyed by syringing with water, to which one-fourth part of tobacco
water has been added. The wood-louse is a constant enemy to the melon,
and is most effectually kept under by keeping a toad or two in the frames.
If they should become exceedingly numerous, a flower-pot, laid on its side,
with some dry hay in it, renewing it when it becomes damp, is an excellent
trap. The canker is a frequent disease in the melon, generally occurring at
the point where the plants emerge from the soil. Mr. Duncan applies a
little air-slaked lime, as fresh as can be obtained, to the wounded part : it.
•does not cure the disease, for it is incurable, but it retards its progress. The
rotting of the stems from damp, want of light, or too free a use of the knife,
is nearly as fatal as the canker, and like it is incurable ; but where it takes
place at a distance from the root, an increase of heat, by adding linings, and
the free admission of air and light, will cause new shoots to be produced.
Mildew, our readers are aware, may always be checked by powdering with
flowers of sulphur. — (Duncan, p. 73.)
1047. The red spider and the damp, the one as bad as the other, in melon
frames, may be kept under by covering the surface with clean gravel, about
three-fourths of an inch deep. The roots find their way to the surface of
the mould, and form a matted texture under the gravel, where, being more
accessible to the warm air of the frame, by means of which a corresponding
temperature, as regards the roots and tops, is maintained, whilst the roots
are, at the same time, kept moist, the plants grow so vigorously as to
overcome every enemy. The practice is common in the neighbourhood of
Doncaster. — (Gard. Mag., vol. iii., p. 218.)
K K
494 CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER.
SECTION VIII. — Culture of the Cucumber.
SUBSECT. I. — Data on which the Culture of the Cucumber is founded.
1048. The cucumber (Cucumis sativa, L.\ is an annual, climbing l;y
tendrils, or trailing on the surface of the ground, a native of the East
Indies, and probably of many parts of Asia and Africa. It has been cul-
tivated in the old world from time immemorial for its fruit, which is used
in an unripe state, alone, or in salads, and for salting and pickling. The
cucumber will bear a tropical heat, for it grows abundantly in many tropical
countries. In the lower regions of India, the mean annual temperature
may be reckoned as high as 80° ; the thermometer indicating rarely so low
as 70° in the hottest period of the season. The cucumber thrives well
where the heat of the nights is more oppressively felt by Europeans
than that of the days. As a wide difference does not occur in the diui-
nal and nocturnal temperatures of tropical countries, where the cucumber
grows spontaneously, it is not necessary that a great variation should, in this
respect, be imposed upon it when under artificial treatment. In order to be
tender when cut for use, it requires to be grown rapidly, and, therefore, re-
quires as much heat and moisture as can be safely applied. If the native
plants of colder climates are forced night and day in a uniformly high
temperature, a drawing, or weakness, soon becomes evident ; but no such
signs are exhibited by the rigid leaves of the pine-apple, although grown in
a uniform temperature of 80°, provided they have not less than eleven or
twelve hours' light out of the twenty-four. The cucumber will grow side
by side with the pine-apple ; and also naturally in a much higher latitude ;
but in that case its growth is limited to the summer season, when nearly a
tropical heat is maintained. If the nights are cold, although the days may
be warm, cucumbers growing on ridges in the open air, in this climate, in-
variably become diseased and attacked by mildew. A temperature ranging
between 70° and 80° of artificial heat is suitable for the growth of the cucum-
ber; if sun- heat is likely to raise the temperature much higher, air should
be copiously, yet gradually, afforded ; and, presuming that the plants are
in good health, and their roots well established, enough of moisture being
present, they will bear 90° or more of sun-heat without injury.
1049. In cultivating the cucumber in first-rate British gardens, the object
is to have a supply of fruit throughout the year. This may be effected in-
dung-beds (841), but more conveniently by some description of pit heated
by flues or hot water, or by a house constructed on purpose, with a steep
glass roof. The plants may be raised either from seeds or cuttings. The
best varieties for early culture are the Syon House, Hort's Early Frame,
Weedon's Cucumber ; and for large fruit to be exhibited at horticultural
shows, Allen's Victory of Suffolk, the Roman Emperor, and some others
which it is unnecessary to enumerate, as new sorts are continually coming
into fashion, and old ones losing their reputation. The soil cucumbers
prefer is light and rich, but they will grow in poor soil watered with liquid
manure. Sandy-peat has been found suitable for dung-beds in the winter
season, because water passes rapidly through this soil, without so much being
retained by it, especially on the surface, as to cause the plants to damp off.
The shoots of the cucumber are commonly allowed to trail on the ground ;
but they are much less likely to damp off when trained on trellises within 8
inches or 10 inches of the glass, as practised since 1790 in a cucumber house
CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER.
495
at Knowlesley, and recently adopted in common frames and pits by Mr.
Weedon. To concentrate the vigour of the plant, the shoots are stopped
repeatedly as they advance in growth, by pinching out the growing point
with the finger and thumb. Shoots bearing fruit are generally stopped at
the second joint beyond the fruit, as soon as its blossom has begun to fade,
in order to throw more of the sap into the fruit. Cucumbers require a
great deal of ventilation, and the best growers make it a point to have the
foliage thoroughly moist during every night, and thoroughly dry during
a portion of every day, during the whole of the plant's existence. The
cucumber will live either in the open air or under glass, at a temperature of
50°, and it will grow and produce fruit at 60°, but not vigorously and abund-
antly at a lower temperature than between 75° and 80° — and with this the
bottom-heat should correspond. With abundance of light, air, and fre-
quent watering, it will grow vigorously in an atmosphere of from 85° to
90°, saturated with moisture for at least a portion of every 24 hours. The
foliage of the plants ought always to be kept within a few inches of the
glass ; and in the winter season all the light ought to be admitted that the
state of the atmosphere admits of, and especially the morning sun. For this
reason the glass over cucumbers, (and melons also,) should never be covered
till it is nearly dark, and always be uncovered at daybreak. The cucumber
requires an ample supply of water, which should be pond or rain water,
and always of the same temperature as the soil in which the plants grow ;
or a degree or two under it, as falling rain is generally a degree or two
lower than the temperature of the atmosphere through which it falls.
Liquid manure may be advantageously used when the soil is poor, or when
it is limited in quantity, as in the case of cucumbers grown in pots. As the
cucumber, like the melon, has the stamens and pistils in different flowers,
artificial fecundation is by most gardeners considered necessary, or at least
conducive to the swelling of the fruit ; but by others, and among these some of
the best cultivators, it is considered of no use, excepting when seed is required.
Many persons prefer cucumbers which have not been fecundated, on account
of the much smaller size of the seed integuments, which never contain ker-
nels; though, on the other hand, some prefer fecundated cucumbers, alleging
that the kernels of the seeds communicate a superior flavour. It is found
that seed is produced most freely from plants grown in rather poor soil,
and in the open air against a wall, rather than under glass. Hence the
greater quantity of seeds found in cucumbers grown on dung-ridges in the
open air, and the much greater quantity found in cucumbers grown in the
sandy soil of Sandy in Bedfordshire, and sent to the London market for
pickling and stewing, than in cucumbers grown in houses. Without abun-
dance of seeds, cucumbers for pickling or stewing would be good for nothing.
Cucumbers grown for seed are of course always allowed to attain maturity, in
which state they are of a yellow colour. The seed is taken out, washed and
dried, and preserved for use, and it is generally considered that, for early crops,
seeds which are several years old produce plants less likely to run to foliage,
and consequently more prolific in blossoms. Some of the best modern
cultivators, however, think the age of the seed of no consequence ; and some
preserve it in the fruit till it is wanted for sowing. The cucumber is liable
to the same insects and diseases as the melon, which are to be subdued by
the same means. Want of sufficient bottom heat, and watering with cold
hard water, are the general causes which produce the mildew, canker, and
K K 2
496 CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER IN A DUNG-BED.
spot ; and want of atmospheric moisture encourages the red spider and the
thrip, and to a certain extent also, the aphides.
1050. These are the general principles of cucumber culture. Within the
last two years, treatises have been published on the cultivation of the
cucumber by Mills, Duncan and Ayres ; and a few years before by Allen,
Smith, and Weedon. These works treat of the culture of the cucumber in
dung-beds, in pits of different kinds, in stoves, and vineries, in the cucum-
ber-house, and in the open air ; and the following subsections derived from
them will, we trust, supply all that is wanted by the Suburban Horticul-
turist for routine practice.
SUBSECT. II. — Culture of the Cucumber in a Dung-bed.
1051. The formation of a dung-bed for general purposes has been already
given (841 to 847). For the purpose of growing cucumbers in mid-winter,
great care is necessary to prepare the dung properly, so that by reducing
its heat there may be no danger of an excess, or what is termed a " burning
heat," after the bed is made up. When this burning heat takes place, the
bed becomes dry and mouldy to within a few inches of its surface, from
which a noxious vapour arises, which, together with the excessive heat,
speedily destroys the plants. Mr. Mills, whose treatise is very full on this
mode of cucumber culture, directs to turn over the dung which is in
preparation for a cucumber bed, once a week for six or eight weeks.
(Treatise on the Cucumber, <^c., p. 12.)
1052. The seed bed requires to be first formed. It should be 3 feet high
at the back, and 2 feet 6 inches in front ; and when the lights are put on,
eight or ten days should elapse before sowing the seeds. During this time
the surface of the bed should be forked over every other day, about a foot
deep, watering it if it should appear too dry, and admitting sufficient air to
allow the steam to pass off freely, " In order to prove whether or not the
bed be sweet, shut the lights down close for three or four hours ; then take
a lighted candle in a lantern, push down one of the lights, and put the
candle and lantern into the frame, and if the candle be not put out by
the excess of moisture, but should continue to burn, the bed will be in a
fit state to receive the plants or seeds." (Ibid. p. 14.)
1053. Soil. — Cucumbers will grow in any light rich soil. M'Phail
used leaf mould alone ; Aiton uses light loam and rotten dung, of each one-
third, and the remaining third composed of leaf mould and heath soil ; Mr.
Mills began in 1811 to use sandy peat, the turfs being chopped moderately
small with the spade but not sifted. Peat soil is not so rich as leaf mould ;
but Mr. Mills finds that when placed on sweet fermenting dung, the roots
will penetrate through it, and help themselves to food when the plants
require it. " I have tried numerous experiments with soils," he says,
"variously mixed, from the year 1811 to the present time ; and I am per-
fectly satisfied that peat alone is best, and I am now (January 1841) using it
on dung-beds." (Ibid. p. 15.)
1054. Seeds and treatment of the young plants. — Seeds must be proved
before sowing, by putting them into a basin of water for about two hours,
when those that are good will sink to the bottom, and the rest may be
thrown away. Nine seeds may be sown in a pot, 9 inches in diameter, filled
with sifted peat well drained, on Michaelmas-day, if for early fruit. The
seeds should beplaced round the pot near the outside, covered half an inch,
CULTURE OP THE CUCUMBER IN A DUNG-BED. 497
and the whole pressed down moderately firm. The pot may then be
plunged half its depth into the dung-bed, or into a layer of old half-spent
tan spread on its surface. The temperature should be from 60° to 70° witlt
out sun, and from 75° to 80° during sunshine. Plenty of air should be
given during the day, and a little all night. The plants will appear in
four or five days, and when they are clearly above the soil, the pot may
be lifted up and get on the surface of the bed. A lining will now require
to be put round the bed, so as to increase the temperature of the
interior, which it will do even if formed of half-decayed litter or damaged
hay, or in short anything that will ferment a little but not much. When
the plants show the third leaf, reckoning the cotyledons two, they may be
potted off singly into pots, 3 inches in diameter, either new or well cleaned
in the inside, in order that the balls may turn out entire and freely when
the plants are to be transplanted. The soil used should be moderately fine but
not sifted, and a piece of turf should be placed over the crock at the bottom of
the pot for drainage. The plants should be inserted so deep in the pot as that
the seed-leaves should just be a little above the level of the rim, and the
soil should be within an inch of the rim, in order to allow of adding a
little more when the roots show themselves above the surface. The after-
noon is generally preferred for potting, because too much light is apt to cause
the leaves to flag. The tops of the plants, when set in the bed, should be
within C or 8 inches of the glass, and as they increase in height the pot
should be lowered, so as always to keep the plants about the same distance.
Water may be applied whenever it appears wanting, there being much less
danger in watering peat soil than in watering leaf mould, because the former
only retains a very moderate quantity. When the heat of the bed falls
below 70° some fresh lining may be added, more especially if the weather be
dull and wet, the object being to dry the plants once a-day : a fine moisture
appearing on them in the morning is a sign of health. " When the third
leaf gets perfectly developed, a leading shoot will rise from the base of its
petiole, which, as soon as it is clearly formed, should be pinched off; its
removal will give strength to the plant, and will cause it to throw out fresh
shoots from the base of the seed-leaves. These shoots are allowed to grow
until they are two joints in length, when they must be stopped by being
pinched off with the finger and thumb to one joint." (Ibid. p. 20.) The
plants should be shifted into pots 6 inches in diameter, as soon the balls
are filled with roots, using the same soil and drainage as before. Each
plant should have three good shoots, which should be stopped at every joint,
one joint at a time, and not all at the same time, which would check the
progress of the plant. On that account a second leader should never be
stopped till a shoot is seen coming forward on the one stopped previously.
1055. Raising plants from cuttings. — Instead of raising cucumber plants
from seed, they may be raised from cuttings, and thus kept on from year to
year. The method of striking them is as follows : — Take a shoot which is
just ready for stopping, cut it off just below the joint behind the joint before
which the shoot should have been stopped, then cut smooth the lower end
of the shoot or cutting, and stick it into fine leaf or other rich mould about
an inch deep, and give it plenty of heat, and shade it from the rays of the
sun till it be fairly struck. By this method, as well as by that of laying,
cucumber plants may readily be propagated. Mearns, when gardener at
Shobden Court, near Leominster, propagated his cucumber plants for a
498 CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER IN A DUNG-BED.
winter crop in this way, and found, " that the plants raised from cuttings
are less succulent, and therefore do not so readily damp off, or suffer from
the low temperature to which they are liable to be exposed irt severe weather ;
that they come into bearing immediately as they have formed roots of suf-
ficient strength to support their fruit, and do not run so much to barren
vine as seedlings are apt to do." He advises the cuttings to be taken from
the tops of the bearing shoots, and planted in pots nine inches deep, half
filled with mould. They should then be watered, and, the tops of the pots
being covered with flat pieces of glass, they should be plunged into a gentle
bottom-heat. " The sides of the pot act as a sufficient shade for the cuttings
during the time they are striking, and the flat glass, in this and in similar
operations, answers all the purposes of bell-glasses. The cuttings form
roots, and are ready to pot off in less than a fortnight." — (^Hort. Trans.,
vol. iv., p. 411.) Mr. Duncan considers plants raised from seed as best,
through every period of winter, from November to March; and cuttings
during the interval between these months. Cuttings, he says, form the
most prolific plants, and are not so luxuriant as seedlings. — [Cucumber
Culture, 4-0-, p. 26.)
1056. Fruiting bed. — The dung should be prepared as for the seed bed.
The size of the frame may be 12 feet long, and 4 feet wide, the height at
the back 2 feet, and in front I foot 6 inches ; the lights should be glazed
with sheet glass, one pane to each division. If the bed is made in an exca-
vation, it should be sufficiently large to allow of the dung being 8 inches
wider than the frame all round ; with an additional space of 18 inches in
width for linings, which will require a space 15 feet 6 inches long by 8 feet
wide. Where there is a proper melon ground, however, such an excavation
will be unnecessary. " Commence the erection of the bed by laying on the
ground, nine inches or a foot thick, brushwood, or the loppings of trees, 4
feet 6 inches wide, and 12 feet 6 inches long ; on the wood lay a little long
litter to keep the dung from falling into it, as this would stop the drainage,
and prevent the bottom heat from working under the bed. Upon the litter
place your manure, carefully shaking it as you proceed, and keeping the
surface regular, by beating it down with a fork as you advance, but do not
tread it. The manure should be 4 feet or 5 feet high at the back, inde-
pendently of the wood, and 6 inches lower in front. When the bed is
finished, put on the frame, and keep the lights carefully closed till the heat
rises, then give air, in order that the rank steam may pass off; fork over
the surface every other day, as directed for the seed-bed, and as the heat
decreases give less air. If the dung with which the bed has been made has
undergone the preparation directed, it will be fit to receive the plants in
about fourteen days. Before transplanting, however, prove the sweetness
of the manure with a candle and lantern, as pointed out for the seed-bed ;
and, if satisfied on this important point, from 12 inches to ]8 inches thick
of peat-earth may be put on, to form the hillocks for the reception of the
plants, taking care that as little as possible of the surface of the bed be
covered therewith, for the less heat there is confined under the mould, the
less liable will the roots be to receive injury."
1057. Ridging out the plants. — After the mould has been in the frame
twenty-four hours, it will be sufficiently warm for the plants to be ridged
out. To do this, make a hole in the top of each hillock, and place the pot
containing the plant in it ; you will then be able to judge as to the proper
CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER IN A DUNG-BED. 499
distance it should be from the glass, which may vary from G inches to 0
inches. Having determined this point, turn out of the pot, by reversing it,
the plant with its ball of earth entire, and, holding the surface of the mould
in one hand, and the pot with the other, gently tap the rim against the edge '
of the frame, when the plant will drop out without losing any portion of the
earth, or injuring the roots, if the pot was properly cleaned previous to its
being planted. Then drop the plant into the hole in the hillock, and press
the mould firmly round the ball of roots ; the earth of which should be in
the same state of moisture as that into which it is to be planted, otherwise
it will not properly receive the watering, when poured upon it, as it will
require to be once or twice, from a pot without the rose, until the roots
extend themselves into the fresh soil ; after which the whole of the hillocks
should be watered, from a watering-pot with the rose on, whenever requisite,
choosing a fine sunny morning for the watering, that the surface may become
moderately dry by the afternoon. The seeds for these plants should be sown
on the 29th of September, and the plants should be ridged out on the 1st of
November. — (Mills' s Treatise, <^c., p. 26.)
1058. A temporary lining, as directed for the seed-bed, should now be
applied for the purpose of increasing the heat so as to carry off excessive
moisture during the finest portion of every day, by evaporation, but at the
same time not to raise a burning heat.
1059. Air.— A little air must be given during twenty hours out of the
twenty-four, regulated as follows: — When you uncover the bed in the
morning, the night air must be taken away, as the external air coming in
contact with the glass will cause a depression of the internal heat, but the
closing down the lights will sufficiently counteract its bad effects. Should
the heat of the bed be low, and an increased warmth be requisite, let the
unoccupied surface of the bed be forked over, about 6 inches or 8 inches
deep, either back or front, and from this a fine steam will arise, which will
be greatly beneficial to the plants; and, when air is afterwards given, it will
materially assist in drying them, which, as before remarked (1058), is
necessary to be done, if possible, during the day. In an hour or two after
uncovering in the morning, let a little air be given, reference being had to
the state of the weather ; and again let it be gradually increased, after the
lapse of a similar period, up to twelve o'clock in the day. About one, lower
in part ; and at three or four o'clock shut down till six, when you should
again give air, the heat then should be about 70°, and the plants dry. At
eight or nine regulate for the night, according to the heat, and so let it
remain until the next morning, unless there should be a sudden change in
the weather, when the lights may be shut down. — (Ibid. p. 29.)
1060. Earthing up. — The hills of earth being small, every part of them
will be filled by the roots in the course of a week or ten days, and the roots
will show themselves on the surface. They should therefore be covered
with about two inches of fresh soil, previously warmed to the temperature
of the bed, by being spread out on the parts not occupied by the hills. The
linings must be occasionally turned to keep up the heat: and when the
inside of the frame becomes dry it should be sprinkled with water when the
air is taken away in the evening, by which a healthy steam will be gene-
rated for the plants during the night. When a dry bottom heat prevails,
and the dung looks white and mouldy on the surface of the bed, it should
be forked over, and watered with water about the same temperature as the
500 CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER IN A DUNG-BED.
bottom heat ought to be, and cold should be carefully guarded against
immediately afterwards, by giving air sparingly, so as not to promote too
rapid an evaporation. If the temperature of the bed, with the dung in a
dry mouldy state, does not exceed 75°, the plants will not be destroyed,
more especially if air is given night and day to allow the impurities which
rise from dung in such a state to pass off into the atmosphere. " Too much
bottom-heat," Mr. Mills observes, " there cannot be, if it is moist and
sweet." It will not destroy the roots of the plants, provided no more of
the surface of the bed is covered with soil than the space occupied by the
hillocks. The heat of the dung will then escape freely, and as the roots in
the hillocks are above the dung they will not easily be injured by pure heat.
Some persons form the hills on a flat basket, so as to be able to remove them
if the bed should be overheated, or should become in other respects unsuit-
able : others, as Mr. Smith, place the plants over an air-chamber or vault,
the sides of which are formed with dung ; while Mr. Duncan places his
plants over a well formed in his dung-bed, two feet in diameter, under the
centre of each light, communicating with exterior linings or casings, by
transverse trenches.
1061. Linings of cucumber beds and their management. — The following
directions by Mr. Mills are the most complete that we know of on the
subject of dung- linings ; and they may be studied with advantage with
respect to the use and management of exterior casings or linings of fer-
mented matters generally : — " Linings should be turned over once in 8 or 10
da}rs, to keep them in a regular state of fermentation, especially from
November to February, inclusive. They should not, however, be all
turned at once ; and if the back lining is turned, I will suppose, on the first
or second, the frontage should be done on the fifth or sixth ; so that one half
is turned in five days. The ends will not require turning so often, provided
the heat keeps up to what is necessary, according to the season. To dry the
inside of the frame in December, January, and February, let the linings be
4 inches or 5 inches above the level of the surface of the bed, which will be
sufficient ; in March and April they may be lowered in proportion to the
increased power of the sun's heat. It may appear unnecessary to some
persons to have the linings turned so often ; but I beg to remark, that on
the lively heat emanating from them the well-doing of the plants depends,
especially when the heat of the bed begins to decline ; and in proportion as
attention is bestowed on them, will be the success of the cultivator. If they
are allowed to lie undisturbed until they heat themselves dry, they become
useless ; and the same effect is produced if they get overcharged with mois-
ture. In both cases, if not rendered entirely useless, they will take so long
a time to recover their heat, as to render them next to valueless ; for where
a warmth is requisite, in addition to that of the bed, the plants may be lost
in the interval between the turning and re-rising of the heat. During the
operation of turning, should there appear any part too much decayed, let it
be removed, and its place filled with fresh linings, which should be put on
the top of the old, in order to draw up the heat from it, and to keep up a
good warmth round the frame ; besides, when the new linings are above th e
bed, there will be no danger of their rank steam getting to the plants.
When the linings are again turned, the fresh manure applied must continue
at the top ; and, if necessary, some more must be added to it, in order that
the right height may be preserved. It must, however, be observed that the
CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER IN A DUi\O-BED. 501
new linings should never be allowed to mix with the old ones until they
have become quite sweet ; for you must, on no account, allow rancid heat to
be confined at the bottom of your linings. Attention to these directions
must be continued until June, if it is desired to keep the plants in a healthy
state ; and although after the month of March the turnings need not be
quite so frequent, a good warmth must be kept up, or the plants will not
swell off their fruit kindly. Indeed, at an advanced period of the season,
the roots will have got down into the dung, and so soon as that ceases
to heat, they will perish from excess of moisture." — {Mills s Treatise,
p. 36.)
1062. Water. — " Watering frequently, and in small quantities, as before
observed, is the proper way to keep the plants in a sound state ; but in the
winter months, from the moisture of the fermenting material, and of the outer
air, and the absence of solar heat, they will require but little from the water-
pot. The surface of the bed, near the frame, will occasionally become dry
from the heat of the linings passing upwards through it ; and when that occurs,
let it be sprinkled with water through a fine-rosed pot, just before covering up ;
and on fine mornings, about ten o'clock, give to the soil in which the plants
are growing a little water in a tepid state. In November, December, and
January, little water will be wanted, but in February, March, and April,
more may be given ; always, however, in the morning, and only when
there is a prospect of the plants becoming dry by covering-up time. It
is a bad practice to water late in the afternoon, even in April, May, and
June. In dull weather never water the plants, but the mould only." —
(Ibid. p. 37.)
1063. Stopping. — '• Keeping the cucumber plants regularly stopped is of
the utmost importance ; and it should always be done with the finger and
thumb, .because, when a knife is used, the wound does not heal, and the
lateral generally dies back to the next joint. The shoots should never be
suffered to get into a crowded state, otherwise they \vill become weak and
unfruitful ; and their fruit, such as they will bear, will be of a small and
inferior kind. Four good breaks or runners, stopped alternately, will be
ample ; and two fruit are as many as a strong plant ought to swell at one
time." — (Ibid. p. 38.) In order to keep the fruit from curving as it proceeds
in growth, oblong cases lined with glass are employed ; or glasses made on
purpose might be advantageously used.
1064. Moulding up, is another point which demands special attention, and
which must be done, if the grower means to excel in his undertaking. As
the roots show themselves through the hillocks of earth, let them be covered
with an inch or two of the soil recommended, placing more between the
hillocks than elsewhere. This is done in order that the hillocks may meet
and form a ridge along the middle of the bed by the end of December ; but
care should be taken to keep the sides clear of mould, to admit of the heat
of the linings rising through them, to. give that lively heat within the frame,
which is usually called top-heat, and which is necessary for the plants, as it
causes them to dry in the day, during the most unfavourable weather, and
yet gives them steam moisture by night. The whole of the bed should not
be covered with earth until the end of March ; more particularly the front
of it, for a breadth of at least 3 inches or 4 inches, because this being the
lowest part of the bed the heat ascends to the highest part. (Ibid. p. 39.)
J065. " The covering at night is the next point to be dealt with. As soon
502 CULTURE OP THE CUCUMBER IN A DUNG-BED.
as the heat of the bed declines to about 65°, and when all danger of over-
heating is passed, use a single mat, and then a little hay, spreading it on the
glass about one inch thick ; and commencing about the 20th of November.
This covering should be thickened as the cold increases ; and when the wea-
ther is very severe, double mats should be used. When the season turns,
the days lengthen ; and as the sun's heat, during the day, aids in warming
the bed within the frame, discontinue the covering by degrees down to a
single mat, as at the commencement. Air must be given, more or less,
every night from October to the first or second week in March" — (Ibid.
p. 40) ; because, from the large heating surface in proportion to the small
volume of air to be heated, an excess of temperature, when the sashes were
closed during a whole night, could hardly fail to be the result.
1066. " Setting or impregnating the fruit has been practised by me early
in the season ; and I believe it to be necessary, notwithstanding all that has
been said against it, till about the 1st of March. Some have attributed the
irregular swelling of the fruit to this operation ; but this is a mistake, it
being want of strength in the plants, or their carrying too many fruit at one
time, which occasions the irregularity." — (Ibid. p. 40.)
1067. To procure seed, Mr. Mills invariably raises plants specially for that
purpose ; which, he says, should be grown as strong as possible, and not
allowed to mature fruit till the roots extend to the outside of the frame ;
after which they will be able to swell off, and bring to perfection two fruit
each ; taking care that the handsomest be preserved, and that they be im-
pregnated four or five times each, previous to the closing of the blossom.
They should not be cut under six or eight weeks, then put into a cool room
for a month, when they may be opened, the seed taken out, washed and
dried ; those only which sink being retained. — (Ibid. p. 41.)
1068. Inlaying, or earthing in, the vines of the cucumber, though still
practised by some, " is now seldom resorted to by experienced growers, and
is worse than useless; for as soon as the buried portions take root the
original roots perish ; and, in the place of one good plant, there will be a
dozen weak ones." — (Ibid. p. 41.)
1069. When extraordinary fine fruit is desired, allow the plant to mature
one only ; but a succession should be permitted, so that the after -fruit do
not follow too closely on the first. By this plan the growth will be rapid,
provided the plants are in health ; and the fruit be much better flavoured
than if grown slowly. When long in swelling off, the fruit frequently be-
comes hard and bitter, and is therefore worthless. From 75° to 80° are as
high as the plant will bear to advantage ; and in that temperature fruit will
grow faster than in a higher one ; the pruning and stopping being attended
to as previously laid down." — (Ibid. p. 42. ) The foregoing directions by
Mr. Mills are, we believe, among the best extant for growing the cucumber
on dung beds, and we have given them at greater length than we otherwise
should have done, because they contain instructions on various points equally
applicable to the other modes of cucumber culture treated of in the following
Subsections. Mr. Mills's directions respecting preparing the dung, making
the beds, and applying and working the linings, show the mode of culture
on dung beds to be exceedingly expensive and troublesome; so much so,
that we do not wonder at the mode by linings to brick-built pits (843), or
by pits or houses heated by hot water or flues (490, 515, £c ), being gene-
rally preferred by modern gardeners.
CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER IN PITS. 503
SUBSECT. 111. — Culture of the Cucumber in pits heated by dung linings, flues or
hot water.
1070. Of pits heated wholly or in part by dung linings, there are a great
variety of forms, chiefly differing in the construction of the exterior wall
through which the heat is communicated to the bed of soil or fermenting ma-
terial within. One of the most common, and most generally useful, is that
known as M'Phail's pit, already figured and described (843). The prin-
cipal advantage of these pits is, that dung casings may be applied with little
or no previous preparation, and thus much heat, that in the preparation of
dung for common hotbeds is lost, is here turned to account. The treatment
of the plants within the bed is exactly the same as that described in the pre-
ceding subsection, and no better directions can be given for managing the
linings than those of Mr. Mills (1061).
1071. Pits to be heated by flues or hot-water, are as various in their con-
struction as those to be heated by dung linings ; some forms have already
been given (515, 935, and 047), and we shall in this subsection describe
three other forms.
1072. A pit to be heated by a flue built by the late eminent horticulturist,
Mr. Knight, is thus described. The back wall is nearly 9 feet high, and
the front wall nearly 6 feet high, inclosing a horizontal space of 9 feet wide ;
and the house is 30 feet long. — The fireplace is at the east end, very near
the front wall, and the flue passes to the other end of the house within 4
inches of the front wall, and returns back again, leaving a space of 8 inches
only between the advancing and returning course of it ; and the smoke
escapes at the north-east corner of the building. The front flue is composed
of bricks laid flat, as I wished to have a temperate permanent heat, and the
returning flue of bricks standing on their edges, as is usual; the space
between the flues is filled with fragments of burned bricks, which absorb
much water, and gradually give out moisture to the air of the house. Air
is admitted through apertures in the front wall, which are 4 inches wide,
and nearly 3 inches in height ; and which are situated level with the top of
the flues, and are 18 inches distant from each other. The air escapes
through similar apertures near the top of the back wall. These apertures
are left open, or partially or wholly closed, as circumstances require.
Thirty-two pots are placed upon the flues described above, each being 16
inches wide at least, and 14 inches deep ; but they are raised by an inter-
vening piece of stone and brick out of actual contact with the flues. Into
each of these pots one melon plant is put, which in its subsequent growth
is trained upon a trellis, placed about 14 inches distant from the glass, and
each plant is permitted to bear one melon only. Each might be made to
bear more, but if they should be as large as Ispahan melons when perfect
are, they would certainly be of inferior quality. The height from the
ground, at which the trellis is placed, is such that I can with convenience
walk under it, and of course discover, without difficulty, the first appear-
ance of red spiders, or other noxious insects. — (Hort. Trans, vol. i. Second
Series, p. 86.) This pit was used by Mr. Knight for the culture of Persian
melons, but it is evidently well adapted for the culture of cucumbers, under-
neath which sea-kale, rhubarb, or various other articles, might be forced.
1073. A pit to be heated by hot water and by a flue from the fire which heats
the boiler, is thus described by Mr. Torbron. It is almost unnecessary to
add that it will answer as well for melons as for cucumbers, and indeed if
504
CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER IX PITS.
the pit was filled with proper soil and vines planted in it, there could not be
a better house for an early crop of grapes. Length, 30 feet ; width, 8 feet;
height at back, 7 feet, at front, 4 feet. A flue to run first to the front, and
return under the back wall, with cavities of 2^ inches. The space between
the flues to have gutters for the pipes from a boiler, with a power of filling
and emptying the gutters at pleasure ; so as to have a command of either
dry or moist air, as either may be wanted. The floor of the pit may be
supported on arches, or it may be made of planks, or of slates or tiles,
resting on joists. The pit to be filled with mould, sand, or sawdust, accord-
ing as it may be desired to grow the plants in pots or in the free soil. A
trellis may be made to hook on the rafters, on which to train the plants.
The upper surface of the pit to be two feet from the glass, and the trellis
to be one foot from the glass. (Gard. May. 184], p. 311.)
1071. Corbett's cucumber-pit, Fig. 356, is heated with hot water circu-
lated in open troughs, which, however, have covers for being put on when a
dry heat is wanted. The mode of heating by water in open gutters, as we
Fig, 356. Cucumber or Melon Pit, heated by hot water in open troughs.
The scale 4 of an inch to a foot.
a, Outer walls.
b, Walls of the pit.
c, Gutters, or troughs for heating the
atmosphere.
dy Troughs under the soil in the open
chamber (w), which is air- tight,
resting on the openings (0), which
convey the cooled air from the front
walk to the trough at the back, to be
heated ; these openings being intro-
duced at regular distances of 4ft. or
5ft.
y, Walks round the bed.
ff} Shelf for plants.
h} Trellis for training the plants.
i, Descending return-pipe, which is a
common 6-inch pipe.
k, The trough at entering, which is closed
from the boiler till it reaches c.
/, Shewin's conical boiler, or the modifi-
cations of it by Stephenson or Weeks.
»n, Air-chamber; the air of which is always
at the point of saturation.
n, The soil, or other material, in which
the plants are planted.
have seen (515), is strongly recommended by Mr. Glendinning, as it is by
Mr. Lymburn on account of the great radiating powers of water, which are
equal to those of lamp-black, which is to polished iron as 100 is to 15.
Mr. Duncan, from whose Treatise on Cucumber Culture the section, fig.
CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER IN PITS. 505
356, is taken, also says Corbett's mode is " the most economical plan of
heating yet discovered, and deserving the support of every one interested in
horticulture, especially the cucumber grower."
" The troughs," Mr. Duncan observes, " are arranged so as to produce both
bottom and top heat, accompanied with proper moisture, or a dry air at
pleasure, by putting on the covers to the troughs. The air in the confined
chamber under the bed is always at the point of saturation, and a circulatory
movement of the air of the pit, exterior to the chamber, is always main-
tained by drains, passing from the front path, under the troughs in the
chamber, to the troughs in the back path, at the bottom of the back wall,
as shown in the section." (Cucumber Culture, p. 22.) The soil Mr.
Duncan recommends is vegetable mould during winter, with a mixture of
maiden loam during summer.
1075. Green's cucumber pit, and also one in use at Mawley Hall, described
in the Gardener s Magazine for 1841, p. 262, are both heated by hot- water,
with some of the pipes laid in troughs of water, and may be safely recom-
mended as far superior to any modification of hot-water pits, unless we
except Mr. Corbett's. Mr. Green's pit is thus described by himself: — " The
walls are built of 9 inch brickwork, 5 feet high in the back, and 2^ feet in
front, and the space enclosed is 5 feet wide in the clear, and 36 feet long,
covered with nine lights, and divided into three compartments. A trough of
brickwork is carried along the middle of the bottom from end to end. This
trough is constructed by first laying a bottom of two bricks thick, one foot
wide, and then forming the two sides of the trough with bricks on edge ; the
whole being so cemented as to hold water. The pit is heated with hot
water by means of a branch of 2^ inch pipes proceeding from the boiler
which heats a stove at a short distance. The hot water flows along the
back and front of the pit, above the level of the bed of soil, but the return
pipes are placed beneath the bed in the trough just described, which is filled
with water, or partly so, as circumstances may require, by means of a small
pipe that leads to the outside. Another small pipe is laid in the bottom of
the trough for letting off the stagnant water, and for emptying the trough
occasionally; for in very dark damp weather, a drier heat is required.
The soil that I grow my plants in is collected at least six months before it
is wanted for use, and consists of turf not more than 3 inches thick, of strong
maiden loam, built up in narrow ridges, with a layer alternately of an
equal quantity of fresh horse- dung, and a good portion of straw. When
wanted for use it is chopped up with a spade, is not sifted, and one-third of
well decayed leaf-mould is added. In order to have a succession of fruit, it
is requisite to sow the seed at three different times, the 1st and 20th of
September, and the 5th of November. The first and second sowing I fruit
in No. 2 pots, and the third I plant out. Before placing the plants in the
fruiting pots, I first put a quantity of large potsherds at the bottom, with some
large pieces of turf and dung, in order to insure a good drainage. The plants
are placed sufficiently deep to leave three or four inches at the top of the pot,
so that the plants may be earthed up as they advance in growth. When the
pots are filled with roots, a good supply of water is given of the same tem-
perature as that of the air they are grown in. I place one plant in the
centre of each light, taking care that the bottom of each pot is about four
inches above the water in the trough and the return pipe. The branches
are trained on a temporary trellis, and the fruit is allowed to hang down.
503
CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER IN POTS.
From the plants sown on the 1st of September I cut the first-fruit on the
4th of November ; from that date to the 4th of December I have cut from
three lights, or three plants, forty beautiful fruit of the Syon House kind,
varying from twelve to fifteen inches in length. The same plants will con-
tinue bearing till about Christmas. I have just (Jan. 10th) begun to cut
from the second sowing, which will continue bearing through March. The
plants of the first sowing are thrown away at Christmas, and plants of the
third sowing are planted out in their place. When I plant in a bed, I form
the bottom of the bed by laying some strong stakes across the trough, and
covering them with any rough boards. The stakes so laid will leave a
cavity round the back and front of the trough, so as to allow the heat and
moisture to rise from the bottom. The plants are put out in a narrow
ridge, and earthed up in the usual way as they advance in growth, and the
branches are trained upon a trellis, in the same way as for the plants in
pots. These plants will bear well through the spring and summer months.
As soon as the first three lights can be spared, I introduce shelves fifteen
inches from the glass, and fill them with strawberry plants ; and the pit
answers equally well as for cucumbers, only for strawberries the bottom-
heat is not wanted."
1076. The advantages gained by this pit over any pit that I have ever
seen or heard of, are, firstly, a great saving of labour and dung, which last
at all times makes a very littery and unsightly appearance ; secondly, the
having a sufficient command of top-heat in severe arid changeable weather ;
thirdly, the return pipe being buried, or partly buried, in water, gives a
sufficient bottom-heat, moist or dry, at pleasure ; and fourthly, the vapour
which can be produced from the trough admits of keeping the air at any
degree of moisture required. By these means, the plants become so healthy
and strong that a good crop of fine fruit is certain. — (Gard. Chron. for
1841, p. 36.)
1077. Messrs. J. Weeks and Co., who erected Mr. Greens pit, have
obligingly furnished us with a section of it, fig. 357, to a scale of ^- of an
inch to a foot.
a a, Outer walls.
b, Hot-water pipes, laid in a trough of
brickwork (c), which ran be filled with
water, and emptied at pleasure.
C, Trough of brick-work.
d </, Ground level.
e, Joists of wood or iron, forming the floor
of the pit.
f, Bed for planting or plunging, in which
there may be upright tubes, chimney
pipes, or flower-pots with the bottoms
out, at regular distances, so to admit
at pleasure the moist air from the
chamber below.
<7, The trellis.
Fig. 357. Mr. Green's Cucumber Pit.
Scale i of an inch to a foot.
h 7i, Hot-water pipes for top-heat.
SUBSECT. IV. — Culture of the Cucumber in Pots, in a Pinery, Vinery, or in a
Cucumber -house.
1078. The culture of the cucumber in pots has been reduced to a regular
system by Mr. W. P. Ay res, whose Treatise on the Cultivation of the
Cucumber in Pots (1841, 3s. 6rf.), is not only the cheapest of six treatises
CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER IN POTS. 507
which have been published on the same subject, but in our opinion the best.
Mr. Ayres's great object is the production of "quantity" of fruit rather
than fruit of large size ; " a dozen fruit of moderate length," he says, " may
be grown in the same time that it takes to prepare the plant and produce
one or a brace of fruit of unusual dimensions." "In every garden
where either pines are grown or vines forced early, frame-forcing of
cucumbers may be entirely dispensed with, and fruit of superior quality,
in greater quantity, and at a fiftieth part of the expense, produced." (Pref.}
The principal features in which Mr. Ayres's book differs from those which
have gone before it, is in advocating a lower temperature at night and in
dull weather ; in taking greater advantage of light ; in not stopping the
leading shoot till the plants are fully established ; and his using water of
the same temperature as the soil the plants grow in. The principle of
maintaining a lower temperature at night is not to be disputed ; but a proper
distinction should be made between tropical plants — inhabiting regions
where the usual difference between the temperatures of day and night is but
little — and plants of higher latitudes, where a difference of 20° or 30° is not
unusual. In the case of plants kept generally in a temperature of 80°, or
say in a mean of 75°, a reduction of 5° will affect them as much as a reduc-
tion of 10° or 15° would others habituated to a mean temperature of 50°. A
rustic in this country would scarcely feel a difference of 15° lower tempera-
ture, whereas a negro would feel miserably cold if he were placed in a tem-
perature as much as lo°, or even 10°, below 75°, or any other higher degree
at which he might have previously found himself comfortable. If a range
of 20° is necessary to effect the requisite firmness of tissue in plants of this
climate, the same effect would be produced by a range of less than 10° as
regards the highly-excited plants of the tropical regions.
" Cucumber pits and frames have the sashes generally placed at an angle of
15°, which is 13° too low to obtain the full solar power in June, when the sun is
at his greatest altitude, GO0 too low for December, and 36° too low for March
and September." To cut cucumbers through the winter, from November to
February, in pits or frames heated by fermenting materials only, is almost an
impossibility, let them be attended ever so closely. The reason of this is
the atmosphere of the pit being too moist, the plants absorb more aqueous
matter than they can decompose and assimilate, and consequently, their
digestive energies being impeded, the leaves become covered with mildew
and other fungi, which consume their juices, choke their respiratory organs,
and general debility, if not death, ensues. This is the cause of so many
young plants damping off in dull weather, but keep them in an atmosphere
which can be kept moist or dry, in accordance with the absence or presence
of light, and no such effect will be produced ; thus proving the superiority
of a heating apparatus, that will place the hygrometric state of the atmo-
sphere under the control of the attendant, and explaining the reason of
cucumbers growing so much better in houses heated by fire, than in dung
pits, in the winter season. — (p. 8.)
1079. Construction of the cucumber house. — The grand point to deter-
mine is the slope of the glass, so as to obtain a maximum of solar influence
in midwinter. " To obtain the perpendicular rays of the sun in December,
it would be necessary in latitude 53° to place the glass at an angle of 75° 28';
in January, 71° 52'; in February, 62° 29'; and in March, 51° 41'." As the
sun has but little influence from the autumnal to the venial equinox, Mr.
508
CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER IN POTS.
Ay res prefers securing the perpendicular rays in March and September,
and therefore places his glass at an angle of 51°. At this angle he loses
much of the sun's power in the summer, but that is of no consequence in a
cucumber house.
Fig. 358, to a scale of J of an inch to a foot, is a copy of the section given
by Mr. Ayres ; in which #, " is the tan-bed in which the pots containing
the plants are plunged ; &, is the trellis to which the plants are trained ;
c, is the pathway under which is a flue, with the pipe of an Arnott's stove
passing through it, and c?, is the ground line. Arnott's stove must stand in
a vault accessible from without about a foot below the level of the bottom
of the flue, to secure a good draught to the fire. The flue should be
divided into four equal compartments, the first and third of which, by
keeping the pipes wholly, or partially immersed in water, might be made to
produce moist heat, while the others will produce dry heat ; so that by
tilting or removing the covering tiles of any of the compartments, the
humidity of the atmosphere will be placed quite under the command of the
attendant. The cost of the stove
and piping to heat a house of the
above dimensions, and 20 feet
long, would not be more than 41.
10*., and in the most severe wea--
ther, with the assistance of the
bark bed, it would maintain a
temperature of 65° or 70° for about
sixpence per day ; and in ordi-
nary weather, it would not cost
more than from eighteenpence to
two shillings per week. A stove
of this kind, with Welsh coal,
would not require attending more
than four times in twenty-four
hours. Hot water would be pre-
ferable to a stove, but it would be
more expensive, both in the erec-
tion and subsequent management."
(P. 4). A hot- water apparatus,
as Mr. Ayres observes, would be
more expensive in the first in-
stance, but once well put up it is
not liable to get out of order for a series of years. Explosive gases are often
formed in Arnott's stove ; and altogether its management is precarious.
Such a house as fig. 358 might be heated by hot water by Corbett's
open gutters at very little expense, for the gutters might be of wood, or
of the cast-iron eaves guttering used for projecting roofs. The pit might
be filled with tan or leaves for plunging the pots in in winter and spring,
and in summer writh soil in which the plants might be grown without pots.
The glass in Mr. Ayres' house is fixed, the sash bars being inserted into the
wall plates at top and bottom ; and air being admitted through holes a foot
square along the top of the back wall, protected by coarse canvas. The expense
of erecting a house of this kind would be little more than that of erecting
a brick pit of the same length. The glass, which ought to be of the new
Fig. 358. Mr. Ayres' Cucumber-house.
Scale % of an inch to a foot.
CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER IN POTS. 509
sheet kind, in panes from three feet to four feet in length, may be covered with
wooden shutters, reed or straw mats, or Pocock's asphalte roofing, placed
two inches distant from the glass. The great advantage of this house is,
that let the weather be what it will the plants can always be properly
attended and treated.
1080. Treatment of the plants. — The cucumber, Mr. Ayres observes,
will grow in any soil, even old tan or brick rubbish, provided liquid
manure is supplied. He uses turfy loam two parts, thoroughly decom-
posed dung two parts, leaf mould two parts, and very sandy turfy peat two
parts. The whole thoroughly incorporated immediately before using,
but not sifted. Manure water is prepared by steeping two pecks of
sheep or deer dung, one peck of pigeon's dung, and half a peck of soot, in
a hogshead of boiling rain water ; in two days it will be fit for use. When
applied, it is diluted with rain water, and used alternately with clear water
from March to October. The great secret of keeping the cucumber in
vigorous growth in pots, Mr. Ayres continues, is the use of manure water.
The plants should be raised from seed sown on the first of August, so as to be
fit for planting in fruiting pots in the first week of September. These pots
should not be less than sixteen inches wide, and eighteen inches deep. Two
plants should be placed in each pot, but the leading shoot must not be
stopped, but be allowed to grow until it reaches the top of the house. " On
this, success in pot culture mainly depends, for if the plants are stopped, they
are thrown into a bearing state before they are sufficiently established, and
the consequence is early fruit, but a short-lived plant ; but if the plants are
allowed to grow to the length of ten or fifteen feet before the leading shoot
is stopped, a great quantity of true sap will be generated, and the plant will
consequently be better able to support a crop than if it had been allowed to
bear fruit before it was properly established" (p. 12). The temperature
which Mr. Ayres approves of is 60° through the night, 65° in dull, and 70° in
clear weather, by fire heat; and 80°, 90°, or even 100° with plenty of
atmospheric moisture and air in sunny weather. The two shoots from the
two plants in each pot are to be trained to the trellis at one foot nine inches
apart ; and when they begin to send out laterals these must be stopped at one
joint above the fruit. Impregnation or setting the fruit Mr. Ayres believes
does neither good nor harm, for he has cut scores of fruit, the flowers of
which never expanded. If the fruit grows crooked, he places it in glass
tubes or narrow troughs, which mould it into the proper form ; or he sus-
pends a small weight by a piece of bast to the end of each fruit, a practice
which appears to have been first adopted by Mr. Robert Fish. For various
other details we must refer to the \vork itself, which indeed ought to be in
the hands of every cucumber grower, whether on dung beds, in pits in the
open garden, or in a cucumber house. We may observe here that cucumbers
were, we believe, first grown in a cucumber house on a trellis under the
sloping glass about the end of the last century by Mr. Butler, the Earl of
Derby's gardener. The roots of the plants were in a bed of soil, and as they
ceased to bear they were renewed one or two at a time, so that there was a
perpetual crop throughout the year. In 1806 we first saw this cucumber
house with an abundant crop, and in 1819, when we again saw it, the same
gardener informed us that the house had never been without fruit since the
period of our former visit.
I, L
510 CULTIVATION OF THE CUCUMBER.
SUBSECT. IV. — Culture and Treatment of the Cucumber for Prize Exhibitions.
1081. The largest growing varieties are chosen, of which Allen's Victory
of Suffolk, the Roman Emperor, Snow's Horticultural Prize, and Duncan's
Victoria, appear to be among the best. The plants must not be allowed to
set fruit till they have attained considerable strength. The fruit is put into
cylinders of glass or tin to protect the prickles and bloom. Every means is
employed to encourage vigorous growth, and rather a higher temperature is
maintained than hi ordinary culture. "In the event of fruit being ready to
cut before the time wanted, they should be divided three parts across their
foot-stalk, and secured to the trellis to prevent falling. By this means they
will keep fresh and stationary several days, much better than by cutting
or entirely separating them from the plant. If necessary to carry or send
them to a distance, they should be packed nicely in a box made for the
purpose, in the largest nettle leaves that can be got, or in cucumber leaves,
but by no means in smooth leaves, which are certain to rub off the
bloom. They may then be folded in tissue-paper, and wrapped in
wadding, and placed in narrow boxes of well-thrashed moss (see 860).
By these means the spines, powdery bloom, and partially withered blossom
at the end of the fruit are preserved, without which no cucumber can
be considered handsome, or well grown. In being exhibited they should
be put in dishes in pairs or leashes, on a little clean moss, or on vine leaves,
and the brace or leash should always be of the same sort, and if possible of
the same length, and of a kind having a pure black spine." — (Duncans
Cucumber Culture, p. 81.) When cucumbers have lost their bloom, the
blossom at the end of the fruit, or even some of their prickles, or when they
have not grown quite straight, all these defects used formerly to be supplied
by art. A bloom was put on the fruit by laying it on a wire frame in a
close box, and with a powder-puff charging the air of the box with a powder
formed of perfectly dry magnesia, minutely calcined. Half-decayed blos-
soms were stuck on the point of the fruit with a little gum ; and prickles
were inserted into small holes made with the point of a pin. Crooked cu-
cumbers were rendered straight by placing them in a damp cellar, and there,
by two strips of wood, one applied to each side, gradually effecting the object
in view. All these processes will be found described in detail in the
Gardeners' Magazine for 1828, p. 36 ; since which exposure they have been,
we believe, almost entirely given up ; but it is well to know that such tricks
have existed, in order to be on our guard against their revival.
SCBSECT. V. — Cultivation of the Cucumber in the open air.
1082. Cucumbers grown in the open air are commonly protected by hand or
bell glasses. — The seeds are sown some time about the middle of April in a
cucumber or melon bed, and when they come up, they are potted out into
small pots, two or three plants in each pot, and are kept properly watered,
and stopped at the first or second joint. About the middle of May, a warm
situation, where the mould is very rich, is pitched on, and a trench is dug
out about two feet deep and three feet broad, and the length is proportioned
according to the number of glasses it is intended for. The bottom of this
trench is covered with primings of bushes, or coarse vegetable rubbish of any
kind, and it is then filled with good warm dung, and when the dung is come
to its full heat, it is covered over with eight, ten, or twelve inches deep of
CULTIVATION OF THE CUCUMBER IN THE OPEN AIR. 511
rich mould. The glasses are then set upon it about three feet distant from
each other, and when the mould gets warm under them, the plants are
turned out of the pots with their balls whole, and plunged in the mould
under the glasses, and a little water given them to settle the mould about
their roots, the glasses set over them, and after they have made roots, and
begin to grow, in fine days they are raised a little on one side to let the
plants have the free air ; and as the weather gets warmer and warmer, air
is given more plentifully, to harden the plants, so that they may be able to
bear the open air, and run from under the glasses. When the plants begin
to fill the glasses, they are trained out horizontally, and the glasses are set
upon bricks or such like props, to bear them from the plants. After
this the plants require nothing more but to be supplied with water when
the summer showers are not sufficient, and to stop them when they
become deficient of branches, and thin them of leaves or branches when
they are likely to be overcrowded. In warm summers and in warm situa-
tions, by this mode of management, the plants will bear plentifully for about
two months, provided they be not attacked by insects or weakened by dis-
eases. If the situation should require shelter, a row of runner beans four
feet from the bed at the north side and ends, and a row of some crop that
will not grow more than three feet high, on the south side of the bed, and
about the same distance from it, will attain this object. The surface of
the ridge, for some time after it is made, should be covered with straw to
shoot off the wet, and the leading branches must be pegged to the soil, but
not stopped. — (Ayres.)
1083. Increasing the atmospheric heat of the soil.— When cucumbers are
grown on the natural ground, as they are extensively at Sandy in Bedford-
shire, a considerable portion of heat may be worked into it (see 956) by arti-
ficial means. Thus, when the bed has been marked out, let the soil be dug
over in the evening of every sunny day, and then either raked perfectly
smooth, or covered with mats or litter ; in this way the radiation of accu-
mulated heat being nightly intercepted, a sufficient quantity of heat will in
a week or ten days be collected, to raise the temperature 8 or 10 degrees
above that of the adjoining soil. — (Ayres's Treatise, p. 40.)
1084. Cucumbers against a south wall. — " Cucumbers will succeed beau-
tifully, trained against a south wall, if planted in a little good soil to start
them ; afterwards they will flourish in the soil of the border, without fur-
ther trouble, especially if the summer should be warm." — {Duncan's Cu-
cumber Culture, p. 83.) Warm coverings at night, so as to prevent the ra-
diation of heat acquired through the day, would, in this case, and also in that
of cucumbers grown in ridges, prove very beneficial.
1085. Growing cucumbers on balconies, or in court-yards. — " Those who
have no garden ground, but have yards or balconies on a south, east, or west
exposure, may plant them in very rich compost, in large pots, or boxes
eighteen inches or two feet square, and train the plants to the wall. They
will require precisely the same treatment in watering, stopping, &c., as
directed for pots in the cucumber house. In this way those who have no
garden may have the pleasure of growing their own cucumbers." — (Ayres's
Treatise, p. 41.)
1086. Watering cucumbers in the open garden. — During the time the
plants are under the glasses, they may be watered in the same way as if
they were under frames ; but after the glasses are raised, and the plants
L L 2
512 CULTURE OF THE BANANA.
permitted to extend themselves over the bed, a very different process must
be followed. Nothing is more common than to take a water-pot to a pump
and fill it with water, the temperature of which does not in all probability
exceed that of the mean temperature of the earth, viz. 48°, and directly
proceed to sprinkle the cucumbers. Now the soil in the open garden, from
May to September, will, if open and porous, seldom be below 60° in heat,
and therefore to apply water at 48° will reduce it to 54°, or, according to
Mr. Gregor Drummond (823-1) several degrees lower, and consequently
check the plants ; but if water is applied, the temperature of which is 70°,
the heat of the soil will be raised to 65°, or, according to Mr. Gregor Drum-
mond (ibid.), some degrees higher, and the plant will, as the cucumber
requires bottom heat, be much accelerated in growth. Water, therefore,
on a warm dull day, and as seldom as possible, but when it is done do it
effectually ; that is, saturate the ground to the depth of a foot at least, and
with water which, either by admixture with warm water, or by exposure
to the solar influence, has attained the same temperature as the soil in
which the plants are growing (ibid. p. 40).
1087. Cucumber and melon culture compared. — Much of what has been
advanced on the culture of the cucumber may be applied to the culture of
the melon, but their treatment differs in the following particulars. The
melon cannot be ripened in this country in the winter-time, and therefore
the seeds need never be sown before February. The soil for the melon
should be of a firm texture, loamy, and should lie solid in the bed rather
than loose like that of the cucumber. It is often covered with gravel,
pebbles, tiles, or slates (1047). When the fruit of the melon is advancing to
maturity, water must be gradually withheld so as not to deteriorate the
flavour ; whereas in cucumber culture the supply of water must be unin-
terrupted. The melon, in hot, dry seasons, can be brought to a higher
degree of perfection than the cucumber, because the atmosphere cannot in
general be kept sufficiently moist for the latter fruit. In the highest state
of cultivation, the cucumber requires as much heat as the melon ; but it may
be grown in a much lower temperature, more especially as compared with
that required by the Persian varieties of the melon, for these require a
greater heat than the Cantaloups.
SECTION IX. — Culture of the Banana.
1088. The banana (Musa paradisiaca, L.) is a scitamineous (50) herba-
ceous evergreen, a native of Asia, in forests, in soil formed of rich masses of
vegetable matter, kept moist by the shade of trees. There are many
varieties cultivated in India and other warm regions of the East, varying in
height from three feet to twenty feet ; but those which are in most esteem
in British gardens are the Musa p. Cavendishii, from the Isle of France, and
the M. p. dacca, from the East Indies, neither of which exceed the height
of three feet or four feet. The culture of these plants for their fruit in
British stoves is of very recent date, but as the fruit is excellent, and is
produced great part of the year, it may probably become as general as that of
the pine-apple. The culture of the banana for the dessert was first com-
menced by Mr. Paxton in 1836, who, after two years' trial at Chatsworth,
said that we " might recommend it advantageously for a suburban garden ;"
and this, as will be afterwards seen, is confirmed by five years' experience.
CULTURE OF THE BANANA. 513
(Cr. M. 1838, p. 104.) The Musa p. dacca, and some other varieties, have
been fruited by Mr. M'Nab, in the stove of the Edinburgh Botanic Garden,
who, in December 1836, sent a large box of it to the Lord Mayor of London,
for the banquet given to the Queen at Guildhall.— (G. M. 1838, p. 106.)
Some excellent varieties of banana have also been fruited in the gardens at
Syon ; and the Duke of Devonshire's variety, M. p. Cavendishii, is grown
in abundance for the table of the King of the French, at Versailles and
Meudon. — (See G. M. 1841, p. 387.) All the varieties of banana are
propagated by suckers ; they are grown in large pots or tubs, eighteen inches
or two feet in diameter, in a mixture of leaf-mould, sand, and thoroughly
rotten dung, and watered with liquid manure. The same temperature that
suits the pine-apple will suit the banana. Suckers will fruit within the
year, and they may be retarded or accelerated so as to ripen their fruit at
almost every season. The following paragraph on this fruit was supplied
to the Gardeners Magazine, in 1841, p. 430, by Mr. Paxton.
1089. A Banana house, 30 feet long, 15 feet wide, 12 feet high at the back
and six feet high at the front, heated by flues or by hot water, will hold
about ten full-grown or fruiting plants, with room between for different-sized
successional ones, to be tubbed successively as the large plants ripen off their
fruit, these being shaken out of their tubs as soon as the fruit is gathered, and
potted, to produce' suckers ; by judicious management in tubbing and in
administering water, a supply of fruit may be had the greater part of the
year. I have had at one time ten fruiting plants nearly of the same size and
age, being suckers produced the same spring, and receiving similar treat-
ment; yet no two of them produced their spadix at the same time ; and even
if they were disposed to do so, it may be prevented, different treatment being
given them. As their approach to fruiting is easily ascertained by their
leaves decreasing in size, soon after which the embryo fruit-stalk may be
detected by the sudden swelling of the lower part of the stem, if more than
one should show these indications at one time, the one it is desired to fruit
first must have abundance of water and the warmest situation, and the others
be retarded by opposite treatment. The period between them may be still
further lengthened a considerable time, if the whole spadix of fruit of one
approaching too close upon another in ripening be cut off with a portion of
the stem attached, when the upper tier of fruit is just ripening, and suspended
in a dry and airy room, in the way that late grapes are often kept. I have
cut excellent fruit from a spadix, two months after it had been separated
from the plant ; and they may be made to ripen fast or slow in this manner,
according to the temperature to which they are exposed. The quicker the
flower-stem is made to develop itself, the longer the spadix will be, and the
greater quantity of fertile flowers it will produce ; consequently the greater
weight of fruit, which will vary from fifteen to thirty pounds, according
to the plant's strength, the season, and other circumstances. I need hardly
add that the soil can scarcely be too rich, and that it should be rather light
than retentive, in order that abundance of water may be given, and readily
pass off. In Paxton s Magazine of Botany for 1836, it is observed that
"a pit 40 feet long, 15 feet broad, and 5 feet high, will produce several hun-
dredweight of fruit in a year, with no other care or attention than that of
giving plenty of manure to grow in, and a good supply of heat and water.
The Banana will fruit at all seasons, and no doubt with easier culture than
any kind of fruit grown under glass." — (Ibid. 1836, p. 316.)
514 FORCING THE STRAWBERRY.
SECT. X.— Forcing the Strawberry.
1090. Data on which the forcing of the strawberry is founded. — The straw-
berry (Fragaria, L.) is a genus of herbaceous perennials or biennials, of
which some species are natives of Europe, and others of North and South
America. They all grow in woods, and in soil more or less loamy and
moist ; but the kinds have been so changed by culture in British gardens,
and this culture has been so successful both in the open garden and under
glass, that we shall adopt it as a guide. Almost all the kinds of strawberry
in cultivation will bear forcing ; but the kinds preferred are chiefly the
Old Scarlet or Virginian, for its high flavour and colour in confectionary,
Keen's Seedling, and the lloseberry or Aberdeen Seedling, for their large
size and abundant crops, and occasionally the Alpine, because it can be
kept in a bearing state throughout great part of the winter. As the
flavour of the Scarlet and Keen's seedling strawberries is seldom good
when they are ripened before the middle or end of March, forcing is
seldom commenced till the middle of January, and those excited about
that time, and properly treated, will ripen fruit in about nine weeks.
The plants should be previously well established in pots; though in
default of this they may be taken up with balls, and potted, and at once
placed in the forcing-house ; or the balls may be set close together on the
surface of a bed of fermenting material, or heated by a flue or hot-water pipes
underneath. The crown of the plants, whether in pots or on a bed, should
not be more than a foot from the glass. The temperature at first should
not exceed 45° or 50°, with fire heat, and abundance of air should be given,
even when the temperature is as low as 40°. After the fruit is set, the tem-
perature may be raised from 55° to 60°, with fire heat, and 65 or 70° with
sun heat, provided abundance of air is given. Strawberries may be forced
with great advantage in the peach-house, or in the cherry-house, in pits, or
in such houses as that shown in fig. 127, in p. 189. They may be also forced
in the open garden by having pipes of hot water laid a foot under the surface
of the soil, between the rows of the plants, and covering them with glass or
with canvas during nights, and in stormy weather. In short nothing can
be more easy than forcing this most delicious fruit.
1091. Routine practice in forcing Keen's Seedling and the Old Scarlet or Vir-
ginian strawberries. — As soon as the runners are fit for the purpose, lay a quan-
tity, say twj> and three in a 32-pot, others one in a 60, in a good strong loam,
with a portion of well-decayed manure. Place a stone on each runner, for the
double purpose of keeping the plant in a fixed position and preserving moisture
to the roots. The first runners are preferable, the sort Keen's seedling.
As soon as the plants are well rooted, re-pot the sixties into thirty-twos,
and the thirty-twos into twenty-fours — still using the same strong soil ;
then place them in the hottest part of the garden, fully exposed to the direct
rays of the sun, but not under a wall. The best situation is the centre of a
vine-border, first placing there a quantity of half-decayed manure, generally
some old dung linings, to put round the pots, to prevent the sun acting too
powerfully on the roots. Here they should be left exposed to the elements
most conducive to bring them rapidly to a state of maturity : a free circulation
of air, abundance of moisture, which they should be liberally supplied with,
and a full share of solar heat. In this situation the plants grow freely,
forming well-matured crowns, to send up fine stems of bloom in the forcing-
FORCING THE STRAWBERRY. 515
house, with strong and vigorous roots to support them. Those in twenty-
fours remain ; after a time examine the others, and those that have the
strongest roots re-pot into twenty-fours, pursuing the same method as
before ; so that, out of 700 or 800 pots, half the number will be twenty-
fours, with one, two, or three plants in a pot, and the remainder in thirty-twos,
with one plant in a pot. One plant to either sized pot is preferable to a
greater number; and if the above method is pursued, it will, from the
rapidity of their growth, be found quite sufficient. If the autumnal rains
are heavy, lay the pots on their sides, and about the middle of December
place them in some frames, to keep the frost from injuring the roots, till
they are placed in the forcing-house.
1092. Thus grown and protected, the strawberries may, any time between
December and March, be brought into the forcing-pit, previously filled with
tan, dung, or leaves, to about eighteen inches of the glass. On this bed the
plants are set, and a gentle temperature of from 50° to 55° is maintained in
the pit : if without fire-heat, so much the better. From this time, till the
plants have perfected their fruits, a leaf should never be allowed to droop
for want of water : yet the reverse is equally destructive, more especially
before the flower-stems appear ; as soon, however, as these are up, a liberal
supply of water is necessary till the fruits get to their proper size ;
when it must again be supplied sparingly, only just enough to keep the
leaves from flagging, till the strawberries are gathered. Whilst in flower,
a temperature of from 60° to 65°, with a free circulation of air, is best.
The fruit once set, the plants will do well in a stove where the minimum
temperature is as high as 75°, provided abundance of air can be admitted.
Plants treated in this manner, introduced into the forcing-house in the
middle of December, will generally perfect their fruit about the middle
of March. The fruit ought to be thinned out : all the deformed ones should
be cut clean away, and the more promising ones should be pegged to the
sunny side of the pot, and if there are too many leaves the footstalks of a
number of them may be broken or twisted, so as to check the flow of sap
and throw it into the fruit. Dry heat and free air are indispensable to their
being well flavoured.
1093. After forcing, turn the plants out of the pots, and plunge them in
rows, at moderate distances, in a piece of spare ground in the garden, well
exposed to the sun and free circulation of air. From these a slight gather-
ing will be obtained after the natural crops are over ; and well-established
plants for forcing may be obtained from their runners, the latter being so much
earlier produced than they are from plants in the open ground. In the
autumn take the plants up with good balls of earth, and plant them in rows
in a melon-pit or cold frame, placing them rather thick, to economise the rows
and press the mould firmly to their roots. The pit need have neither
bottom-heat nor pipes, but be simply covered with mats. As soon as the
frosts set in, place the lights on, but do not begin to cover up with mats
before March. If warm showers come in April, take the lights off, and let
the plants have the benefit of the showers (which is better than watering from
a pot), to forward them. When the sun is shining hot in the afternoon,
shut up close, and cover up directly with double mats. You will find the
next morning a sensible difference in their appearance. These plants will
bear abundantly, coming hi at a very seasonable time, just before the out-
door strawberries, which are very often retarded by late frosts ; when the
516 FORCING TUE ASPARAGUS, SEA-KALE, RHUBARB,
days being generally very hot, strawberries are in great demand, and, it
being too hot for them in the houses, they are sometimes very scarce. After
the fruit is gathered, the plants are dug up and thrown away, and the pit
planted with melons. By following this simple routine, year after year,
you will be able to supply a family, however large, with abundant crops of
this beautiful fruit, and in the highest state of perfection, at a very trifling
expense. — (Gard. Mag. xvii. p. 265.)
1094. The Alpine strawberry continues bearing in the open air till it is
checked by frost, and if a month previously to this a number of plants have
been planted in a bed of soil on heat, or potted and placed in a frame, pit,
or strawberry-house, quite near the glass, and a temperature kept up of
from 45° to 55° during night, and from 55° to 60° during day, the plants will
continue bearing during winter; and they may be succeeded by other
plants kept through the winter in cold frames, and put into heat about the
middle of February. This mode is very successfully practised in the
neighbourhood of Paris. — (See Gordon, in Gard. Mag. for 1841, p. 269.)
SECT. XI. — Forcing the Asparagus, Sea-kale, Rhubarb, Chlccory,
and other fleshy roots.
1095. These different vegetables may be forced where they stand in the
open garden, by placing hot dung over them ; or when they are planted in
rows or beds, by digging out trenches between eighteen inches or two feet
wide, and two feet deep, and filling up these trenches with hot dung. Or
the plants may be taken up before the forcing season, with as many of the
roots as possible, and planted close together in a house, frame, pit, or even
cellar, on a bed of fermenting matter, or of soil heated artificially, at first
to 40° or 50°, and gradually raised to 60°, 65°, or 70°. Nothing can be more
simple or easy than this kind of forcing, since it is merely the excitement by
heat and moisture, without or with but very little light and change of air, of
the mass of vegetable nutriment laid up in the root-stalk.
1096. Asparagus. — In the beginning of winter, begin six weeks before it
is proposed to have a crop ; when the days are longer, five weeks, or but a
calendar month before. Those who wish to have asparagus on the table at
Christmas should prepare for forcing it in November. The temperature
at night should never be under 50°. In the day-time, keep the maximum
down to 62°. If by the heat of the bark or dung, and the use of mats or
canvas covers at night, the thermometer stand as high as 50°, fire-heat will
be unnecessary ; but otherwise recourse must be had to the flues or hot- water
pipes. A very moderate degree of fire-heat, however, will be sufficient ;
and a small fire made in the evening will generally answer the purpose.
Sometimes in dull, hazy weather a fire may be necessary in the morning,
in order to enable you to admit air more freely, and to dry off damp. Air
must be freely admitted every day in some cases, to allow any steam to pass
off, and for the sake of the colour and flavour of the plants. As the buds
begin to appear, as large a portion of air must be daily admitted as the
weather will permit. When the asparagus bed has, after planting, stood
two or three days, and when the heat has begun to warm the roots, give the
plants a sufficient watering. Pour it out of a pot, with the rose on it, to
imitate a shower of rain ; let the bed have enough to moisten the mould
well, and to wash it in among the roots. Repeat such waterings now and
then. By the time the buds have come up three inches above the surface,
CHICCORY, AND OTHER FLESHY ROOTS. 517
they are fit to gather for use, as they will then be six or seven inches in
length. In gathering them, draw aside a little of the mould, slip down the
finger and thumb, and twist them off from the crown. This is a better
method than to cut them ; at least it is less dangerous to the rising buds,
which come up in thick succession, and might be wounded by the knife, if
cutting were practised. The roots, after they have furnished a crop, are
considered useless for future culture, because no leaves having been allowed
to develop themselves, of course no buds could be formed for the succeed-
ing year. If the pit in which asparagus is forced be twenty-five feet to
thirty feet long, it will be enough for the supply of an ordinary family to
fill one-half at a time. If the second half be planted when the shoots in the
first half are fit for use, and so on, a constant succession may be kept up in the
same pit for any length of time required. In some gardens asparagus is
grown in beds cased with pigeon-holed brickwork, with alleys between two
feet wide and two feet deep, which are filled with hot dung, and frames are
put over the beds. This, however, is an expensive mode, and we are not
aware of any advantage which it has over Mr. Lmdegaard's practice of
merely deepening the alleys to about three and a half feet, and filling them
up with hot dung, covering the beds with litter, over which hoops for sup-
porting mats should be placed ; or any other means of protection should be
adopted that may best prevent the effects of cold at night, or of rain and
sleet, or snow, either of which would rob the ground of much of its acquired
warmth from the linings. Beds treated in this manner in December will
produce a crop in four or five weeks, which will last for five or six weeks.
After the crop is gathered, the dung is removed from the alleys, which are
then filled to the brim with rich soil, for the roots to strike into. Asparagus
plants forced in this manner are injured, but in three seasons they will
be restored and may be forced again successfully. When asparagus is
forced in this manner later in the season, much less dung is required, and
the plants are proportionately less injured. — (Hort. Trans, vol. v. p. 509.)
1097. Sea-kale may be forced exactly in the manner above described for
asparagus ; but a less degree of heat is required, for the sea-kale naturally
shoots up early in spring, while the buds of the asparagus are much later in
appearing. The asparagus requires to be grown four years from the seed be-
fore it is fit to force, and hence Mr. Lindegaard's mode, by which the plants are
not destroyed, is the best where practicable ; but as the sea-kale can be forced
at two years' growth, and the plants are consequently less valuable, there is
less objection to taking them up, forcing them, and throwing them away.
Mr. Errington plants a certain number of rows of sea-kale every spring, three
feet apart, and the plants fifteen inches distant in the rows ; the plants having
been raised from seed the previous year in a drill. The roots are taken up for
forcing as soon as the leaves are decaying, with much care ; and as much as
possible removed entire, as the root is of course a magazine of nourishment for
the incipient bud. The main stock is then 4 laid in by the heels,' and covered
with litter until wanted. In the mushroom -house there is a pit or trench
sunk below the level of the floor-line about four feet : this furnishes room in
the length of the house for about four successive ages ; and the second lot of
roots is introduced the moment the first begins to bud, and so on with the
rest. Fermenting matter, viz., dung and leaves mixed, is placed about two
feet six inches deep, under the roots, taking care to have bottom-heat
enough ; as, if that becomes too hot, the heat can easily be reduced with
518 FORCING THE ASPARAGUS, SEA-KALE, &C.
water; and the more water the sea- kale receives in this way, the more
tender it becomes. The roots are placed in this fermenting matter as thick
as they will stand, merely flooding in some fine old tan or old rich soil with
water, to fill the crevices between the roots completely. The surface of the
crowns, when so placed, is a foot, or nearly so, below the floor line ; and,
when planted, a row of trusses of straw is laid side by side over the whole,
to shut in the steam, and keep it completely dark, which is one of the main
points ; and, with the straw and the shutters, this is completely effected. In
the same house Mr. Errington produces a continual supply of chiccory,
rhubarb, and other articles, by the same system. — (G. M. 1841, p. 270.)
No vegetable is more easily or cheaply forced than sea-kale, whether in the
open air in beds or drills, or by covering the plants with pots (fig. 58, in p. 143)
or boxes to be surrounded by hot dung ; or by taking up the plants and potting
them, and placing them in cellars, frames, or pits, or on a bed of heated ma-
terials. A temperature of from 40 to 45 degrees will excite vegetation, after
which it may be raised to 50 or 55 degrees. Great care must be taken never
to exceed 55 degrees. Plants of sea-kale in the open ground may be forced
every year ; but much the cheapest mode is to take up the roots and force
on beds heated artificially.
1098. Rhubarb and Chiccory. — What has been said of sea-kale, in the
preceding paragraph, will apply equally to rhubarb and chiccory. They
may both be forced in the open ground by trenches filled with hot dung, or
by pots or boxes placed over them, and surrounded by that material ; or,
what is by far the most economical mode, the plants may be taken up and
potted, and placed in a cellar ; or, like the sea-kale, they may be planted
close together on a bed of material heated artificially, or laid side by side in
the floor of a vinery, or between the flue and wall, and covered with
tan, peat, or leaf-mould. The rhubarb should be grown at least two years
from the seed, in the same manner as the sea-kale, before being taken up
for forcing ; but the chiccory may be sown the same year. The leaves of
the chiccory require to be blanched, and therefore it ought always to be
forced in the dark ; but as most people prefer the rhubarb only partially
blanched, a certain degree of light may be admitted. In Belgium the
roots of chiccory are taken up on the approach of winter, and stacked in
cellars in alternate layers of sand, so as to form ridges with the crowns of the
plants on the surface of the ridge. Here, if the temperature is a few degrees
above the freezing point, the crowns soon send out leaves in such abundance
as to afford an ample supply of salad during the whole winter. — (See
Lippold, in G. M. for 1836, p. 250.)
1099. Forcing other roots. — The common dandelion (Leontodon Taraxa-
cum, L.) affords a salad in all respects equal to that of the chiccory, and may
be similarly treated. Hamburg parsley, the common parsley, burnet, fennel,
wild spinach (Chenopodium Bonus Henricus, Z,.), wild beet, for the leaves
as spinach, and the common turnip -for the leaves as greens, and various
other plants having fleshy roots, and of which the foliage or leaf- stalks are
used in salads or cookery, may be forced on the same principle as asparagus,
sea-kale, &c. ; the practice being founded on the physiological fact first
explained to gardeners by Mr. Knight, viz., that " the root of every perennial
herbaceous plant contains within itself, during winter, all the organisable
matter which it expends in the spring in the formation of its first
foliage and flower-stems ; and that it requires neither food nor light to
FORCING THE COMMON POTATO, &C. 519
enable it to protrude these, but simply heat and water ; and if the root be
removed entire, as soon as its leaves become lifeless, it will be found to vege-
tate, after being replanted, as strongly as it would have done if it had retained
its first position."
SECT. XII. — Forcing the common Potato, the sweet Potato, and other tubers.
1100. The common potato (Solanum tuberosum, L.) is forced in a great
variety of ways. The best varieties for this purpose are the ash-leaved
kidney, the Rufford kidney, Fox's seedling, and Shaw's Early. (See
our CATALOGUE OF CULINARY VEGETABLES). They may be forced in
pots on shelves in a peach-house or vinery, or in frames or pits mode-
rately heated, the plants in every case being kept quite near the glass,
as few plants suffer more when placed at a distance from the glass than
the potato. Abercrombie says, " for a fair crop of tubers, which shall be
somewhat dry and floury, and of the size of a hen's egg, plant sets of
the ash-leaved variety in single pots filled one-third part with light earth
in January. Place them in a hothouse or hotbed, earth them up as they
appear, and about the middle or end of February transplant them, with their
balls entire, into a pit prepared as for asparagus. Distance, from plant to
plant, one foot each way. Give water occasionally, and admit as much air
as possible at all times. Potatoes so managed will produce a crop at the end
of March or beginning of April." The general mode is to plant in frames or
pits, on a bed of fermenting material, sufficient to produce a gentle heat, for
the potato will not bear rapid forcing, a high temperature, or a dry atmo-
sphere. They however, cannot have too much light, being natives of a high
table-land, with a clear sky. Some gardeners plant them on old hotbeds
and supply the heat by linings ; and many plant them on beds unprotected
by glass, but covered with hoops and mats during nights and very severe
weather.
1101. A substitute for new potatoes is obtained by placing layers of pota-
toes alternately with sawdust in a box, and placing it in a moderate tem-
perature hi a room or cellar. The potatoes vegetate and produce tubers in
December and January, about the size of walnuts, and sometimes larger,
without any leaves having been protruded. This plan is most successful
when potatoes of the growth of the season-before-last are used. By this
treatment, no leaves will emerge above the soil, and, consequently, as no
nutritive matter can be deposited by them, the new potatoes, which may
be produced at any required period by burying the old potatoes three weeks
before, are nothing more than a recomposition of the old tuber, in conse-
quence of the application of heat and moisture. Few persons, however, will
be satisfied with this kind of substitute for a new potato formed by the aid
of light and foliage. Another mode of producing a substitute for new
potatoes is, by retarding the tubers of early varieties, by keeping them in a
cool dry cellar till June or July, and then planting them. Being early
sorts, they produce, even when planted thus late, a crop of young potatoes
which possess in a great degree the flavour peculiar to potatoes taken
fresh from the stem. By covering the ground with litter, so as to exclude
the frost, young potatoes may thus be obtained throughout the winter. (See
G. M.) vol. viii., p. 56, and our CATALOGUE OF CULINARY VEGETABLES).
In the mild climate of Cornwall, where the winters frequently pass \vith
little or no frost, the planting of sets can be deferred till autumn ; and with
520 FORCING KIDNEY- BEANS AND PEAS.
a little protection, the plants, although pushed above ground, are preserved
through the winter, and, in consequence, afford an early supply of genuine
young potatoes. — (G. M.t ii., p. 464, and v., p. 107.)
1102. The sweet potato (Convolvulus Batatas, L.\ though hut little
cultivated in British gardens, is imported from Spain and sold in the fruit-
shops. It is cultivated in the open air in the neighbourhood of New York
(G. M. vol. v. p. 275) during their hot summers, and on dung-beds in the
neighbourhood of Paris, where it is sold in the market and the fruit-shops,
and much esteemed. The best crops that we saw in 1828 were in Admiral
TchitchigofFs garden at Sceaux. The tubers are planted in February, or
earlier or later at pleasure, and in the pine-stove or in a small hotbed ; and
the shoots they produce are taken off and planted a foot apart every way, on
dung-beds, covered with 15 inches of earth and protected by hoops and mats
in the manner of ridged cucumbers. This may be done any time from April to
June, and the shoots are not dibbled in, but laid down in drills about 3 inches
deep, keeping 2 inches of the point of the shoot above the earth. In about
two months after transplanting, some of the tubers will be fit to take off for
use, and the plants will continue producing till they are destroyed by frost.
l"o preserve the tubers through the winter the greatest care is required. In
the King's forcing-gardens at Versailles, they are kept in a growing state all
the winter in the pine-stoves. With the exception of this difficulty of pre-
serving the tubers through the winter, the sweet potato is just as easily
cultivated as the common potato. Though the shoots are naturally ascend-
ing and twining, like those of Tamus communis, the plants are not sticked,
and therefore the shoots cover the ground, and form over it a thick matting
of dark green smooth foliage. In the early part of the season, the tubers
are taken off as they attain the size of early kidney potatoes ; later the
whole crop is dug up. If the sweet potato were once fairly introduced into
British gardens, we have no doubt it would form an article of regular
culture there. (G. M. v. 276.)
1103. The Oxalis Deppei, which, it will be found from our CULINARY
CATALOGUE, produces tubers, stems, and foliage, that are much esteemed ; and
the Tropeeolum tuberosum, which also produces eatable tubers, with the
flavour of sea-kale or the richest asparagus, may be forced in the same
manner as the potato.
SECT. XIII. — Forcing Kidney -beans and Peas.
1104. The kidney-bean (Phaseolus vulgaris, £.), being a native of India,
may be forced in the same heat as that required for the pine-apple ; but
although it will bear this extreme, it will succeed in a temperature very much
lower. The varieties generally preferred are — the early speckled, early
negro, and dun-coloured dwarf, the latter being thought the best. They are
planted in equal parts of rotten dung reduced to a soil, and loam, in shallow
24-sized pots : place in the bottom of the pot one inch of crocks, and above
them 1 inch of soil ; then plant six beans, covering them with 1 inch more
of soil. These pots may be stowed away in any corner of the stove till the
plants appear above ground, when they must be brought near the glass, and
thinned out to two or three of the best plants. As they advance, they must
be earthed up ; and the leader may be pinched off, to render them short and
bushy. When they come into flower, air must be admitted, to set the fruit ;
and every pod must be gathered as soon as it is fit for the table, not to rob
FORCING SALADS, POT-HERBS, &C. 521
the others that are forming. The plants may be grown in a house at any
temperature above freezing, and below blood-heat ; the medium, 60° to 65°,
is preferable. They succeed well when planted out in a pit or frame, with
or without bottom-heat, in rows 18 inches apart, and 3 inches in the row ;
and, as they advance, they are to be topped as above, and sticked. Planted
at Christmas, they require about eight weeks to bring fruit fit for the table,
in a temperature of 60° or 65°. To have kidney-beans all the year, the first
sowing for forcing should be made in August, and sowings should be
made every four or five weeks till April, after which the crop in the open
air from plants which have been raised in heat will come into use. The
aphis and thrips often attack the French bean when grown under glass, but
these insects may be readily destroyed by fumigation, by tobacco-water, or
by quassia -water.
1105. The common garden pea (Pisum sativum, L.), may be forced, but
being a native of a colder climate (the South of Europe), not so successfully
as the kidney-bean. The best early varieties are the early May, early
Warwick, and early frame. It is necessary to begin at a low tem-
perature, and not to exceed 50° or 60° with sun heat, and from 40° to 50°
during the night, till the fruit is set. Afterwards the temperature may
be increased, so as to vary during the day from 55° to 70°. The peas may
be sown in pots or boxes, and either fruited in them, or transplanted into
other pots or boxes, or a pit. In general the best mode is to grow them in
pots or boxes, because these admit of being kept well ventilated and close
to the glass. Without abundance of light and air it is in vain to attempt
forcing the pea. For the earliest crop the seeds may be sown in October,
and these will produce pods in February or March, from which time by
successive sowing, peas may be obtained till they are produced in the open
ground from plants which have been raised in heat, and transplanted into a
warm sheltered situation. Whatever description of forcing is adopted, trans-
planting is found to check luxuriance, concentrate growth, and produce a
greater amount of blossom in a limited space.
SECT. XIV. — Forcing Salads, pot-herbs, sweet-herbs, and other
culinary plants.
1106. Lettuce, chiccory, radish, cress, mustard, rape, parsley, chervil,
carrot, turnip, onion, and similar plants, may be raised in pots or in beds,
in a gentle heat, and quite near the glass. In general it will be of little
use beginning to sow sooner than January ; and indeed, with the exception
of the carrot, parsley, and onion, February will be soon enough, on account
of the light required. Young carrots being much used in soups, some
families require a supply all the year, which is to be obtained by successive
sowings in the open air and on heat. The first sowing on heat may be made
in January, to succeed the autumnal sowing in the open garden ; and the
second may be made in February or March, to serve till the first crop in
the open air comes into use.
1107. Small salading, such as cresses, mustard, rape, radish, chiccory,
lettuce, &c., to be cropped when in the seed leaf, or in the third or fourth
leaf, may be sown hi boxes or in beds, and kept in a warm, moist atmo-
sphere, near the light. As the plants forming small salading are always
cut beneath the seed-leaf, as soon as one portion of salading is gathered, the
522 FORCING SALADS, POT-HERBS, &C.
soil may be stirred and a second crop sown. Where there is a constant
demand for small salading, a sowing requires to be made every week.
1108. Radish. — To obtain the earliest spring radishes, Abercrombie
directs to " sow on a hot-bed, of dung or leaves, some of the early dwarf
short-top varieties in December, January, or the beginning of February.
Having made a hot-bed two feet or two and a-half feet high of dung, place
on the frame. Earth the bed at top six inches deep ; sow on the surface,
covering the seed with fine mould about half an inch thick ; and put on the
glasses. When the plants have come up, admit air every day in mild or tole-
rably good weather, by tilting the upper end of the lights, or sometimes the
front, one, two, or three inches, that the radishes may not draw up weak and
long-shanked. If they have risen very thick, thin them in young growth,
moderately at first, to about one or two inches apart. Be careful to cover
the glasses at night. Give gentle waterings about noon, on sunny days.
If the heat of the bed declines much, apply a moderate lining of warm
dung or stable litter to the sides, which, by gently renewing the heat, will
forward the radishes for drawing in February and March. Remember, as they
advance in growth, to give more copious admissions of air daily, either by
tilting the lights in front several inches, or, in fine mild days, by drawing
the glasses mostly off; but be careful to draw them on again in proper
time. Small turnip-radishes of the white and red kinds may be forced in
the same manner. For raising early radishes on ground not accommodated
with frames, a hot-bed made in February may be arched over with hoop-
bends or pliant rods, which should be covered with mats constantly at night,
and during the day in very cold weather. In moderate days turn up the
mats at the warmest side, and on a fine mild day take them wholly off."
1109. To produce f all-grown cabbage-lettuces throughout the winter is a
desideratum in Holland, where the higher classes have cabbage-lettuces on
their tables every day in the year. The seed is sown on the first of
September, and when the plants have produced their fourth leaf they are
transplanted into a melon-bed which has done bearing ; and as soon as they
have taken root, abundance of air is given night and day. In October,
when the air grows cold, and the heads of the cabbage-lettuce begin to get
close or hard, air is no longer given, and the lights are entirely closed ; but
the leaves must be prevented from touching the glass, as, if they do, the
least unexpected frost will hurt their edges, and the consequence will be
that the plants will rot. In this case the frame will have to be lifted every
now and then. When the nightly frosts commence, generally in October,
great attention must be paid to covering the beds with a single layer of bast
mats, and adding slight linings ; yet too much covering is to be avoided
before the plants are grown to perfect heads. Watering is quite out of the
question, and even very hurtful ; care, indeed, should be taken to prevent
moisture as much as possible. Cover more or less, according to the severity
of the weather, and keep the lights uncovered in the day, whenever and as
much as the weather will permit. In this way the Dutch gardeners produce
cabbage-lettuce during the whole winter till April, when they are succeeded
by the plants which have been early forced. In the Royal gardens in
Denmark, this method was practised by M. Lindegaard for nearly half
a century ; by Mr. Rutger, at Longleat, for thirty years : for an equal
period at Bulstrode, when that place was the residence of the Duke of
Portland; and for a number of years at Hy lands, when that property
FORCING THE MUSHROOM. 523
belonged to P. C. Labouchere, Esq. — (See G. M. vi., p. 691 ; viii., p. 174,
and iii. p. 388.)
1110. Perennial pot and sweet herbs, such as mint, sage, tarragon, savory,
thyme, tansy, scurvy-grass, and such like plants, may be taken up from
the open ground, potted, and transferred to the forcing-house, where they
will soon produce abundance of foliage ; care being taken to let the heat
with which forcing is commenced be low, in proportion to the coldness of
the country of which the plant is a native, and that of the season at which
it naturally expands its leaves. Thus, in forcing scurvy-grass, which is a
native of Denmark, a much lower temperature ought to be commenced with
than in forcing sage, which is a native of Greece ; and again, a plant which
naturally springs up in April will bear commencing with a higher tempera-
ture than one which makes considerable progress in the previous colder
months.
SECT. XV. — Forcing the Mushroom.
SUBSECT. I. — Data on which the Culture and Forcing of the Mushroom
is founded.
1111. The mushroom (Agaricus campestris L.) is indigenous to Britain,
appearing " in the fields chiefly after Midsummer, in the months of July,
August, and most abundantly in September. On a ten years' average, the
temperature of these months respectively in the neighbourhood of London
has been found to be 64°, 02°, and 57° ; and in the same periods the tempe-
rature of the earth one foot below the surface is a few degrees higher ; but
at the depth of two or three inches, where the vegetating spawn is situated,
the temperature in hot sunny weather is frequently as high as 80°. Whilst
such hot weather continues, mushrooms are rarely met with ; but when the
atmosphere changes to a humid state, and when the earth becomes suffi-
ciently moistened and lowered in temperature, in consequence of rain and
absence of sun-heat, to be between 60° and 65°, mushrooms become plenti-
ful. Hence it may be concluded that spawn will not be injured by a heat
of 80° during what may be termed its underground state of progression.
This is corroborated by the fact that spawn introduced into melon-frames
when the beds are moulded, increases whilst the melons are grown in a heat
of about 80° ; and when the melon crop is over, the frame cleared, and the
heat of the bed naturally abated, a gentle watering, with shade, is all that
is necessary to bring up an excellent crop of mushrooms from the spawn so
deposited. It is evident, from what has been stated, that the spawn requires
a high temperature for its diffusion ; but, when this has taken place, a
declining temperature is requisite, till gradually the bottom-heat is lowered
to 60° or 65°, and the temperature of the air limited between 55° and 65°,
when the production first appears above the soil.
" With regard to moisture, it may be observed that a dry atmosphere is
injurious, not only to artificial crops, but also to those in the fields ; for the
latter, warm foggy mornings are most favourable, and these should be imi-
tated as closely in cultivation as circumstances will permit. A gentle steam
is more easily maintained in mushroom-houses than in structures adapted for
other subjects of cultivation where light is an object of importance ; but
mushrooms do not require its agency, and consequently a glass roof is unne-
cessary : on the contrary, the roof and walls where they are intended to be
grown should be composed of such substances as will cause the least possible
524 FORCING THE MUSHROOM IN BRITISH GARDENS.
condensation of the internal vapour, and which are in other respects eligible
for the purpose.
" A thatched roof of a good thickness is very proper ; a slated or tiled one
is, on the contrary, objectionable, unless a ceiling be formed under it. If
the cavity between the ceiling and the external covering were filled with dry
moss, a more complete protection would be formed against any sudden vicis-
situdes of cold and heat, an object of importance towards success either in
the cold winter months or during the greatest heat of summer." — (Penny
Cyc. vol. xvi. p. 19.)
SUBSECT. II. — Forcing the Mushroom in British gardens.
1112. The ordinary form of a mushroom-house is a lean-to shed, at the
back of a south wall, or of a range of hothouses, about nine feet wide, eight
feet or nine feet high at front, and twelve feet or fifteen feet at the back.
Along the middle there is a path three feet wide over a flue, or hot water-
pipes, or in some cases a trench of two feet wide, and the same depth for a
bed of fermenting manure. Planks, in this latter case, are placed over the
dung for the purpose of walking on. The space between the walls and the
path is occupied by shelves of slate or flag-stone, three feet broad, eighteen
inches or two feet apart in the height ; each shelf having a slate or stone curb
nine inches deep. The manner in which mushrooms are grown in such a
house is as follows : —
1113. The spawn may be either made or purchased. Cake or brick spawn
is the sort best worth making, and the best sort of materials to make it of
are, equal portions of horse-droppings, cow- droppings, and loam, well mixed,
and pounded or beaten, adding only as much water as will bring the materials
to the consistency of brickmakers' moulding clay. Then let a circular mould
without a bottom, nine inches in diameter and three inches deep, be placed on
a table, with the wide end uppermost, and filled with this mortar and straked
level ; before it is turned out of the mould, let three holes be made in each cake,
with an iron-shod ^dibber, one inch and a half deep : the mould must be
shaped like the frustum of a cone, that the cakes may easily part with it.
When the cakes are all but hand dry, let them be spawned, by putting a
piece of spawn about the size of a pigeon's egg in each hole, inclosing it with
a little of the original mortar. Then pile the cakes in pairs, with their
spawned ends together, resembling a cask ; and in this state let them be
cased up in brick -shaped batches, and sweated and kept up to about 85°, by
placing a layer of sweet dung all round and over the batch, varying it in
quantity, to obtain the desired heat. The spawn must be examined as it
runs in the cakes, and when one is broken and appears mouldy all through,
and smells of mushroom, it is mushroom spawn in the highest state of per-
fection. It must not be allowed to run so far as to form a thread-like sub-
stance. To preserve it, it must be thoroughly dried in an airy loft, and
kept dry for use. It will retain its properties for several years.
1114. To grow the mushrooms. — Collect a quantity of horse-droppings,
dry them a little in an open shed, then lay a stratum of loamy turf, two
inches or three inches deep, in the bottom of the bed, and over this three
layers of droppings, each about two inches deep, rendered as compact as pos-
sible, by giving each layer a good pummeling with a hand-mallet. When
the last layer is made up, thrust a few " watch sticks" into the bed, in order
to ascertain when it begins to heat. When the heat is getting pretty strong,
FORCING THE MUSHROOM IN BRITISH GARDENS. 525
let the bed be first beaten all over, then make holes with an iron-shod dibber,
nine inches apart, and deep enough to reach the stratum of loam : these will
soon cool the bed ; and when the heat is declined to about 80°, the holes may
be bored by a conical block of wood, to about two inches in diameter, at two
inches deep, in order to receive the spawn. These holes must be filled up,
to about three inches from the surface, with loam and horse-droppings mixed ;
then insert a bit of spawn, about the size of a hen's egg in each, and fill the
holes up level with the surface, with the loam and droppings. The holes
being closed, the heat will increase, and must be attended to : if violent, a
few deep narrow holes may be made to let it escape ; and, if too slight, it
may be aided by a covering of dry hay, or a layer of warm dung ; and when
all danger of violent heat is gone by, and the spawn beginning to run, put on
the upper stratum of loam, mixed with a little cut hay or dry horse-
droppings to make a tough firm crust, about one inch deep. A tempe-
rature of from 55° to 60° is found best for the atmosphere in the house,
and about 90° of bottom heat will set' the spawn actively to work. The
beds must not be allowed to get too dry — a layer of moist hay will pre-
vent this ; and, if too wet, a dry atmosphere can be got by gentle fires and
open ventilators, which will aid them a little. But a bed once allowed to
get thoroughly wet after spawning is hopeless, and should certainly be-
removed without loss of time.— (G. M. for 1839, p. 335.)
1115. Growing the mushroom in a cellar may be readily accomplished
where the temperature does not fall below 45°, or rise above 70°. Take
a quantity of fresh manure, with short litter intermixed, from a stable
where the horses are fed on hay and corn, but not on green food. Spread
the manure on the floor of the cellar about four inches deep, and beat it
firmly down with a mallet. After a few days repeat this operation, and
again do so at intervals, till the bed becomes about fourteen inches deep, and of
such a breadth as may be most convenient. To ascertain the degree of
heat, put two or three sharp pointed sticks into the bed, and when, upon
being drawn out the next day, they feel about milk- warm, or between 80°
or 90°, it is time to put in the mushroom spawn. Observe, however, that
when this operation is performed, the heat should be rather on the decline
than on the increase.
Having purchased, or otherwise procured the spawn, break it into pieces
about the size of a hen's egg. Place the pieces all over the bed, about a foot
apart, and two inches below the surface. Beat the whole down hard. Be
careful not to let the heat increase above the degree mentioned above, other-
wise the spawn will be destroyed, and the bed must be stocked again with
fresh spawn. Indeed, for security's sake, it is always best to repeat the
spawning when the heat is on the decline. After all danger of increased
heat is passed, cover the bed with light soil about two inches deep, then
beat it down hard. Mushrooms always do best in a firm hard soil : however
hard, they will find their way through it. They have even been known to
raise the pavement of a cellar floor.
1116. Management of the bed. — Examine the sticks which were originally
placed in the bed, if they are lukewarm all is right. A few days afterwards
cover the bed with hay or straw ; but if it increases the heat, remove it for
a time. If the place is warm and dark this covering may be dispensed with.
In five or six weeks the mushrooms ought to appear. A gentle watering
now and then will hasten their growth ; but too much will cause the spawn
MM
526 CATALOGUE OF FRUITS.
to rot, and then, of course, the bed will be unproductive, whereas it ought
to produce for five or six weeks. The covering keeps the soil moist, espe-
cially when much exposed to the air. — (J. WigUton, in G. M. for 1842.)
1117. Mushroom spawn, planted in loam and dung, or in either, and
screened from sun and rain in summer, will produce this vegetable in
abundance ; and the same materials will produce the same effect, under
favourable circumstances, in winter ; such as being placed in boxes or
baskets in a stable or warm cellar. Mushrooms may be grown remarkably
well on dung-beds, covered with frames, having thatched hurdles or boards
instead of glass ; the surface of the bed being covered with hay, litter, or
dried shorn grass.
Half-dried droppings of highly fed horses, good spawn, and a gentle moist
atmosphere, are the principal things to be attended to in cultivating the
mushroom.
1118. In gathering mushrooms for present use, they may be cut; but, if
they are to be kept a few days, they must be got with the stem entire, which
is easily done by slipping it off with a gentle twist.
1119. — The duration of a crop of mushrooms varies from three to six
months, so that it is always safe to make up a bed or a couple of shelves
every three or four months. Very successful and economical modes of
growing the mushroom will be found in Callow's Improved Mode of Culture,
1831, post 8vo., 7*. Qd. ; and in Smith, on Cucumbers and Melons, 1839,
12mo., 4*.
CHAPTER IV.
CATALOGUE OF FRUITS.
1120. The fruits usually cultivated in British Gardens are, for the greater
part, borne on trees and shrubs, but some are on herbaceous plants. They are
mostly natives of temperate climates, and cultivated in the open garden, but
a few are natives of warm or tropical countries, and require the protection
of glass and artificial heat. The whole may be arranged, either systema-
tically, or according to their natures ; or geographically, or according to the
climates in which they are indigenous ; and this last arrangement will also
indicate the classification which may be made with reference to their treat-
ment in a state of culture.
1121. Botanically, the fruits usually cultivated in British gardens, are
classed by the natural system, or according to their natures, as follows : —
Berberacece. Berberis, the barberry.
Aurantidcece. Citrus, the orange, lemon, citron, lime, and shaddock.
Vitacea. Vitis, the grape.
Amj^dalmece. Amygdalus, the almond, peach, and nectarine; Armeniaca, the
apricot ; Primus, the plum, and Cerasus, the cherry.
Pomacece. Pyrus, the apple, the pear, and the service; Cydonia, the
quince ; Mespilus, the medlar ; and Eriobotrya, the Japan quince.
Rosacetz. Rtibus, the raspberry, and Fragaria, the strawberry.
Granatdcetp. Punica, the pomegranate.
CATALOGUE OF FRUITS. 527
Myrtdcecs. Psidium, the guava.
Cucurbitacea. Cuciimis, the cucumber and melon ; Cucurbita, the gourd,
and pumpkin, and Carica, the pawpaw.
Passiflordcece. Passiflora, the granadilla.
Cactdcece. Opuntia, the Indian fig.
Grossuldcece. Ribes, the gooseberry and currant.
CaprifolidcefS. Cornus, the cornel, and Sambucus, the elder.
Vaccinacece. Vaccinium, the bilberry, and Oxycoccus, the cranberry.
Solandcece. Physalis, the winter cherry, arid the Peruvian cherry ; Cap-
sicum, the Cayenne pepper ; Lycopersicum, the love-apple, and Solanum, the
egg-plant.
MleagndcecB. Shepherdia, the buffiilo berry.
Urticdcece. Ficus, the fig, and Morus, the mulberry.
Juglanddcece. Juglans, the walnut, and Carya, the hickory.
Corylacece. Castanea, the chestnut, and Cdrylus, the filbert.
Musdcea. Musa, the banana.
Bromelidcets. Ananassa, the pine apple.
1122. Geographically and Horticultural^, these fruits may be arranged
as belonging to :
1123. Climates analogous to that of Britain, and which can be grown in
the open air in British gardens, including the barberry, plum, cherry,
apple, pear, quince, medlar, raspberry, strawberry, gooseberry, currant,
cornel, elder, bilberry, cranberry, winter cherry, buffalo-berry, mulberry,
chestnut, filbert, walnut and hickory.
1124. Climates analogous to that of the South of France, and which can
be grown against walls exposed to the South, or heated by flues in British
gardens, including the vine, almond, peach, nectarine, apricot, pomegranate,
and fig.
1125. Climates sub-tropical, or tropical, including the orange, lemon,
lime, and shaddock, Japan quince, guava, cucumber, melon, gourd, pumpkin,
pawpaw, granadilla, Peruvian cherry, Indian fig, Cayenne pepper, love-
apple, egg-plant, banana, and pine-apple.
This last arrangement we shall adopt as the most suitable for horticul-
tural purposes, and we shall therefore treat first of hardy, or orchard fruits,
next of wall fruits, and lastly of house fruits. The cornel, buffalo berry,
pomegranate, winter cherry, Peruvian cherry, guava, pawpaw, granadilla,
and Indian fig, are but little cultivated in British gardens, yet as the
possessor of a suburban garden may reasonably wish to taste all the fruits
that can be grown in any British garden whatever, whether small or large ;
and as a single plant of each kind of fruit will afford this gratification, and
occupy very little room in the garden, we thought it right to include them,
though of each we shall treat but very slightly. See the notice of the fruits
cultivated in our very limited garden at Bayswater, given in the Suburban
Gardener, p. 341.
Those who wish for more extensive lists than we shall here give of the
fruits in common cultivation, will consult the Horticultural Society's Fruit
Catalogue, third edition ; those who wish to see engravings, and peruse bota-
nical descriptions, of the species of trees and shrubs from which tke differ-
ent varieties of cultivated kinds have been originated, may consult the
Encyclopaedia of Trees and Shrubs ; and those who wish to know the
M M 2
528 THE APPLE.
natural, horticultural, and domestic history of every species, in greater detail
than they have ever elsewhere been given, will have recourse to the
Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum.
SECT. I. — Hardy or Orchard Fruits.
112G. The hardy fruits include all those which arrive at maturity in
the open garden, without the aid of glass or artificial heat. These are the
apple, pear, quince, medlar, the true service, cherry, plum, gooseberry,
currant, raspberry, strawberry, cranberry, bilberry, cornel, elder, barberry,
winter cherry, buffalo berry, chestnut, filbert, walnut, hickory, and mulberry.
SUBSECT. I. — The Apple.
1127- The Apple, Pyrus Malus L. Malus communis Dec., (Pom-
mier, Fr., Apfelbaum Ger., Apfel, Dutch, Pero Melo, and Melo Porno,
Ital., and Manzana, Span. Eng. Bot., t. 179 ; Arb. Brit., Vol. VI. ; and
Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 45,) is a deciduous tree, under the mid-
dle size, with spreading branches, which form in general an irregular
head. In its wild or crab state, it is indigenous in most parts of Europe,
and as a fruit-tree, it is cultivated in all civilised countries, more especially
in those of temperate climates. It flowers in May, and ripens its fruit at
various periods from July to November, and some sorts of apple may be
kept throughout the year, or longer. The tree is naturally of considerable
hardiness and durability, but the cultivated varieties are comparatively
delicate and short-lived. Trees of the more hardy varieties, however, have
been known to endure for two or three centuries ; but it is presumed that
individual trees of such varieties as the Hawthornden, and the Ribston
pippin, would scarcely live a century. The apple, like every other plant,
accommodates itself more or less to the climate and soil in which it is placed,
but still it attains a higher degree of perfection in one particular climate and
soil, than in any other. The climate of England, and the north of France,
and the loamy soils on lime-stone rock that are found in these countries,
appear to bring the apple to the highest degree of perfection. Italy and
Spain are much too warm, and the north of Germany and Sweden, too cold
and sunless. Several kinds of apples were introduced into Britain by the
Romans, who possessed, according to Pliny, twenty-two varieties ; but, in
all probability, these were lost in the interval between the Roman civil
power in Britain, and the power of the Church, though many wildings might
doubtless spring1 up, when the trees established by the Romans began to be
neglected. Some of the varieties in existence, it may be reasonably supposed,
were introduced by the Roman clergy, but the greater number of sorts
which have not been raised in Britain have doubtless been introduced from
Normandy, either when that country was subjected to England, or pre-
viously at the Norman conquest. The apple is not indigenous in North
America, but nevertheless it flourishes in all the temperate parts of the
United States, and the flavour of some varieties grown in America, for
example the Newtown pippin, is thought by many to be superior to that
of any kinds grown in the north of France, or England. The number of
varieties now in cultivation has been greatly increased within the present
century, partly from importations, but chiefly from seedlings raised in this
country. In consequence, we have varieties suitable for different soils and
USES AND PROPERTIES OF THE APPLE. 529
situations, from the warm moist climate of Devonshire and Cornwall, to
the cloudy and stormy atmosphere of Orkney. There are varieties which
ripen as early as July, and others which are not fit to eat till the following
spring ; and which, with proper care, will keep till apples come again, and
even longer. No fruit tree is more prolific than the apple when in a suit-
able soil and situation, and no fruit is applied to a greater variety of useful
purposes.
1128. The uses of the apple in pies, tarts, sauces, the dessert, or boiled or
roasted, is familiar to every one. The expressed juice fermented forms
cider, — that of the crab verjuice ; and when both these liquids are mixed,
and properly managed, a very good wine, it is said, may be produced.
One -third of boiled apple pulp, baked with two-thirds of flour, and fer-
mented for twelve hours, is said to make an excellent bread, very palatable
and light. In confectionery the apple is used for comfits, compotes, marma-
lades, jellies, pastes, tarts, fritters, and various other purposes. To form a
jelly, the apples are " pared, quartered, and the core removed, and put in
a closely- covered pot, without water, in an oven, or over a fire. When
well stewed, the juice is squeezed through a cloth, a little white of an egg
is added, and then sugar ; and lastly it is skimmed, and by boiling reduced
to a proper consistence." — KenricJc. Medicinally, boiled or roasted apples
are considered laxative and at the same time strengthening. In perfumery,
the pulp of the apple beat up with lard forms pomatum ; and by mixing
apples with elder-flowers, in a close vessel, an odour of musk is said to be
communicated to them. The juice of the apple concentrated by boiling
will keep for several years, and may be used to form a liquor similar to cider,
by adding a little to water as it is wanted for use. The apple-tree when
in flower is very ornamental, particularly some varieties which have their
petals tinged with pink, such as the Hawthornden ; and the tree is still
more beautiful when covered with fruit, especially with such as are highly-
coloured, such as the red Astrachan, the tulip-apple, &c. The bark of the
tree may fee used for dyeing yellow ; and the wood being fine -grained and
very compact, is well adapted for turning and for staining, so as to be used
as a substitute for ebony. We have dwelt long on the uses of the apple,
because, with Speedily, we regard it as a fruit of more use and benefit to
the mass of society than all the other fruits cultivated in Britain united.
1129. Properties of a good apple. — Apples for table are characterised by a
firm juicy pulp, elevated, poignant flavour, regular form, and beautiful
colouring ; those for kitchen use by the property of falling, as it is techni-
cally termed, or forming in general a pulpy mass of equal consistency when
baked or boiled, and by a large size. Some sorts of apples have the pro-
perty of falling when green, as the Keswick, Carlisle, Hawthornden, and
other codlins ; and some only after being ripe, as the russet tribes. Those
which have this property when green are particularly valuable for affording
sauces to geese early in the season, and for succeeding the gooseberry in
tarts. For cider an apple must possess a considerable degree of astringency,
with or without firmness of pulp or sugariness of juice. The best kinds,
Knight observes, are often tough, dry, and fibrous ; and the Siberian Har-
vey, which he recommends as one of the very best cider apples, is unfit
either for culinary purposes or the table. The same eminent pomologist
has found that the specific gravity of the juice of any apple recently
530 THE APPLE.
expressed, indicates, with very considerable accuracy, the strength of the
future cider.
1130. Varieties. — The varieties of apple in cultivation previous to the
time of Henry VIII. do not appear to have been numerous; but Evelyn
informs us, that Harris, the fruiterer to that monarch, introduced many
sorts of apples and other fruits from Flanders, and distributed them in the
neighbourhood of thirty towns in Kent only, to the great and universal im-
provement of the country. In the time of Charles I., Lord Scudamore in-
troduced a number of cider apples from Normandy into Herefordshire.
Hartlib, during the Commonwealth, in 1650, " believes there are nearly
500 sorts in this island." Some were introduced from Holland in the time
of William III., and the number would doubtless gradually increase till the
commencement of the present century, when it has been greatly accel-
erated by the growing taste for gardening, and the great stimulus given by
Mr. Knight to raising new fruits from seed. The Horticultural Society of
London have collected varieties of fruit from every part of the world, and
the number of sorts of apples, that have been proved in their gardens to be
distinct, is believed to be nearly 1500 ; the number of names exceeding twice
that amount, many varieties having more than one name. The great diffi-
culty, where the choice is so ample, is to make a selection, and this, with
the assistance of Mr. Thompson, we have been enabled to do, so as to present
lists of unquestionable excellence.
1131. Early dessert Apples.
Early Red Margaret, syn. Red juneating, middle size, conical, greenish
yellow striped with red, tender and rich ; ripe in August ; a good bearer,
and the fruit most abundant at the extremities of the branches.
Early Harvest, syn. Large Early, or Prince's Harvest. Above the middle
size, roundish, yellow, with crisp, juicy flesh, and brisk rich flavour ; ripe
in the beginning of August.
Oslin, syn. Arbroath pippin. Middle size, oblate, pale yellow, firm, rich,
spicy, aromatic ; ripe in August and lasting till September ; a good bearer,
and altogether one of the best summer apples. A Scotch variety.
Kerry Pippin. Middle size, oval, yellow and red, firm, sugary, and rich ;
September to October; a good bearer, a healthy tree, and altogether an
excellent fruit. As the name implies, it is an Irish variety.
Summer Golden Pippin. Below the middle size, ovate, flattened at the
eye, yellow, crisp, and rich ; September ; tree of medium size, and a
tolerably good bearer.
1132. Dessert Apples to succeed early kinds.
Wormsley Pippin. Middle size, roundish, pale green, crisp, juicy, and
rich ; September to October ; excellent for the dessert, and peculiarly rich
when cooked ; the tree a great bearer, healthy and vigorous.
King of the Pippins -, syn. Hampshire yellow. Above the medium size,
rather oblong, yellow and red, firm, juicy, and rich; October to January;
a great bearer, and a vigorous, healthy tree.
Golden Reinette, syn. Wyke^f pippin. Middle size, flattish, yellow and
red, sugary, rich, yellow flesh ; October to January ; a good bearer, the
tree of the middle size, and the fruit very handsome.
SELECTION OF DESSERT APPLES.
531
Maclean's Favourite. Middle size, roundish, yellow, crisp, rich, with the
flavour of the Newtown Pippin ; November till February ; tree moderately
vigorous, a good bearer.
Claygate Pearmain. Middle size, pearmain shaped, greenish yellow and
bro wnish red, rich, with a Ribston pippin flavour ; November till March ;
tree hardy.
Ribston Pippin, syn. Glory of York. Above the middle size, roundish,
greenish yellow and red, crisp, juicy, peculiarly rich and high flavoured;
November to March ; a good bearer, a spreading tree, deserving a wall,
where it will not otherwise succeed.
Court of Wick, syn. Wood's Huntingdon. Below the medium size, ovate,
yellow and some red, firm, juicy, and rich ; a very excellent fruit ; October
to April ; tree hardy, a good bearer.
Pearsons Plate. Under the middle size, oblate, yellow, green, and red,
of first-rate quality ; December to March ; a good bearer, and remarkably
handsome apple.
Golden Harvey, syn. Brandy apple. Small, roundish, yellowish russet,
firm, exceedingly rich, and high flavoured ; in this respect a fruit of the very
highest excellence ; December to May ; the tree is slender, upright, and a
moderate bearer.
Hughes s Golden Pippin. Small size, roundish, yellow, firm, juicy, rich ;
December to February ; a good bearer, and a moderately vigorous tree.
Pitmaston Nonpareil. Middle size, roundish, pale green with slight rus-
set, rich nonpareil flavour ; December till February ; a good bearer.
Braddick's Nonpareil. Nearly middle size, roundish, green, and bright
l)ro wnish red, partakes of nonpareil flavour ; January till April ; tree a
most abundant bearer.
Herefordshire Pearmain, syn, Old Pearmain. Above the middle size,
Fig. 359. Pearmain-shape, exemplified in (he Herefordshire Penrmain Apple. The Pearmain
Miape is understood to be a truncated cone, with the base rounded, and projecting more towards
the stalk on one side than the other.
532 THE APPLE.
pearmain-shaped (fig. 359), yellowish, green and red, rich, yellowish flesh ;
November to March ; a good bearer, and a spreading, healthy tree.
Stunner Pippin. Middle size, short, conical, yellowish green and brownish
red, firm, brisk, rich ; February to June ; a good bearer and a healthy tree.
The fruit retains its briskness till Midsummer.
Court Pendu-Plat, syn. Garnon's apple. Middle size, oblate, green and
red, firm, rich, and sugary; December to April; a great bearer, a small
tree, blossoming late, by which it escapes the spring frosts. A Dutch
variety.
Reinette du Canada. Large, flattened, greenish yellow and brown, juicy,
brisk, very rich, subacid ; November to April; tree spreading, and a good
bearer. Very common in France.
Old Nonpareil, syn. Reinette Nonpareil. Middle size, roundish, flattened,
and broadest at the base, greenish yellow, firm, crisp, peculiarly rich, aro-
matic ; January to May ; a good bearer, a tree with slender shoots, rather
upright than spreading, and the fruit excellent.
Scarlet Nonpareil. Middle size, roundish, greenish yellow and red, firm,
crisp, sugary ; January to April ; a good bearer and a healthy tree.
Downton Nonpareil. Middle size or rather large, round, greenish russet,
juicy, with sharp, brisk flavour ; December till April ; tree hardy, and an
excellent bearer.
1133. Early Kitchen Apples.
Dutch Codlin. Very large, roundish, greenish yellow; August to Septem-
ber ; a good bearer, and a vigorous tree.
Keswick Codlin. Above the middle size, conical, greenish yellow, juicy,
subacid ; August to September ; a great bearer and a healthy tree.
Hawthornden. Large, roundish, oblate, pale green, firm, juicy, subacid ;
October to December ; a great bearer, the tree coming soon into bearing.
Nonesuch. Middle size, round, green streaked with red, crisp, subacid ;
September to October ; a good bearer, and the tree of medium size. The
fruit of this variety is noted for its transparency when made into apple-jelly,
for which purpose it is the best sort in cultivation.
1134. Kitchen Apples for Winter and Spring use.
Blenheim Pippin, syn. Blenheim orange. Very large, roundish, yellow
and streaked with red, tender and rich ; November to February; a mo-
derate bearer, and a strong growing tree. This is also a very good dessert
apple.
Tower of Glammis, syn. Late Carse of Gowrie. Large, conical, greenish
yellow, brownish red next the sun, firm, juicy ; November till February ;
tree vigorous, a good bearer ; a heavy, excellent kitchen apple.
Waltham Abbey Seedling. Large, roundish, yellow, firm, requires but little
sugar in cooking; September till February; the tree an abundant bearer.
Dumelows Seedling, syn. Wellington. Above the middle size, roundish,
yellow and red, firm, crisp, juicy ; November to March ; a good bearer,
and a hardy spreading tree. The fruit in long keeping retains well its
briskness.
Bedfordshire Foundling, syn. Cambridge pippin. Large, roundish, greenish
yellow, firm and rich ; November to March ; a good bearer, and a vigorous
healthy tree.
SELECTION OF KITCHEN AND CIDER APPLES. 533
Alfruton. Very large, roundish, greenish yellow, firm, juicy, subacid ;
November to April ; a good bearer, and a healthy tree.
Gloria Mundi, syn. Monstrous pippin. Very large, roundish, yellow,
tender, juicy ; October to January ; a moderate bearer ; the fruit, from its
size, is apt to be blown from the tree, unless it be grown on dwarfs. An
American variety.
Royal Russet, syn. Leathercoat. Large, obtuse, conical, russet, somewhat
rough and subacid in flavour, but excellent cooked ; November to May ;
a good beaver, and a spreading tree.
Brabant Belief eur. Large, roundish, yellow and red, firm, crisp, juicy ;
November to April ; a good bearer, a spreading tree, and an excellent fruit.
Northern Greening. Middle size, oval, green, firm, crisp, juicy, subacid ;
November to April ; a good bearer, and the fruit not liable to shrivel.
Norfolk Beaufin, syn. N. Beefin. Middle size, roundish, green arid
dark red, hard consistence ; December to June ; a good bearer, and the fruit
excellent when dried as a sweetmeat.
Easter Pippin, syn. French Crab. Middle size, roundish, green and dull
brown, and will keep above a year, firm, crisp, and subacid ; December ;
a good bearer, and a hardy tree.
Gooseberry Pippin. Large, somewhat oblong, yellow, firm, subacid ;
February till August ; named front its sauce being a substitute for, and re-
sembling that of green gooseberries.
1135. Cider Apples.
Siberian Bitter Sweet. Small, roundish ovate, yellow, more sweet than
bitter ; September ; a great bearer, and the tree free from insects and canker.
Foxley. Small, roundish ovate, orange yellow, specific gravity ]080;
October and November ; a great bearer, and a healthy vigorous tree.
Red Streak, syn. Old Red Streak, or Scudamore's Crab. Roundish,
streaked, spec. grav. 1079 ; December to April ; a good bearer, and the
fruit produces cider of the first quality.
Fox Whelp. Middle size, ovate, dark red, spec. grav. 1078 ; December
to January ; a good bearer, and a healthy tree.
Golden Harvey. A dessert apple, already described, which produces
excellent cider, spec. grav. 1085.
Hagloe Crab. Small, ovate, yellowish, spec. grav. 1081 ; October to
February ; a great bearer, and a healthy, hardy tree.
Coopers Red Streak. Middle size, roundish, streaked; November to
December ; a great bearer, and a vigorous, healthy tree.
1136. Dessert apples which may be used as kitchen apples. — Sugarloaf
Pippin, Wormsley Pippin, Autumn Pearmain, King of the Pippins,
Fearn's Pippin, Ribston Pippin, Old Pomeroy, Herefordshire Pearmain,
Reinette du Canada, Dutch Mignonne, Downton Nonpareil, Newtown
Pippin, Boston Russet.
1137. Kitchen apples which may be used as dessert apples. — Gravenstein,
Blenheim Pippin, Bedfordshire Foundling, London Pippin, Northern Green-
ing, Rhode Island Greening.
1138. Apples for cottage gardens, where the soil and situation are favour"
able, and which may be used either for the table or the kitchen. — Where the
space will admit of only one tree, the best is the Ribston Pippin ; where
two, the Ribston Pippin and the Blenheim Pippin ; where three, or more,
534 THE APPLE.
add successively to those previously named, the Stunner Pippin, King of
the Pippins, Herefordshire Pearmain, Wormsley Pippin, Reinette du
Canada, Bedfordshire Foundling, Downton Nonpareil, Waltham Abbey
Seedling.
1139. Apples for training against the walls or on the roofs of cottages, or
on the walls of cottage gardens. (See p. 471) — Ribston Pippin, Old Non-
pareil; and if a large kitchen apple be required, the Bedfordshire Foundling.
1140. Apples for cottage gardens in situations liable to spring frosts. —
The Court Pendu-plat, as expanding its blossoms later in the season than
any other apple ; and the Northern Greening.
1141. Apples for a cottage garden in an unfavourable climate. — The Clay-
gate Pearmain and Sturmer Pippin are considerably hardier than the Ribston
Pippin. The Northern Greening is a hardy and late kitchen apple ; and
the Keswick Codling is a hardy autumn kitchen apple. The Hawthornden
comes earlier into bearing than any other variety generally cultivated ; and
it is to be preferred to the Keswick Codling, were it not that it is liable to
canker in some soils.
1142. Apples adapted for walls of different aspects are enumerated in
p. 422.
1143. Apples adapted for espaliers, dwarfs, or conical standards, are enu-
merated in p. 428.
3144. Apples suitable for an orchard are enumerated in p. 431.
1145. Apples remarkable for the form of the tree, or the beauty of the
blossoms or fruit. — The red Astrachan has the fruit of a bright red, with a
fine bloom like that of a plum. The white Astrachan, or transparent crab
of Moscow, has the fruit of a wax colour, with a fine bloom, and it is almost
transparent. The black crab has small fruit which is of no use, but it is so
dark as almost to be black. The Lincolnshire Holland pippin is remark-
able for the large size of its blossoms, and the fruit keeps till February.
The tulip apple has fruit of a very bright red, and is a great bearer. The
violet apple has fruit of a violet colour, covered with a bloom like that of
the plum. The cherry crab is a spreading tree with drooping branches,
and numerous fruit about the size and colour of a large cherry. The
supreme crab is a more erect tree than the cherry crab, with larger fruit.
Bigg's everlasting crab is a vigorous-growing, round-headed tree, the
fruit and leaves of which remain on long after Christinas, in sheltered
situations.
1146. General principles of selecting varieties of the apple. — The first
requisite in forming a selection is to determine how far the climate,
soil, and situation, differ from those of the central counties of England,
which may be taken as those for which most of the selections above given
are adapted. A number of varieties which may be grown as standards in
the centre or the south of England, require a wall in various parts of the
north of England and of Scotland. The winter and spring table apples
may require a south wall in one district, while in another they may attain
equal maturity as standards or espaliers. Where there is ample room, a
selection of large sorts, as the Alexander and Blenheim pippin, or of such
as are the most beautifully coloured, as the violet, Hollandbury, &c., may
be made to gratify the eye ; where room is wanting, useful sorts and
great bearers are to be preferred, — such, indeed, as are enumerated in
PROPAGATION OF THE APPLE. 535
the above selection, which has been made with a view to both quality
and abundance of produce. In general, small-sized fruit are to be pre-
ferred for standards, as less likely to break down the branches of the
trees, or be shaken down by winds; middling- sized and high flavoured
sorts for walls; and the largest of all for espaliers. In respect to
a soil liable to produce canker, sorts raised from cuttings may be
desirable, as the Burknott and codling tribe; and where an occupier
of a garden has only a short interest therein, such as come into imme-
diate bearing, as the Burknotts and others from cuttings, and the Haw-
thornden and other short-lived dwarf sorts on Paradise or creeping stocks,
may deserve the preference. On the contrary, where a plantation is
made on freehold property, or with a view to posterity, new varieties on
crab or free stocks should always be chosen, as, if for cider, the Grange,
Ingestrie, Harvey, &c. Some excellent sorts will grow and produce crops
everywhere, as the Hawthornden, codling, and Ribston pippin ; the latter of
which Nicol says, will grow at John o'Groat's House, and may be planted
in Cornwall ; others are shy bearers in cold situations, as the New town
pippin of America, most of the newly-imported French sorts ; and the Ita-
lian apple Malo di Carlo, which though exceedingly beautiful and delicious
in the north of Italy, proves pale and insipid in England in our finest
summers. Indeed, the apples of the south of Europe generally, when
transplanted to England, prove worthless. See 887.
1147. Propagation. — The apple may be propagated by seeds, cuttings of
the branches or roots, by layers, suckers, inarching, grafting, or budding,
but the two last modes are most generally adopted for continuing varieties,
and seeds are seldom resorted to, except when new varieties are the object.
Only a few sorts, such as the Burknott, some of the codlings, and the creep-
ing apple, can be increased readily by cuttings ; but this mode is resorted to
occasionally, when these kinds are wanted as stocks for grafting on. Suckers
from a grafted tree can only be used as stocks; but from kinds of apple which
are used chiefly as stocks, such as the paradise apple, suckers are not an
uncommon mode of propagation. It thus appears that the first step in the
propagation of the apple by grafting or budding, is the propagation of the
stock. Crab stocks are raised from seeds of the wild crab, and are used
when the object is strong and durable trees; wildings or seedling apple
stocks, are used for strong trees in good soils, and are raised from seeds of
apple trees, most commonly of free-growing seedlings, which have grown in
hedges in cider counties, or from cider apples ; dwarfing stocks, such as the
paradise, doucin, creeping apple, and some codlings, are commonly raised
from layers (625) and suckers. Seedlings, after one year's growth in the
seed-bed, are transplanted in rows, three feet apart and eighteen inches dis-
tance in the row ; and they are commonly grafted the third or fourth spring
from the seed, when they are from half an inch to one inch in thickness.
Both dwarfs and standards are commonly grafted within a few inches of the
ground, and the standards are formed by encouraging the leading shoot,
which is commonly cut over at the end of the second year at the height of
five or six feet from the ground, and after it has grown another season in the
nursery, the side-shoots being cut off about midsummer, it is fit for being
transplanted to where it is finally to remain. If the tree should not be
sold or transplanted the first year after the head is formed, the shoots are
53(5 THE APPLE.
shortened, technically " headed in," to one or two buds, and this operation is
repeated every spring till the plant is sold or transplanted to where it is
finally to remain. The same heading-in takes place with dwarfs, the reason
in both cases being that it is desirable to have no more wood left on the tree
than the root, after undergoing the mutilation consequent on transplanting,
can readily support. Occasionally, both standards and dwarfs are trained in
the nursery, either as standards or as dwarfs or espaliers, ia which case, at
the time they are to be removed, great care is requisite to take them up
with as large a proportion of their roots as possible. The more frequently
dwarf trees are transplanted in the nursery before being finally removed, the
greater will be the number of their fibrous roots ; and as these must neces-
sarily be within a limited space, the quantity of nourishment they take up will
be limited also. Hence by their number of fibrous roots, they will suffer
little from removal, while by the concentration of these roots they will only
absorb the nourishment obtained within a very limited space, and thus keep
the tree dwarf, and throw it early into a fruit-bearing state ; or at least pre-
vent it from growing so vigorously as if it were furnished with a number of
ramose roots, which by extending their fibres to a distance have a proportion-
ately greater command of nourishment. Hence maiden plants one year
grafted on free stocks that have not been transplanted, are to be preferred in
every case where the object is large and vigorous trees ; and when the object
is dwarf trees, plants on dwarfing stocks that have been several times
transplanted should be chosen.
1148. Soil and Situation. — The apple tree acquires the largest dimensions
in a deep strong loam, or marly clay, on a rocky bottom, or on a subsoil
that is not retentive of moisture, and in a situation which is neither very
high nor very low. "It will grow tolerably well in any common soil,
neither extremely sandy, gravelly, nor clayey, on a dry subsoil, and with a
free exposure. On wet, hilly subsoil, it will do no good ; but, after being
planted a few years, will become cankered, and get coveied with moss.
Where fruit trees must be planted on such soils, they should first be rendered
as dry as possible by under-draining ; next, provision made for carrying off
the rain-wrater by surface-gutters; and, lastly, the ground should not be
trenched above a foot deep, and the trees planted rather in hillocks of earth,
above the surface, than in pits dug into it. There is no point of more im-
portance than shallow trenching and shallow planting in cold wet soils, in
which deep pits and deep pulverisation only serve to aggravate their natural
evils of moisture and cold." — Sang.
1 149. Mode of bearing, pruning, and training. — The apple bears invariably
on the old wood, often on that of the preceding year, and the blossoms con-
tinue being produced from terminal and lateral spurs, or short robust shoots,
for a great number of years. These spurs require to be thinned out, when
they become crowded, to be shortened when they become too long, and to
be cut in when they become so old as to produce smaller fruit than is
desirable.
The treatment of spurs is that part of the pruning of the apple when
trained against walls or espaliers, on which the production of fruit chiefly
depends, and it requires greater skill and care than any other part of
pruning. For this reason, and as the spur pruning of the apple corresponds
exactly with the spur pruning of the pear against walls or espaliers, and in a
PRUNING AND TRAINING THE APPLE. 537
great measure also with that of all other fruit trees that bear on spurs, we
shall enter into it here at some length, as this will save repetition in treating
of the pear, cherry, plum, apricot, mulberry, and even the gooseberry and
currant. We shall commence with an apple tree one year grafted, just
taken from a nursery and planted at the base of a wall or espalier rail. We
shall give the winter and summer pruning for ten years, commencing
every year with the beginning of the winter pruning, which should
always be performed as early in the winter as possible. We have supposed
the tree to be trained in the horizontal manner, but the mode of treating
the spurs is equally applicable to every other kind of training, and to
standard trees or bushes as well as to those against walls or espaliers. We
quote this article verbatim from the Gardener s Magazine, Vol. III.
1150. Spurring-in pruning. First year. Winter pruning. — The tree is
headed down before it begins to push ; in doing which, the foot is placed
upon the soil, and close to the bole, in order to prevent it from being drawn
up by the force which is used in the operation. The cut is made in a
sloping direction towards the wall, and about half an inch above the bud
which is selected for the leading shoot. The tree is cut down so that seven
buds remain.
Summer pruning. If all the buds push (which will generally be the
case), they are all permitted to grow until they have attained three inches
in length, when two of them are rubbed off ; those rubbed off are the third
and fourth buds, counting upwards from the origin of the tree, The upper-
most shoot is trained straight up the wall for a leading stem, and the
remaining four horizontally along the wall, two on each side the stem of the
tree. These shoots are trained nine inches apart, for when they are much
nearer than this they exclude the sun and air from operating upon the buds
and wood, in such a manner as is required to keep the tree productive.
When the leading upright shoot has attained about fifteen inches in length,
the end is pinched off so as to leave it about eleven inches long. This
causes shoots to be produced from the upper part of the leader thus stopped,
three of which are trained in, the uppermost straight up the wall, and the
others one on each side the stem of the leader. This stopping of the leading
shoot is not performed later than the end of June or early in July ; for,
when it is done much later, those shoots which push afterwards in that
season do not arrive at a sufficient degree of maturity to withstand the
winter, and are frequently destroyed by frost. When it happens that a tree
has not done well in the early part of the season, and the upright shoot is
not of a suitable length or vigour at the proper period for stopping it, it
is not meddled with afterwards until the winter pruning of the tree. When
the tree grows either too weak or too vigorous, lower the branches or raise
them as may be required. See 791, rule 2.
Second year. — Winter pruning. At the middle or end of November the
tree is pruned. The upright leading shoot is now shortened down to ten
inches from the place where it was last stopped. The tree will now be
represented by the accompanying sketch (fig. 360). The side shoots (but
which will hereafter be termed branches), are not shortened, but left
their full length. If, during summer, the end of a branch should have been
accidentally broken or damaged, the general consequence resulting from
it is the production of several shoots or fruit buds. If shoots (which is very
538
THE APPLE.
--*^-
Fig. 360. Horizontal Training, first year.
generally the case) were produced, and were shortened during summer
agreeably to directions for similar shoots in the treatment of the tree for the
second year (see Summer pruning), they are now cut down to about half an
inch in length (fig. 361). If, instead of shoots, natural fruit-buds should
have been produced (these are short and stiff, from half an inch to an inch in
length, and reddish at the ends), such are allowed to remain untouched, as
it is on those that fruit are produced. The advantage of shortening back the
upright shoot as much as is directed to be done is, that by it branches
are certain to be produced at those
places desired, so that no vacancy
occurs. The leading upright shoot
thus attended to will reach the top
of a wall twelve feet high in seven
years, which is as soon as the tree
will be able to do, so as to support
every part sufficiently. The tree
is always loosened from the wall
every winter pruning ; the wall is
swept and washed, recoloured with
paint or coal-tar, if required ; and
the tree is anointed with soft soap,
or some anti-insect composition, and
fresh mulch laid to its roots.
Summer pruning. — When the buds upon that part of the leading stem
which was produced last have pushed, they are all rubbed off to the three
uppermost. The topmost is trained straight up the wall, for a lead to the
main stem ; and the two others, one on each side. The instructions given
for stopping the leading shoot in summer, also shortening it back in winter
pruning, &c., are attended to until the tree arrives at a few inches from the
top of the wall. The side branches are allowed to grow without being
shortened back at any time, until they have extended as far as can be per-
mitted, when they are pruned in every winter, by cutting back each leading
shoot to two buds from where it pushed the previous spring. Any shoots
arising from the fore part of the main stem are taken clean away. The
buds upon the wood made last year will this summer generally make fruit-
ful ones. If, on the contrary (as is sometimes the case), shoots are produced
instead of fruitful buds, they are allowed to grow ten or twelve inches long,
until the wood attains a little hardness towards the bottom of it, when they
are cut down to about two inches in length ; and at the bottom part of what
remains, one or two fruit-buds are formed, so as to be productive in most
cases the next year, but in others not until the second year. Although such
a shoot was shortened as directed, yet it will generally push a shoot or more
the same season from the top part of it. After such have grown a suitable
length (as before described), they are cut back to about two inches from
where they pushed. If more than one shoot were produced after the first
shortening, and a bud or two is well swelled at the origin of the shoot (as
before described), all the shoots are left, and shortened as directed ; but, if
no such bud is produced, all the shoots are cut clean away, excepting one,
which is treated in shortening as before directed. The latter practice will
generally be found necessary, and also be more advantageous, as a greater
SPUR-PRUNING THE APPLE.
539
portion of sun and air is admitted to the buds, which will be considerably
strengthened and forwarded to a mature state. If after such treatment
fruit-buds are not produced from the origin of the shoot, nail the shoot to
the wall, parallel with the branch, which is uniformly successful in producing
them.
Third year. — Winter pruning. Such of the buds as produced wood shoots
the last year, and were shortened during summer as described, are now
shortened more. It frequently happens that a fruitful bud, or in some
instances two, will have been formed at the lower part of the shoot, (fig. 361,
a a) ; such shoots are now cut off about a quarter of an inch above the
uppermost of the fruitful buds (&) : but (as it is sometimes the case), if
there have not been fruitful buds produced, there will be growing buds, and
then the shoots are cut down so as to leave one bud (fig. 361, c). On
some occasions the growing buds and
fruitful buds will appear but very in-
distinctly, and in an embryo state ;
when this is the case the shoots are cut
down so as to leave two of those em-
bryo buds (dd}. There are generally
some natural fruit buds which did not
push to shoots, all such are left entire
(e). They are of a reddish colour, and are easily distinguished from grow-
ing buds, which are considerably less and all of a dark colour.
Summer pruning. This summer the fruitful buds are productive.
When the fruit has swelled a little, a shoot generally proceeds from the
stem of the spur (which it may now be called), just underneath the fruit :
such are allowed to grow eight or ten inches long, and are then shortened
back to two inches, or so as to leave three eyes upon each (fig. 362, A a).
JB
Fig. 361.
Pruning, third year.
Fig. 362. Spur Pruning, fourth year.
By shortening the shoot, strength is thrown into the fruit, and, during
summer, two or more fruit-buds are generally produced at the bottom of the
shoot thus cut down (fig. 362, &&), or, otherwise, from the lower part
of the spur (fig. 362, e). It sometimes occurs that when the tree is
very vigorous, some of the buds (fig. 362, b b) will push into shoots, or
occasionally into bloom, during the latter end of summer. If shoots, they
are allowed to grow, and are then shortened, as described for similar
shoots ; but, when bloom is produced, it is immediately cut off close under
the blossom.
The shoots (fig. 361, c) produced after the third year's winter pruning are
540
THE APPLE.
allowed to grow, and are then shortened, as already directed for similar
shoots (see Second year s summer pruning}. The shoots which were pruned
as directed last winter, and had embryo buds (fig. 361, d(£) during this
summer generally have a fruit-bud, and in some cases two, formed at their
bases. The treatment of all shoots produced upon any of the spurs in future,
is agreeably to the previous instructions given.
Always thin the fruit, and where two are situated together, take one
away ; this is done when they begin to swell.
Fourth Year. — Winter Pruning. The spurs (fig. 362, A B) which were
productive last summer, and upon which a shoot was made and shortened
(fig. 362, a, spur A), are now regulated in the following manner ; — If there
be two good fruit-buds formed upon the stem of the spur (fig. 362, d d,
spur B), all that part of it above such buds is cut away, about a quarter of
an inch above the uppermost (as at c) ; but, if there is only one good fruit-
bud upon the stem, and one upon the shoot which was cut in during sum-
mer (as at a, spur A), then it is pruned off (as at spur c, e e\ so that two
buds only remain (as at f f). When there is only one fruit-bud upon the
stem of the spur (as spur D, a), and no fruitful buds at the shoot (6), then
all the spur is pruned away (as at c). Sometimes those spurs that bear
fruit will not have a shoot produced, but, instead of it, a fruitful bud (as
spur E, a) ; it is then pruned off just above such bud (as at &).
Summer Pruning. All shoots are pruned, as already directed, in the
second and third years.
Fifth Year. — Winter Pruning. All the spurs are allowed to retain
three fruitful buds each ; but as there are generally more than is required
to keep, some of them are thinned away, retaining the best buds. The
ripest buds are most plump and red at the ends. If such buds are situated
near to the origin of the spur (as fig. 363, spur A, a a a), they are retained
in preference to similar fruitful
buds that are nigher the end of
the 8Pur (as b &) '> the sPur is
then cut off (as at c c). When
there are no fruitful buds near
to the origin of the spur, those
are left that are further off ; but
always take care to preserve the
bud situated nearest to the
branch which supports the spur,
whether it be a growing or a
fruitful one (as spur B, in which
a is a fruitful bud, and b a grow-
ing one).
If there be a suitable supply of buds upon the old part of the spur (^as
c, c c c), they are retained in preference to those buds formed at the bases
of shoots which have been pruned during summer (as e 6) ; for when there
is a proper supply on the old part of the spur, all such shoots are cut clean
away, with the exception of one that is situated near to the origin of the
spur (as e\ when that bud and the two next are only left.
Summer Pruning is performed as before directed.
Sixth Year. — Winter Pruning. In order to convey a correct method of
Fig. 363. Spur Pruning fifth year.
SPUR PRUNING THE APPLE.
541
Fig. 364. Spur Pruning, sixth year.
the treatment of the spurs in future, it will be necessary to point them out
by numbers, as 1, 2, and 3. The enumeration will proceed from the bole of
the tree, along the branch. After three spurs are thus numbered, begin
again, and proceed with No. 1, &c. (agreeably to fig. 364).
Every spur, No. 1, is now cut down to the lowest bud there is upon
it, whether it be a fruitful bud (as a), or growing bud (as 6). Every
spur, No. 2, to have three fruit buds (as ccc), and every spur, No. 3, to
have four fruit buds (as d d d d). When a spur, No. 1, is destitute of
either a fruitful or a
growing bud towards ^k.
the lower part of it,
such a spur is cut down
so low as only to leave
about one half inch re-
maining (as fig. 364, A).
There is generally an
eye or embryo of a bud
situated near to the
origin of the spur (as a,
spur A) ; from this a
shoot or a fruitful bud
is produced the ensuing
summer, and thus a supply is obtained for that cut away.
Summer Pruning. All shoots are shortened during summer, as before
directed. Particular care is paid to the spurs No. 1, as a shoot or a fruitful
bud is generally produced nearer to the base of the spur than to the bud
that was left at winter pruning, and most commonly at the opposite side of
the spur to it. Either a shoot or a fruitful bud generally pushes from those
spurs that were cut entirely down (as spur A, fig. 364) ; the shoots are cut
down, as directed for others.
Seventh Year. — Winter Pruning. The spurs No. 1 now generally have
two fruit-buds each ; they are allowed to retain them (as fig. 365, a a). If,
instead of a fruitful bud, a shoot pushed (as 6), and a fruitful bud was
formed at the lower
part of it; the shoot
is then cut off just
above it (as at c) ;
but if there is not a
fruitfulbud formed,
it is cu t do wn , so as to
leave it half an inch
long (as at d). The
spurs No. 2 have
four fruit-buds left
upon each (as e e e e) ; the spurs, No. 3, are now cut down, so that only one
fruitful bud remains (as/).
If a fruit-bud has been produced from the spur cut entirely away (as
spur A, fig. 364), it is left entire (as fig. 365, #) ; but if a shoot, instead of
a fruitful bud, it is cut off just above the lowest bud, whether a fruitful or
a growing bud (as at £, spur B). This treatment to such spurs cut entirely
down, is always pursued to similar ones in future.
N N
Fig. 365. Spur Pruning, tevi-nth y
542
THE APPLE.
a
Fig. 367. Spur Pruning, ninth year.
Summer Pruning. — This is attended to agreeably to the foregoing
directions.
Eighth Year. — Winter Pruning. The
spurs, No. 1, are allowed to retain
three fruit buds each (as fig. 366, a a a),
and the spurs, No. 2, are now cut down
(as 6) ; the spurs, No. 3, are regulated as
was done to spurs Nos. 1 and 2. See
Sixth and Seventh Years Summer Pruning.
Summer Pruning. This is performed
as before directed.
Fig. 366. Spur Pruning, eighth year. _T. ., ,_ __... _ . rr,1
Ninth Year.— Winter Pruning. The
spurs, No. 1, are allowed to have four fruit-buds each (as fig. G67, a a a a) ;
the spurs, No. 2, to have two fruit-
ful buds (as b 6), and the spurs, No.
3, to have three (as c c c).
Summer Pruning. Performed as
before.
Tenth year. — Winter Pruning.
The spurs, No. 1, are now cut down
again (as fig. 368, a, a fruitful
bud, and 6, a growing bud). The
spurs, No. 2, are pruned to three
fruit-buds (as c c c), and the spurs,
No. 3, to four fruit-buds (asdddd).
It will be observed that the spurs, No. ], have now been cut down twice ;
the first time in the sixth year, and the second in the tenth. Thus, those
spurs cut down to a fruitful bud
(as fig. 364, «) have borne fruit
four years ; and those spurs cut
entirely down, or to a growing
bud (as A, &, fig. 364), would have
only borne fruit three years. In
these two cases, always leave
the spurs with three fruit-buds
each this winter, and cut them
down the following winter, un-
less they have grown very vigor-
ous and straggling.
The system already detailed, of
cutting down and renewing the spurs, is practised with all others as here
directed. Thus, the next year, the spurs No. 3 are cut down (as in fig.
365, /j, and the second year from this time, the spurs No. 2. (as fig. 366, 6),
and in the fourth year from the present time, the spurs No. 1 cut down (as
fig. 364, a, and fig. 368, a) require to be cut down again.
Conclusion — To some the above directions may appear tedious and
intricate ; but it became necessary to enter into minute details, in order
to illustrate the principle of this system of spur pruning, the object of
which is to obtain spurs always at a proper distance from each other,
so that a suitable portion of sun and air may be admitted to them, and so
that the spurs may always be kept supplied with young healthy wood and
Fig. 368. Spur Pruning, tenth year.
PRUNING THE APPLE. 543
fruitful buds. This renewal of spurs may be practised for, a great many
times, and thus those long injurious straggling spurs which are so generally
seen on wall trees and espaliers may be avoided. (G. M. iii. p. 2 — 9.)
1151. Pruning, with reference to the entire tree., should have for
its object to admit the light and air among the branches, to preserve
the symmetry of the head by causing it to spread equally, and in the same
form and manner on every side, and to eradicate branches which are diseased
or decaying. In the case of espalier and wall trees it may frequently be-
come necessary to shorten a portion of the roots in order to lessen the vigour
of the branches, and throw them into a fruit-bearing state ; and the same
treatment may occasionally be required for dwarfs, and conical trees (794
and 798) on dwarfing stocks ; but it can seldom or never be either necessary or
desirable for standards, which require the aid of long ramose roots to enable
them to resist high winds ; and their roots as well as their heads having
abundant space for extension, a due equilibrium is preserved between them.
(G. M.for 1842, jo. 809.) Most trees and shrubs, whether fruit-bearing,
ornamental, or merely useful, require a certain degree of pruning in sum-
mer, as well as in autumn or spring. The object of summer-pruning,
in all standards and bushes, ought to be to stop or to thin out shoots
of the current year, in order the better to admit the sun and air to mature,
by means of the leaves, the shoots which remain. The shoots, so stopped
or removed, may either be cut or stopped to one or two buds with a view
to forming spurs, or cut close off, according as there may or may not be room
for the spurs to be developed. In the case of trees on walls, espaliers, or
trained as dwarfs, or cones, it is not desirable to add much strength to the
root, and therefore most of the summer shoots should be shortened early in
the season by pinching out their points with the finger and thumb, when
they are only a few inches in length, repeating this operation when the
shoot, thus shortened, has again developed its last or farthest bud, as in the
case of summer pruning the vine (961). At the same time, wherever shoots
are wanted to complete the form or dimensions of the tree, or when it is
desirable to add strength to the stem or the root, there the branches should
be left at their full length to be laid in, shortened, or cut out, at the au-
tumnal or winter's pruning, as may be found most desirable. The apple
against a wall or espalier is almost always trained in the horizontal manner,
already described in detail (806) : it is better adapted for dwarfs than
any other fruit-tree, and the mode of training these, as well as of forming
cones, has been given (792 to 799). Espalier-training has been exemplified
(896), and also apple -training against walls (806). Apple-trees, when
grown old and unfruitful, may frequently be headed in (762) with advantage,-
more especially if the surface of the soil is stirred and enriched with fresh
soil and manure. They may also be regrafted (653).
1152. Gathering and keeping. — All apples, intended to be kept for some
weeks or months, should be gathered by hand and carried to the fruit- room
in baskets ; but as it is difficult to prevent a number of fruit from dropping,
or in exposed situations from being blown down by the wind, all that are
bruised should be kept by themselves, in order to be used first. Table apples
should be spread out singly on shelves, or packed in sand, fern, or kiln-dried
straw, or in jars with any of these materials (858) ; but kitchen sorts
may be laid in layers on shelves, or on a cool floor. The common mode of
keeping, by those who grow apples in large quantities for the market, is to
N N 2
544 THE APPLE.
lay them in heaps in cool dry cellars, and cover them with abundance of
straw. In some parts of England they are preserved in ridges, the apples
being laid on, and covered with, green turf or straw, and the lidge finished
with a foot or more of soil to keep out the frost, in the same manner as is
done in keeping potatoes in ridges or hods. By this mode they keep per-
fectly ; but it is evidently better adapted for a market gardener who sells his
produce in large quantities, than for a gentleman's gardener who has to furnish
small portions of fruit daily. For him, shelves or the cellar-floor are to be
preferred during the winter, and jars during the spring and summer months.
The French crab, the northern greening, and various other long keeping
sorts, may be preserved in dry sand, on a large scale in cellars, or in ridges (or
hods or pies, as they are called in some places), or on a small scale in jars kept
in cellars, for two years or upwards. The French crab may also be kept on
shelves in a garret for two years ; but by this mode it is always more or less
shrivelled. What is termed the sweating of apples, consists in covering
them with short grass, aftermath hay, mats, or blankets, or any similar
covering, so as to excite a degree of fermentation, the heat produced by
which expands the water in the apple, and causes it to exude through the
pores of the skin. This takes place sooner or later, according to the tempe-
rature of the atmosphere, but generally, in a fruit-cellar at 40°, in the course
of a week or ten days, after which the apples are wiped, and being thus
deprived of a portion of their moisture, it is thought they will keep better.
This may be true where they are kept on shelves, exposed to a change of
air ; but the natural moisture of the apple is no impediment to its keeping
in any situation where the air and the temperature are not, or but very
slightly, changed. — (See 858 and 930.)
1153. Diseases, Insects, Casualties, $c. — No tree is more subject to the
canker than the apple, and particularly some kinds, such as the Ribston
pippin, Hawthornden, &c. Practically, the canker may be considered in-
curable; but it may always be prevented, or its appearance deferred, by pro-
curing young trees which are free from it, and taking care not to plant them
too deep, or to dig deep round them afterwards, so as to force the roots to pene-
trate into the subsoil. The canker is not only produced by too deep planting, by
deep digging, in cultivating the ground round the tree, and by a wet or otherwise
unfavourable subsoil, but by a late climate or a late season, in which the wood
is not properly ripened. To facilitate the ripening of the wood in a bad cli-
mate, nothing is better than to prevent the tree from making much wood to
ripen ; and this may be effected by keeping the soil poor rather than rich,
by planting on hillocks above the surface, and by never stirring the soil more
than an inch or two in depth, for a space round the tree equal to, or rather
more than, that covered by its branches. The woolly aphis, or American
blight, is the most injurious insect that infests the apple tree, but it is also
that which is most easily destroyed. This is effected by washing the parts
with diluted sulphuric acid; which is formed by mixing Joz. by measure of the
sulphuric acid of the shops with 7^ ozs. of water. It should be rubbed into
the parts affected by means of a piece of rag tied to a stick, the operator
taking care not to let it touch his clothes. The same mixture applied all
over the bark of the tree will effectually destroy mosses and lichens.
After the bark of a tree has been washed with this mixture, the first shower
will re-dissolve it, and convey it into the most minute crevice, so as effec-
tually to destroy any insects that may have escaped. ( G. M. vol. IX., p. 336.)
THE PEAR. 545
There are several species of weevil which attack the young shoots of the
apple tree, or bore into their blossom buds before they expand in spring.
There are also several species of moth, some butterflies, and the aphis and
chermes mali, but very little can be done either to prevent the attacks of
these insects, or to destroy them after they have made their appearance.
Smoke of any kind, such as from damp straw, if the heads of the trees can
be enveloped in it, will bring down caterpillars, and by destroying these the
number produced next season will be lessened. Tobacco water, thrown over
the tree with an engine, will kill the aphis and chermes, but this remedy is
too expensive for general use. Lime-water will destroy the caterpillars of
all insects that live on the leaves of plants ; but neither it nor tobacco-
water can be readily brought in contact with the larva of beetles and other
insects that live in the interior of the bud or shoot. — See our Chapter on
Insects, and the different modes of destroying them, p. 93 to 123; and also
that on the Diseases and Accidents to which Plants are liable, p. 123 to 126;
and consult " Kollar's Treatise on the Insects injurious to Gardeners,
Foresters, and Farmers."
SUBSECT. II. The Pear.
1154. — The Pear — Pyrus communis, L. (Poirier, Fr. ; Birnbaum, Ger. ;
Peer, Dutch-, Pero, ItaL- and Pera, Span. ; E. B. 1784; Arb. Brit. vol. ii.
p. 880; and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 417), is a deciduous tree of a more
upright and regular form than the apple-tree, and of greater duration. It is
indigenous in the woods of most parts of Europe, and also in many parts of
Asia ; but it is not found in North America. The wild pear differs from
the apple in growing on poorer soil, having a larger and more permanent
tap root, and in a seedling state not coming so soon into bearing. The pear
in its cultivated state is found in the gardens of all civilized countries, more
especially in those of temperate climates. In Britain it forms a leading
article in the dessert, from July to March, or later.
1155. Uses. — The fruit of the pear is more esteemed in the dessert than
that of the apple, but the latter is much more valuable in the kitchen. The
pear is used for baking, stewing, computes, and marmalades. Pared, and dried
in the sun, the fruit will keep several years, either with or without sugar,
and those sorts which are less esteemed for the table are found to answer
best for this mode of drying and preserving. Perry is made from the ex-
pressed juice of the pear, fermented in the manner of cider, and when well
made of the most suitable kinds of fruit, it is more highly prized than cider.
The tree has not its white blossoms tinged with red, like those of the apple, but
it grows to a greater height and assumes a more pyramidal shape; the leaves
die off in autumn of a richer yellow or red ; and the tree being of greater
duration than the apple, it is from these properties better adapted for
ornamental plantations. The wood is light, smooth, and compact, and
much used in turnery, tool-making, for picture- frames, and for dyeing to
imitate ebony. The leaves \vill dye yellow.
1156. Properties of a good Pear. — Dessert pears are characterised by a
sugary aromatic juice, with the pulp soft, and sub-liquid or melting, as in the
beurres or butter-pears. Kitchen pears should be of large size, with the flesh
firm, neither breaking, that is, firm and crisp, nor melting, and rather austere
than sweet, as in the Wardens. Perry pears may be either large or small ;
but the more austere the taste, the bettor will be the iquor. Excellent
i)46 THE PEAR.
perry is made from the wild pear, which is altogether unfit either for the
kitchen or the dessert.
1157. The varieties of pear cultivated by the Romans, Pliny informs us,
were numerous ; in France they have long been more so than the varieties of
the apple ; and hence the kinds in former cultivation in this country were
obtained from France, and generally required the protection of walls. Since
the peace of 1815, however, many new and hardy varieties of pear have
been introduced from Belgium, where the cultivation and improvement of this
fruit has, till lately, been more attended to than anywhere else. Some excel-
lent and very hardy varieties have also been raised by the late Mr. Knight, so
that the old French varieties, with the exception of some of superior excel-
lence, such as the Jargonelle, are rapidly disappearing from our gardens.
In 1842 more than 700 sorts had been proved, in the Horticultural So-
ciety's Gardens, to be distinct, as appears by the Society's Fruit Catalogue.
The following selections from this large number have been made for us by
Mr. Thompson.
1158. Dessert Pears arranged in the order of their ripening and keeping.
Citron des Carmes, syn. Madeleine. Middle size, obovate, yellowish
green, tender, juicy ; July ; a good bearer, and an upright growing tree.
Jargonelle, syn. Epargne. Large, pyriform, greenish yellow, tender,
juicy, rich, and melting; August; a good bearer. The tree generally re-
quires a wall, for Jike the Colmar, Brown Beurre, and many old French
varieties, its constitution is not adapted to withstand the vicissitudes to which
standards are subjected ; but as the fruit ripens in the hottest part of the
season, it will succeed on any aspect, even facing the north.
Summer St. Germain. Middle size, obovate, pale green, tender and
juicy ; August and September ; a good bearer as a standard, and a vigorous-
growing tree.
Ambrosia, syn. Early Beurre. Middle size, roundish, greenish yellow,
buttery and rich ; September ; a good bearer, and a strong growing tree.
Dunmore. Large oblong-obovate, greenish yellow, and smooth brown
russet, buttery, melting and rich ; September ; a hardy vigorous tree, and
bears abundantly as a standard.
Fondante d'Automne. Middle size, obovate, greenish brown, melting
and rich ; September and October ; a good bearer, and a hardy tree.
White Doyenne, syn. White Beurre. Above the middle size, obovate,
pale yellow, buttery, deliquescent ; September and October ; a great bearer,
and producing fruit of the best flavour when grown as a standard.
Seckle* syn. New York Red Cheek. Small, obovate, brownish yellow
and red, tender, juicy, high aroma; October ; a good bearer as a standard.
Louise Bonne of Jersey. Large, pyriform, greenish brown and red,
melting ; October and November ; a good bearer as a standard.
Marie Louise, syn. Braddick's Field Standard. Large, oblong, greenish
yellow and brown, melting, buttery, delicious ; October and November ; a
great bearer, and a hardy tree.
Beurre Bosc, syn. Calebasse Bosc. Large, pyriform, russeted, of a cinna-
mon colour, buttery and high flavoured ; October and November ; a
moderate bearer, and best grown as a standard.
Gansefs Bergamot, syn. Bonne Rouge. Large, obovate, yellow russet
brown, melting, buttery, high flavoured ; October and November ; a
moderate bearer, and best adapted for being grown against a wall.
B*l
SELECTIONS OF PEARS. 54 /
Duchesse d'Angoultme. Very large, obtusely obovate, yellow and russet,
melting and juicy ; October and November ; a good bearer, especially against
a wall ; but the fruit is better flavoured from a standard.
Beurre Diel, syn. Dorothe'e Royale. Very large, obovate, or obtusely
pyramidal, yellowish brown, buttery and rich ; October and November ; a
great bearer, and a hardy vigorous tree.
Hacoris Incomparable, syn. Downham Seedling. Middle size, or rather
large, roundish, brownish, or greenish yellow, slightly russeted, buttery,
rich, and high flavoured ; December and January ; one of the hardiest and
best of pears.
Nelis d'Hiver, syn. Bonne de Malines. Middle size, obovate, yellowish
russet brown, buttery, melting, very rich ; November to January ; a good
bearer as a standard, and deserving also a wall.
Althorp Crassane. Middle size, roundish, obovate, greenish brown,
buttery, first-rate flavour ; October and November ; a good bearer, as a
standard ; being hardy it does not require a wall.
Winter Crassane. Large, turbinate, green, yellow, and brown, buttery,
first-rate quality ; January ; a hardy tree, and a great bearer as a standard.
Napoleon, syn. Medaille. Large, obtusely pyramidal, pale green,
melting, and extremely juicy ; November and December ; a good bearer, a
vigorous tree, either on a wall or as a standard, and free from canker.
Thompson's. Middle size, obovate, brownish yellow, melting, buttery,
and rich ; November till January ; bears as a standard.
Glout Morceau, syn. Beurre d'Hardenpont. Large, obtuse elliptic, pale
green, buttery, melting, excellent ; November to January ; a great bearer ;
deserves a wall, but does not particularly require it ; a hardy tree, and
altogether one of the most valuable sorts of pears in cultivation.
Passe Colmar, syn. Chapman's. Middle size, obovate, greenish yellow
russet, melting, juicy and sugary ; December and January ; a great bearer,
either as a wall tree or standard, and free from canker.
Knight's Monarch. Middle size, obovate, yellowish brown, melting, and
very rich ; December and January ; a good bearer, and a hardy tree.
Ne plus Meuris. Middle size, roundish and somewhat irregular in shape,
brownish russet, buttery and rich ; November to March ; a great bearer,
and the tree hardy.
Easter Beurre, syn. Bergamotte de la Pentecote. Large, roundish oblong,
yellowish green, russet, and brown, buttery and melting; January to March,
and in jars among sand till June ; a great bearer, and well deserving a wall.
Beurre de Ranz, syn. Hardenpont du Printemps. Large, obtusely pyra-
midal, brownish green, melting, juicy and rich ; March to May, or in jars,
among sand or kiln- dried straw, till July ; a good bearer, and well deserving
a wall. This and the two preceding varieties being the best keeping pears,
ought to be planted in greater quantity than any other variety in private
collections, so as to produce an abundant supply through the spring and,
by careful keeping, till pears come again.
1159. Kitchen Pears arranged in the order of their ripening and keeping.
Bezi d'Heri, syn. Franzosische Rumelbirne. Middle size, roundish,
yellow and reddish blush, tender, and with the flavour of anis ; October to
January ; a great bearer, and succeeds well as a standard ; excellent for
stewing, and very free from grittiness.
Bequene Musqut. Middle size, oblong, tapering, pale yellow, stews
548 TJTK PEAR.
tender ; October to January ; a great bearer, a hardy tree ; and though the
fruit in a raw state is disagreeable, yet it is excellent when stewed.
Spanish Bon Chretien. Large, pyramidal, yellowish green and red, tender
and very good; November and December; a moderate bearer, requiring a wall.
Double de Guerre, syn. Double Krijgs. Large, oblong, obovate, brownish-
russet, and red, stews tender ; November to February ; a good bearer, and
succeeds well as a standard.
Catillac, syn. Katzenkopf, or Cats' Head. Large, broadly turbinate,
brownish-yellow, and red, stews a good colour ; December to April ; a good
bearer, and succeeds well trained en pyramide.
Uvedale's St. Germain, syn. Uvedale's Warden. Very large, oblong,
greenish-yellow, and brown, very good ; December to April ; a moderate
bearer, requires a wall, on which the fruit has been grown to weigh upwards
of three pounds, but it is not so productive as the preceding.
1160. Perry Pears, arranged in the order of their merits.
Oldfield. Below the middle size, turbinate, pale, russet-green, austere ; a
great bearer, a hardy tree, and the specific gravity of the juice 1067.
Barland. Small, obovate, greenish-russet, very austere ; a great bearer,
and the specific gravity of the juice 1070.
Longland. Middle size, oval, yellowish, austere ; a great bearer, an up-
right tree, and the specific gravity of the juice 1063.
Teinton Squash. Middle size, roundish, greenish- russet, very austere ; a
moderate and rather uncertain bearer, but the perry very highly esteemed.
1161. A list of pears adapted for walls of different aspects, has been given
in p. 422.
1162. A list of pears for espaliers, dwarf s^ or standards, trained conically
or spurred in, has been given in p. 428.
1163. A list of pears adapted for an orchard or being grown as standards,
will be found in p. 432.
1164. A selection of pears, where the space is very limited, or for cottage
gardens. — Jargonelle, Dunmore, Marie Louise, Beurre de Capiaumont,
Beurre Diel, Hacon's Incomparable, Glout-morceau, Easter Beurre, and
Beurre de Ranz. These are pears of first-rate excellence, and they will all
succeed as standards in any climate where wheat can be brought to per-
fection, with the exception of the jargonelle, which, from the causes already
mentioned (/>. 546), requires a wall or espalier, even in the best climates. £
Where there is only room in a cottage garden for one pear tree, Hacon's
Incomparable, which is one of the best, and almost a constant bearer, may
have one branch or limb grafted with the Marie Louise, others with the
Easter Beurre, Glout-morceau, and Beurre de Ranz, which would thus afford
a succession of fruit of first-rate excellence from October till March. The
three last-named pears may be advantageously trained against the walls of
a cottage, or on a trellis raised about 6 inches above its roof (987). The
jargonelle succeeds admirably against cottage walls, and on any aspect.
1165. Pear trees of forms adapted for landscape scenery. — Glout-morceau,
a handsome pyramidal tree with spreading branches, hardy, a good bearer,
and the fruit most excellent. Swan's egg, a handsome pyramidal tree, and
an excellent bearer, but the fruit of only second-rate merit. The Elcho, a
Scotch variety, with a fastigiate head almost like that of a Lombardy poplar,
but the fruit of little value ; and the Beurre Diel, a handsome and some-
what fastigiate tree, a great bearer, and the fruit excellent.
PROPAGATION AND CULTURE OF THE PEAR. 549
1166. The propagation, nursery culture, and choice of plants, are much
the same for the pear as for the apple ; but the pear is never propagated by-
cuttings, which root with difficulty, and as it is oftener required for walls
than the apple, it is more frequently flat trained for one, two, or three years
in the nursery. — The pear is grafted or budded on stocks raised from seeds
of the wild pear, or from any strong upright-growing kind, when the object
is large and durable plants ; and when dwarfs or conical trees are to be pro-
duced, the stock used is the quince, which is propagated for that purpose by
layers. The mountain ash, the medlar, the wild service, the white beam,
the common thorn, and the crab apple, have also been used as stocks for the
pear ; and hence, wherever there is a thorn hedge, or a wood or plantation
containing white service trees, white beam trees, or the mountain ash, pear
trees may be speedily grown in abundance. Grafting on the mountain ash is
practised at Ems and in other parts of Nassau (G. M. 1842, p. 228.), and is
said to retard the blossoming of the trees, and thus adapt them for a climate
where there is danger from spring frosts ; while the flesh and flavour of the
pear is said not to be affected. Grafting the pear on the thorn is known to
bring it into very early bearing, and to produce thriving trees on a strong
clayey soil, where neither stocks of the wild pear nor the quince would
thrive. The thorn stock, however, is said to render the fruit smaller and
harder. When the thorn is grafted either with the apple or pear, the scions
or buds require to be inserted as near the root of the stock as possible, in
order that the moisture of the soil may aid in the swelling of the stock,
which, notwithstanding this care, generally remains of smaller diameter
than the apple or pear grafted on it, and thus acts like the operation of
ringing in increasing the fruitfulness of the tree. The quince, as it grows
naturally in situations within the reach of water, is evidently the best stock
for moist soils, and it is also thought the best for clayey and light soft soils ;
while for chalky and silicious soils, and gravels of every kind, the pear
stock is recommended. The pear does not unite very readily with the
apple, and when it does so, is but of short duration. When grafted on a
pear stock, the plants have fewer fibrous roots, in proportion to the bulk and
age of the plant, than the apple on a crab stock ; and hence it requires more
care in taking up for removal, and in the nursery requires to be more fre-
quently transplanted than the apple. As quince stocks have more fibrous
roots than pear stocks, the pear on them is transplanted without difficulty.
1167. Soil, situation, and final planting. — The pear grows naturally on a
much poorer and drier soil than the apple, but to produce large crops of
excellent fruit it requires like it a deep loamy soil on a dry subsoil. On a
wet subsoil the pear will do no good, and the remarks made under this head
(1148), in treating of the apple, are equally applicable to the pear. The
distances at which the pear ought to be planted against a wall may be some-
what greater than that for the apple, or from 25 to 30 feet against a wall 12
feet high (890), The distance against espaliers, and as dwarfs or cones on
dwarfing stocks, and in orchards, has been already given (902 and 908).
1168. The mode of bearing, pruning, and training the pear is much the
same as for the apple, but in most of the varieties, the spurs are somewhat
longer in being formed, being generally produced on two years' old wood,
instead of the former year's wood. The branches of standard pears are a so
less liable to cross each other than those of the apple, and hence pear tree
in an orchard require, comparatively with the apple, little pruning.
550
THE PEAR.
In training the pear on walls or espaliers horizontally, the ordinary dis-
tance between the shoots is from 9 inches to 12 inches, the latter distance
being adopted for large-leaved pears, such as the jargonelle ; but for shy-
bearing pears, which always are most prolific on young spurs, it has been
proposed to have the main branches at double the distance, and to lay in
Fig. 369. A method of training shy-bearing Peart.
laterals from them at regular intervals, as in fig. 869. These laterals in two
or three years will be covered with spurs and blossom- buds, and will be
more certain of producing fruit than the spurs on the main branches. They
can be renewed at pleasure, by cutting them off, having previously en-
couraged young shoots to supply their place. (See an elaborate article
on this subject in Gard. Mag. vol. ii. p. 262.)
On walls or espaliers the pear is apt to produce a superfluity of young
shoots, but this is chiefly owing to the borders being made too deep and rich,
and to their being dug deeply and cropped, by which the roots are forced
down to the subsoil, where they are supplied with more moisture than is
beneficial for the fruitfulness of the tree, and which consequently expends
itself in young shoots. The remedies are root pruning or disleafing (772),
and mulching the border with litter instead of digging it. The summer
shoots, which it is foreseen will not be wanted at the winter's pruning, should
be stopped (768), as recommended for the apple.
Old standard pears may be cut in, and wall or espalier trees headed down
io within a few inches of the graft ; or the horizontal shoots in ay be cut off
within a few inches of the upright stem, and a graft of a superior kind put
on each. This has now become a very general mode of renovating old pear
trees on walls or espaliers, that have been trained horizontally, and it affords
an excellent opportunity of grafting a number of different kinds on one tree.
On a wall 12 feet high there will be at least twelve horizontal branches on
each side of the main stem, which will allow of grafting twenty-four different
sorts on one tree, with a much better chance of an equilibrium of vigour
being maintained among the kinds, than in grafting different sorts on a tree
trained in the fan manner, or on a standard in the open garden, in which
one or two robust sorts generally overcome all the rest.
Thinning the blossoms of pear-trees, and soaking the'soil well with water
at the same time, has been found to facilitate the setting of the fruit, and the
practice might be worth adopting in a small suburban garden, not only with
pear-trees but with fruit trees in general. The blossoms may be cut off with
the averruncator or the flower-gatherer (418) ; but the most certain mode of
benefiting by the practice of thinning the blossoms of any description of tree,
THE QUINCE. 551
is to remove the blossom-buds the preceding autumn, or as early in spring as
they can be distinguished from the leaf- buds. This will greatly strengthen the
blossoms which remain, and go far to ensure the setting of the fruit.
1169. Gathering and keeping. — Dessert pears of the summer kinds, being
softer and more tender than apples, require greater care in handling : they
require to be kept but a short time before being used, and should therefore
be placed in that division of the fruit-room which is devoted to summer fruits
(856 and 931). Those which are intended to be kept for winter and spring
use may be laid on open shelves, and the latest keeping kinds may be
packed in jars, as recommended for apples (1152).
1170. The diseases, insects, and easualties, to which the pear is liable, are
much the same as the apple; but the pear is less subject to canker, is
seldom affected with the woolly aphis, and the tree being of more vertical
growth is also less liable to be broken by winds.
SUBSECT. III.— The Quince.
1171. TheQuince, PyrusCydonia,.L.; Cydonia vulgaris, W.; (Coignassier,
Fr. ; Quittenbaum, Ger. ; Kivepeer, Dutch ; Cotogno, Ital. ; and Mem-
brillo, Span. — Arb. Brit. vol. iii. p. 880, and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs,
p. 450), is a low, much branched, crowded and distorted deciduous tree, a na-
tive of Austria and other parts of Europe, generally in moist soil or near water,
and in a situation somewhat shady. It blossoms in May or June, and ripens
its fruit in October and November. The tree has been grown for its fruit
since the time of the Romans. The fruit is not eaten raw but stewed, or
in pies or tarts, along with apples ; it is much esteemed, and it makes excel-
lent marmalade. When apples have become flat, or have lost their flavour,
a quince, or even a part of one, in a pie or pudding, will add sharpness, and
communicate a flavour by many preferred to that of apples alone. The fruit
is large, and of a golden yellow when ripe, and its appearance on the tree
bears a nearer resemblance to the orange than any other hardy fruit ; and
on this account, and also the beauty of its large pale-pink and white blossoms,
the tree well deserves a place in ornamental landscape. On the borders of a
pond it attains the highest degree of beauty, which is doubled by its reflection
in the water. The use of the quince, as a stock for dwarfing the pear, has
been already mentioned (1166).
1172. Varieties. — These are the oblong, or pear quince ; the ovate, or
apple quince ; and the Portugal quince. The Portugal quince has broad
cordate leaves, and an oblong fruit, which is more juicy and less
harsh than that of the other varieties, and therefore the most valuable.
It is rather a shy bearer, but is highly esteemed for marmalade, as the
pulp has the property of assuming a fine purple tint in the course of
being prepared. This is also the best sort upon which to work the pear-
tree, its wood swelling more in conformity with that of the latter, than the
harder wood of the other sorts.
1173. Propagation, soil, and other points of culture and management. —
The quince is generally propagated by layers, but cuttings root without
difficulty, and the Portugal quince is sometimes grafted on the pear quince,
or the wild pear, or thorn. In propagating for stocks, no particular care is
requisite in training the plants ; but for fruit-bearing trees, it is necessary to
train the stem to a rod, till it has attained four feet or five feet in height,
and can support itself upright. The best standards, however, are produced
552 THE MEDLAR AND THE TRUE SERVICE.
by grafting at the height of five feet or six feet on the pear, the thorn, or
the mountain ash. The quince is generally planted in the orchard, in some
part where the soil is good and somewhat moist : it bears on two-years old
wood, and requires little pruning except thinning out crossing, crowded, or
decaying branches. Trained against an espalier, it blossoms in May or the
beginning of June, and the fruit in October or November makes a fine
appearance. The fruit may be kept in the same manner as the apple, on
shelves ; or packed in sand, or kiln-dried straw.
SUBSECT IV.— The Medlar.
1174. The Medlar, Mespilus germanica, L. (Neflier, Fr. ; Mispelbaum,
Ger. ; Mispelboom, Dutch; Nespolo, ItaL; and Nespero, Span. — E. B.
1523 ; Arb. Brit. vol. ii. p. 877 ; an&Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 414), is
a low deciduous tree, with crooked tortuous branches, a native of Europe
and the west of Asia, in bushy places and woods, and said to be found wild
in Kent, Sussex, and some other parts of England. It flowers in May and
June, and the fruit is ripe in November. It is eaten raw, in a state of
incipient decay, when it has a peculiar flavour and acidulous taste, relished
by some but disliked by others.
1175. Varieties. — The Dutch medlar has the largest fruit ; the Netting-
\' ham medlar has the fruit of a quicker and more poignant taste ; the stone-
less medlar has small obovate fruit, without stones or seeds ; and the wild
medlar has the leaves, flowers, and fruit smaller than in any of the other
kinds except the stoneless. The first and second sorts are alone worth
cultivating in small gardens, and as the fruit does not keep long, one
tree of each kind will generally be found sufficient.
1176. Propagation, soil, and other points of culture and management. —
Grafting on its own species is considered the best mode of propagation for
the medlar as a fruit-tree; but it will root by layers, and, but with diffi-
culty, by cuttings. The seeds, if sown as soon as the fruit is ripe, will come
up the following spring, and make plants fit for grafting dwarfs in two years,
and standards in three years. It requires a similar soil and situation to
the quince, and the same treatment as that tree in every other respect,
excepting that no attempt is made to keep the fruit longer than the period
of its natural decay. It is laid on wheat straw spread on the shelves, in
order that it may not be bruised, and is generally fit to eat about the end of
November, and it lasts till the end of January.
SUBSECT. V — The True Service.
1177. The True Service, Sorbus domestica, L. ; Pyrus Sdrbus Gart. and
Arb. Brit., (Cornier, Fr. ; Spierlingbaum, Ger. ; Sorbenboem, Dutch ; Sorbo,
Ital. • and Serbal, Span. — E. B. 350 ; Arb. Brit. vol. ii., p. 921 ; and Encyc.
of Trees and Shrubs, p. 442), is a middle-size deciduous tree, with a hand-
some regular head, a native of France and other parts of central Europe, and
of Barbary, in the neighbourhood of Algiers ; and a solitary tree of this
species has been found in Wyre Forest, near Bewdley in Worcestershire.
The leaves are pinnate, and closely resemble those of the mountain ash ;
but the fruit is much larger, and, when ripe, is of a rusty brown, tinged!
with yellow and red. It flowers in May, and the fruit is ripe in October.
It is eaten like that of the medlar, but is deemed inferior. There is a pear-
shaped variety, one apple-shaped, and a third berry-shaped ; the latter
THE CHERRY. 553
being the form of the fruit in the wild plant. The tree is rarely planted
for its fruit in Britain, and is now neglected on the Continent. One may be
introduced in an orchard or a shrubbery for the sake of variety. It is pro-
pagated by layers, or by grafting on the mountain ash, or any allied species.
It requires a good soil in order to produce abundant and large fruit ; but very
little pruning is necessary, and we have never seen or heard of its being
trained against an espalier ; though we have no doubt it would be more pro-
lific if grafted on the common thorn, and so treated. There are fruit-bear-
ing trees in the arboretum of Messrs. Loddiges at Hackney, and in the Hort.
Soc. Garden.
1178. Pyrus tormindlis (Arb. Brit. vol. ii. p. 913; Encyc. of Trees and
Shrubs, p. 436), the Griping- fruited Service tree, is not cultivated in gardens,
but it grows wild in Sussex, and the fruit is sent to Covent Garden market,
and eaten in a state of incipient decay, like that of the True Service.
1179. Pyrus A'ria, var. cretica (Arb. Brit. vol. ii. p. 910, and Encyc. of
Trees and Shrubs, p. 403), the Cretan white beam tree, has a mealy, agree-
ably-tasted fruit, which is eaten when ripe, and before it has begun to decay.
In our opinion this is as well worth cultivating as the True Service.
SUBSECT. Nl.— The Cherry.
1180. The Cherry (Cerasus sylvestris and C. vulgaris, Arb. Brit. ; (Ceri-
sier, Fr. ; Kirschenbaum, Ger. ; Karseboom, Dutch; Ciriego, ItaL ; and
Cerezo, Span.—E. B. 706 ; Arb. Brit. vol. ii. p. 693, and Encyc. of Trees and
Shrubs, pp. 277, 278) is, in its wild state, a middle-sized deciduous tree, a
native of most parts of Europe, and of part of Asia, and cultivated for its
fruit from the time of the Romans. It is the first hardy fruit that ripens
in the open air in Britain, and is grown extensively in Kent and Hertford-
shire for the London market. It is also one of the earliest of forced fruits,
being as we have seen (1026) ripened in March, and sometimes even in
February (1028).
1181. Use. — The fruit, besides being highly valued for the dessert, is
useful in pies, tarts, and other preparations in cookery and confectionery.
Steeping cherries in brandy is said to improve its strength and flavour ; a
wine may be made from the pulp, and from the pulp and kernel bruised and
fermented the German spirit Kirschwasser is distilled. The mode of pre-
paring this spirit, and various other foreign or less common uses of the
cherry, will be found given at length in the Arboretum Britannicum. The
fruit of the Kentish cherry may be stoned, and dried, and used like raisins.
The gum which exudes from the tree is said to have all the properties of
gum arabic. The wood of the tree is hard and tough, and is used by the
turner, flute-maker, and cabinet-maker : and the wild cherry, as a tree, is
an excellent nurse for the oak on light soils, while its fruit is a great
encourager of the thrush, blackbird, and other singing birds.
1182. Varieties. — The Romans had eight kinds of cherry, and in England
in the time of Parkinson there were twenty-four sorts. In France and Ger-
many the sorts were more numerous than in England before the collection
made by the Horticultural Society of London. From that collection the
following very select list has been made for us by Mr. Thompson.
1 J 83. Dessert cherries arranged in the order of their ripening.
Early purple Guigne, syn. Early purple Griotte. Large, heart-shaped,
dark purple, flesh purple, tender, rich ; beginning to the middle of June ;
leaves with long petioles, the fruit very handsome.
554
THE CHERRY.
May Duke, syn. Royale Hdtive, Fr. ; Doppelte Mai Kirsche, Ger. Large,
roundish, dark red, flesh tender, juicy, rich; end of June; a good
bearer, and the tree with erect branches.
Knight's Early Black. Large, obtuse, heart-shaped, black, flesh purplish,
rich ; end of June ; a good bearer, and a very handsome and excellent fruit.
Downton. Above the middle size, roundish, heart-shaped, pale yellow
and red, flesh pale amber, juicy, rich; beginning to the middle of July ; a
good bearer.
/Elton. Large, heart-shaped, pale yellow and red,
flesh whitish, very rich and sweet ; beginning
to the middle of July ; a good bearer, and esteemed
the richest pale cherry.
Royal Duke, syn. Royale tardive. Large, oblate,
(see fig. 370) dark red, flesh reddish, tender, juicy,
rich ; middle to the end of July ; a good bearer, and
the habit of the tree fastigiate, like that of the May
Duke.
Bigarreau, syn. Graffion. Large, obtuse, heart-
shaped, white and red, flesh whitish, firm, sweet ;
end of July and beginning of August ; an abundant
bearer, and a very handsome and much cultivated
fruit, particularly for the London market.
Florence. Large, obtuse, heart-shaped, pale
Fig 370. The term oblate aillber and red' flesh SWeet and rich > August > a
exemplified in the Royal good bearer when the tree has attained a certain age,
Duke Cherry. ^ut not when it is young.
1181. Cherries for preserving.
Kentish, syn. Montmorency a longue queue. Middle size, oblate, bright
red, flesh whitish, juicy, acid ; middle to the end of July ; a great bearer,
the tree with drooping shoots. The fruit of this variety is much used
for pies. It has also the peculiar property of the stalk adhering so firmly to
the stone that the latter may be drawn out without breaking the skin, ex-
cepting at the base. In this state the fruit is dried in hair sieves in the sun,
or placed in a gently heated oven, and the cherries so treated will keep a
year, and when brought to table have the appearance of raisins.
Morello, syn. Amarena, Ital. Large, obtuse, heart-shaped, dark red,
flesh purplish red, juicy, acid ; August and September; an abundant bearer,
and chiefly on the one year old wood ; the fruit is excellent for preserving
and for putting into brandy.
1185. Cherries adapted for being trained against walls of different aspects.
See p. 422.
1186. Cherries adapted for espaliers or dwarfs. See p. 428.
1187. Cherries adapted for being grown as standards. See p. 433.
1188. Cherries for a cottage garden. — May Duke, Late Duke, Kentish,
and Morello.
1189. Cherries for the north of Scotland. — May Duke, Elton, Downton,
Tilger's Redheart, Winter's Blackheart, Lundy Gean, Kentish, Morello.
1190. Propagation, nursery culture, and choice of plants. — Budding is
more frequently resorted to than grafting, because the wounds made by the
latter operation are apt to gum. Stocks raised from stones of the wild cherry,
CULTURE OF THE CHERRY. 555
or the cultivated cherry, are used when free growing plants are required ;
the Morello, when the object is plants of moderate size ; and the perfumed
cherry (Cerasus Mahdleb), when very dwarf trees are wanted. Standard
cherry trees are generally budded standard high, on free stocks of three
years' growth from the seed, which have been one year transplanted. Cherry
stones for stocks are sown in sandy soil in autumn, immediately after they
have been taken from the fruit ; or they are preserved in sand through the
winter, the heap being two or three times turned over, and sown in spring.
The plants come up the same season, and may be transplanted in autumn,
in rows three feet apart, one foot distant in the row if for dwarfs, and
eighteen inches if for standards. If for dwarfs, they may be budded the
following summer; but if for standards, a third season's growth will be
required. The dwarfs require no pruning the first year ; but the second
spring, if not sold, or transplanted to where they are finally to remain, they
require to be cut down, and, if intended for a wall, the shoots should be flat
trained by means of a row of three or four stakes to each tree. Whatever
pruning is required for the cherry should be done a little before midsummer,
which, while it is found to prevent gumming, is also favourable for the
healing over of the wounds the same season. The best plants for removal
are those which have been one or two years worked ; but as the cherry
produces abundance of fibrous roots, it may be transplanted after it has been
three or four years trained, more especially if growing in a loamy soil.
1191. Soil, situation, and final planting. — The cherry grows naturally in
dry sandy soils, and in situations rather elevated than low ; but the culti-
vated tree requires a soil rather more loamy, which, however, must be on a
dry bottom. Almost all the varieties may be grown as standards, and there
is no great difference between them in regard to hardiness ; but the earlkst
and largest fruit is produced against walls, by which the fruit is also
improved in flavour, while the apple and pear grown against walls are apt
to become mealy. The distances at which cherry-trees may be planted
against walls, espaliers, as dwarfs, and hi the orchard, are given 890, 902,
and 908.
1192. Mode of bearing, pruning, and training. — The fruit is generally
produced on small spurs or studs, from half an inch to two inches in length,
which proceed from the sides and ends of the two-year, three-year, and
occasionally from the older branches ; and as the new spurs continue being
produced from recently formed wood, bearing branches are never shortened
back where there is room for their extension. The cherry is not very pro-
lific in wood, and the shoots do not often cross one another, therefore very
little pruning is required for standards. Against walls, or espaliers, the
horizontal mode of training is generally adopted, excepting for the Morello,
the Kentish, and other slender- wooded kinds, for which some of the modi-
fications of the fan method (801 to 805) may be chosen. The Morello, as
it bears on the wood of the last year, may be trained in Mr. Seymour's
manner, figs. 291 to 295, or in the half-fan manner, figs. 313 and 318. In
summer-pruning strong growing cherries, most of the laterals should be
stopped when a few inches in length ; but in the case of the Morello, a
regular supply of young wood should be left all along the branches, as exhi-
bited in Mr. Seymour's figures, p. 367, to succeed the shoots which are
charged with fruit. The Morello produces a few fruit on spurs formed on
two-year old wood, but scarcely ever on wood of the third year ; therefore
556 THE CHEltilY.
the only mode of managing this tree, to ensure a crop of fruit, is to have a
regular succession of laterals, the growth of the last year, all along the
shoots. In many gardens these laterals are not laid in ; and though the tree
by this mode does not assume such a neat appearance, yet the crop of fruit
we believe is greater. Disbudding early in spring is of as much use in
setting the fruit of the cherry in the open garden as we have seen it to be
in the forcing- house (1028). As in all young trees the blossoms are for a
number of years comparatively weak, the number of blossom-buds removed
from them in thinning should be great in proportion. Old or diseased
cherry-trees may sometimes be renovated by cutting in or heading down,
but in general the wounds necessarily made exude so much gum as to pre-
vent their ever being entirely covered with bark, in consequence of which
the stems and roots rot in the interior. To prevent this evil as much as
possible the soil should always be renewed at the time of amputating.
1193. Gathering and keeping. — The fruit can only be gathered by hand,
and care should be taken not to pull out with the foot-stalks of tlie fruit
any of the buds which are to produce the blossoms of the succeeding year ;
unless, indeed, these buds should be so abundant that the lessening their
number will be advantageous rather than otherwise. Where no buds can
be spared, the stalks may be cut with scissors. For the dessert the cherry
is never kept longer than a day or two. In gathering the fruit from
standard trees, the orchardist's crook, fig. 335, will be found useful in
bringing the branches within reach of the gatherer.
1194. Diseases, insects, casualties, £$c. — The gum is almost the only
disease to which cherry-trees are liable ; the exudation when it has once
commenced is not easily checked, but if the tree is healthy in other respects,
and in a suitable soil and situation, the gum will not do much injury ; in
an unfavourable soil it commonly brings on canker. Against a wall the
cherry is liable to the attacks of the red spider, aphides, and some other
insects, which may be destroyed or kept under by the usual means.
Syringing the trees with tobacco-water and soft-ioap, before the blossoms
have expanded, will destroy every insect to which the cherry is liable, and
they may be washed with clear lime-water from the time the fruit is set till
it has begun to colour. The greatest enemies to ripe cherries are birds, from
which they are to be protected by netting, in the case of walls and espaliers,
and by the use of the gun in the case of standards. Cats (370) may also
be employed for this purpose, or some of the other modes described in
pp. 119 and 120.
1195. A Dutch cherry garden. — In Holland, and other parts of the con-
tinent, it is a favourite practice with the possessors of gardens to eat the
fruit direct from the trees or plants, and this was formerly more generally
the case in Britain than it is at present. In the villas of the wealthy, a
small garden, in some retired part of the grounds near the house, was set
apart for this purpose, and planted with summer fruits, especially cherries,
gooseberries, and strawberries ; and in some cases this garden was entirely
covered with a roof of netting. One of the most complete gardens of this
kind, in the neighbourhood of London, existed, in 1828, at Hylands, near
Chelmsford. It was in the form of a parallelogram, twice as long as broad,
and contained a quarter of an acre. It was surrounded by a wire fence,
ten feet high, the texture being such as to exclude small birds ; that is,
each mesh was two inches high by one inch broad. The principal standard
THE CHERRY.
557
trees are cherries of the best early and late kinds, one or two early apples,
one or two early pears, and one or two early plums. The trees are planted
in quincunx, and their branches are trained in a horizontal position so as to
be within reach of the hand, by being tied down to stakes. All round the
margin are, first a bed of strawberries, and next a row of plants of goose-
berry, currant, and raspberry. A gravel walk surrounds the whole, between
the strawberry-bed and the row of fruit shrubs, and the space among the
standard trees is simply left unstirred, so that when dry every part of it
may be walked on. The manner in which the roof of netting is fixed
over this garden is thus : — At regular diances, all through the area, wooden
boxes, as sockets for posts, as at fig. 371, 6, are fixed in the ground, and
when the cherries begin to ripen,
a net of the kind used in pil-
chard fishing, and made at Brid-
port, in Dorsetshire, the meshes
of which are two inches wide,
is drawn over the whole paralle-
logram, fastened to the top of
the wire fence by hooks which
are fixed there, and supported
above the trees by the props
placed in the sockets. These
props are fourteen feet high at
the sides, and gradually rise to
the middle of the garden, and Fig. 371. Netting for covering a Cherry Garden.
they have blunt heads, in order not to injure the netting. The netting
necessary for covering this space, which is eighty feet by two hundred
and twenty feet, is in two pieces, each one hundred feet by one hundred
and fifty feet ; it is put on in the following manner : — One piece is spread
out immediately within the wire fence, and a number of men with poles
carry it over the tops of the trees and posts, after it is fastened to one
side ; then they fasten it on the other, and so on till the whole is com-
pleted. The separate divisions are then joined together, which thus form
one entire netted roof, giving the garden a very singular and yet new
and agreeable appearance. During rain, or dewy evenings, the net is
tightened or stretched to its utmost extent (fig. 371, a), and forms a grand
Fig. 372.
Section through a Cherry Garden, showing the netting tightened by rain, (a) and
slackened by drought (6).
vault over the whole cherry garden (fig. 371 a, and 372 a) ; during sunshine,
or when the weather is dry, it is slackened (fig. 371, &), and forms a festooned
vault, supported by posts (fig. 372, 6). It is advisable to tan the net
every year with oak bark,, which adds greatly to its durability.
Were the object of this cherry garden merely to protect the fruit from
birds, training the trees on espaliers and applying nets, as is done against
walls, would be an easier and cheaper mode; but the cherry garden at
Hylands is intended as a place of enjoyment where ladies and gentlemen
o o
558 THE PLUM.
may wander about and help themselves from the trees and bushes.
(G. M. iii. p. 397.)
Forcing the cherry. See p. 480.
SUBSECT. VII The Plum.
1196. The plum (Prunus insititia, L. ; and P. domestica, L. ; Prunier,
Fr. ; Pflaumenbaum, Ger. ; Pruinboom, Dutch. ; Prugno, Ital. ; and
Ciruelo, Span. : E. B. 1783, Arb. Brit. vol. ii. p. 687, and Encyc. of Trees
and Shrubs, p. 272 and 273) is a low irregular deciduous tree, a native
of most parts of Europe, and also of part of Asia and Africa, and it is either
indigenous or naturalised in North America. Its culture in gardens is as
universal as that of the cherry, and dates from the time of the Romans.
1197. Use. — The plum is a delicious dessert fruit, and it is also excel-
lent in pies, tarts, conserves, sweetmeats, and in a dried state. A wine
is made from the pulp, and a powerful spirit from the pulp and kernel fer-
mented. Raki is made in Hungary by fermenting apples ground or crushed
with bruised plums, and distilling the liquor. The spirit produced is said
to be very agreeable to the taste, and, though not quite so strong, much
more wholesome than brandy. In the south of France, an excellent spirit
is obtained from the bruised pulp and kernels of plums, fermented with
honey and flour, by distillation in the usual manner. Medicinally, plums
are cooling and laxative, especially the dried fruit called brignoles, or
French plums. The mode of preparing these plums is detailed at length in
the Arboretum Britannicum, vol. ii. p. 689. The wood of the plum is used
in turnery, cabinet-work, and in making musical instruments, and the tree
is valued in ornamental landscape from its being one of the earliest which
come into blossom.
1198. Varieties. — The Romans had a multiplicity of sorts of plums, and
the varieties have long been very numerous in France and Italy. The
following selections are, as usual, by Mr. Thompson.
1199. Dessert plums arranged in the order of their ripening.
Royale Hdtive. Middle size, roundish, purple, flesh parting from the
stone, amber-coloured, very rich, August ; shoots very downy.
Drap d'Or, syn. Mirabelle grosse. Small, round, yellowish, flesh separating
from the stone, rich and excellent, middle of August ; a good bearer,
young shoots downy. A very excellent soil, which precedes the green
gage in ripening, and resembles it in richness of flavour.
Green gage, syn. Heine Claude. Middle size, round, yellowish green,
flesh separating from the stone, richest of plums ; middle to the end of
August ; a good bearer, extensively known and cultivated, and most deser-
vedly so. Young wood smooth.
Kirke's. Large, roundish, purple, flesh separating from the stone, very
rich, beginning to the middle of September ; a good bearer, the young shoots
smooth. The fruit bears some resemblance to that of the Reine Claude
violette.
Washington, syn. Bolmer's Washington. Large, roundish, yellow, flesh
separating, excellent, September ; downy shoots and tree very vigorous ;
a good bearer, succeeds well as a standard.
Reine Claude violette, syn. Purple gage. Middle size, roundish, purple,
flesh separating, rich and sugary ; September ; a good bearer, the shoots
smooth. The richest purple plum in cultivation.
THE PLUM. 559
Coe's golden drop, syn. Coe's imperial. Large, oval, yellow, flesh adher-
ing, very rich, September and October ; a good bearer, with smooth shoots.
A most valuable late dessert fruit, as well as for preserving.
Ickworth Imperatrice. Middle size, obovate, purple, flesh adhering, rich,
October ; a good bearer, smooth shoots, the fruit hangs long on the tree,
and remains longer fresh after being gathered than any other sort.
1200. Kitchen Plums arranged in the order of their ripening.
Orleans, syn. Red damask. Middle size, round, purple, flesh separating,
middle to the end of August ; a good and constant bearer, the tree hardy,
with downy shoots.
Shropshire Damson, syn. Prune damson. Small, obovate, purple,
flesh adhering, smart, juicy, middle of September ; tree a great bearer,
with downy shoots ; the best of the damsons for preserving.
White Magnum Bonum, syn. White Mogul. Large oval, yellow, flesh
adhering, September; a good bearer, with smooth shoots. The fruit
excellent for sweetmeats.
St. Catherine. Middle-size, oval, yellow, flesh adhering, rich, middle to
the end of September; a good bearer, with smooth shoots; excellent for pre-
serving, and one of the kinds used for that purpose in Provence.
Quetsche, syn. German prune. Middle-size, oval, purple, flesh sepa-
rating, September ; a good bearer, and well adapted for drying, being the
kind of which the German prunes of the shops are prepared, by slow and
repeated drying in an oven.
Coe's Golden Drop, and the Green Gage, given as dessert plums, are also
equally good for culinary purposes, and preserving.
1201. A selection of plums for walls of different aspects, is given in p. 422 ;
for espaliers and dwarfs, in p. 428 ; and for an orchard, in p. 433. ,
1202. Dessert and kitchen plums for a garden of limited extent— Roy ale
H alive, Drap d' Or, green Gage, Kirke's,sWashington, Heine Claude violette,
Coe's golden drop,*Ickworth Imperatricey Goe's fine late red, early Orleans,
Shropshire damson, and white Magnum Bonum.
1203. A selection of dessert plums for a very small garden. — Roy ale
Hative, green Gage, purple Gage, Coe's golden drop, and Orleans.
1204. Dessert and kitchen plums for a cottage garden. — Royale Hative,
green Gage, Coe's golden drop, and Reine Claude violette ; and for the
kitchen, the Shropshire damson, winesour, and white Magnum Bonum.
1205. Propagation, nursery culture, and choice of plants. — The plum,
like other stone-fruit, is mostly propagated by budding, and the stocks,
when the object is large and permanent trees, are the muscle, St. Julian,
Magnum Bonum, or any free-growing plum, either raised from seed, or, as
is more commonly done, from layers, (625) or suckers. The dwarfing
stock for the plum is the Myrobolan, or Mirabelle, of the French. The
common baking-plums, such as the damson, bullace, &c., are generally
propagated by suckers, without being either budded or grafted. The muscle
and St. Julian plums are extensively propagated in the nurseries, as stocks
for the peach, nectarine, apricot, and almond. The nursery culture of the
plum, and the choice of grafted or trained plants, are the same .as for the
cherry.
120(5. Soil, situation, and final planting. — The plum naturally does not
grow in so light a soil as the cherry, nor in so clayey a soil as the apple ;
and in a state of culture, a medium soil, on a dry subsoil, is found to be the
o o 2
;
560 THE GOOSEBERRY.
best. Only the finer varieties are planted against walls, and none of them
require a south aspect excepting in very cold exposed situations in the north,
or when the object is to have an early crop. The distances adopted in final
planting, are given in pp. 423, 429, and 431.
1207. Mode of bearing, pruning, and training. — All the varieties produce
their blossoms on small spurs, which are protruded along the sides of the
shoots of one, two, or three years' growth, generally in the course of the
second and third year. These spurs, if duly thinned, and when necessary
cut in, will continue bearing for five or six years, or longer, in the case of
wall-trees and espaliers ; and when the fruit becomes too small, it is easy to
renew the branches, one at a time, by encouraging young shoots from the
main stem. Standard trees require very little pruning, beyond that of
occasionally thinning out the branches, and this should always be done before
midsummer, to prevent the gum from appearing on the wounds. Plum
trees against walls or espaliers are generally trained in the horizontal man-
ner. Old trees may be renovated by heading in or cutting down.
1208. Gathering, keeping, packing, fyc. — The fruit is generally gathered by
hand, and, with the exceptions mentioned, it cannot be kept longer than three
or four days without losing its flavour, or shrivelling. As the bloom of the
plum is more easily rubbed off than that of any other fruit, great care is
requisite in gathering it, and in packing, when the fruit is to be sent to a dis-
tance. Nettle leaves, on account of their roughness, are the best material in
which to envelop the fruit, and it ought to be sent in suspended boxes (860).
As the plums brought to market are very liable to have the bloom rubbed
off, some fruiterers supply an artificial bloom, by putting the fruit in an
atmosphere charged with finely calcined magnesia, as is done in giving an
artificial bloom to the cucumber (1081). At first sight it may appear sur-
prising that a white powder should be employed to give a bloom to the
green surface of the cucumber, and the purple or yellow surface of the
plum ; but the colour of the fruit in these and all other cases, resides under
the bloom in the skin, and the bloom is merely a number of semi-trans-
parent colourless particles, secreted by nature for some useful purpose,
which are very well imitated by any very fine colourless powder.
1*209. Insects, diseases, casualties, $c. — The red spider is the common
enemy of the plum against walls, and is to be kept under by frequent and
abundant waterings with the syringe. The Gages and all very rich plums,
when nearly ripe, are attacked by wasps, which may be lured away by
vessels of honied water (357), or excluded by netting (353). The gum and
canker are not unfrequent in the plum when it has been severely pruned,
or when it has been planted too deep, or the roots subjected to vicissitudes of
drought and wet (375 to 378).
1210. The plum may be forced by the same treatment as the peach, but
with a temperature a few degrees lower. The sorts generally preferred for
forcing, are the precoce de Tours, green gage, purple gage, white perdrigon,
Orleans, early Orleans, and Morocco ; all of which will force very well in
pots, either in the peach-house or the cherry-house.
SUBSECT. VIII. — The Gooseberry.
1211. The gooseberry, Ribes Grossularia, L., and R. Uva crispa, L. ;
(Groseille a maquereau, Fr. ; Stachelbeerstrauch, Ger. ; Kruisbes, Du. ;
Uva-spino, Ital. ; and Grosella, Span., E. B., 1292— 2057 ; Arb. Brit.
THE GOOSEBERRY. 56 J
vol. ii., p. 972; and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 473,) is a deciduous
shrub, a native of Piedmont and other Alpine regions, and long cultivated
in British gardens. The fruit is of little worth in a wild state, and the
shrub does not appear to have been known to the Romans, nor to have been
much cultivated in any part of the world except in Britain. With us it is
esteemed for pies and tarts next in value to the apple ; and as a luxury
for the tables of the poor, it is even more valuable than that fruit, since it
can be grown in less space, in more unfavourable circumstances, and brought
sooner into a state of full bearing. At the tables of the wealthy it contributes
to the dessert from the end of July to the end of September, and longer by
matting up or otherwise covering the bushes.
1212. Use. — Before being ripe it is much used for tarts, pies, sauces, and
creams, and when mature it is esteemed in the dessert. Unripe gooseberries
are preserved in bottles, and the ripe fruit in sugar. Bruised and fermented,
wines and brandies are made from the green fruit, and gooseberry Cham-
pagne is often substituted for that of the grape. In the G. M. for 1838, p. 180
to!82, and p. 551, will be found a variety of receipts for preparing gooseberry
wines and spirits, with figures of the apparatus for crushing the fruit, fer-
menting and distilling the liquor, &c.
1213. Varieties. — Parkinson enumerates only eight sorts, but there are
now some hundreds of kinds in British nurseries, most of them raised from
seed in Lancashire and Cheshire, where the weight of the berry has been
raised from ten pennyweights, the usual weight of the old sorts of red and
green gooseberries, to thirty-two pennyweights and upwards, the weight of
the largest modern kinds that have gained prizes. The following selections
are by Mr. Thompson : —
1214. A selection of gooseberries for a suburban garden. — Red gooseberries :
red Champagne ; -red Warrington ; Keens' seedling ; Warrington ; rough
red, used for preserving ; red Turkey ; Rob Roy ; ironmonger.
Yellow gooseberries: Yellow Champagne; early Sulphur; Rumbullion.
The last much used for bottling.
Green gooseberries : Early green Hairy ; Pitmaston Greengage ; green
Walnut ; Parkinson's Laurel ; Massey's Heart of Oak ; Edwards's Jolly
Tar.
White gooseberries : White Champagne ; early White ; Woodward's
Whitesmith ; Taylor's Bright Venus ; Cook's White Eagle ; White Honey.
A more extensive selection is given in p. 429.
1215. The largest prize gooseberries in cultivation by the growers in
Lancashire, in 1840 and 1841, with their respective weights, were as follow :
Ned: Young Wonderful, 32 dwts. 16 grs.; London, 32 dwts. ; Companion,
28dvvts. Yellow : Pilot, 27dwts. 5 grs. ; Leader, 27 dwts.; Teaser, 25dwts.
Green: Thumper, 28 dwts. 7 grs. ; Peacock, 20 dwts. 10 grs. ; Invincible,
26 dwts. 4 grs. White: a Seedling, 24 dwts. 12 grs.; Eagle, 24dwts. 9 grs.;
Miss Hammond, 24 dwts. 6 grs. These varieties are all great bearers and
of good flavour ; the flavour of Peacock is said to resemble that of the Green
Gage Plum.— M. S. G.
1216. Gooseberries for a cottage garden. — Red Champagne and red War-
rington ; yellow Champagne and early Sulphur ; Pitmaston Green Gage ;
Massey's Heart of Oak, and early green Hairy; Woodward's Whitesmith ;
Taylor's Bright Venus, and Crystal.
562 THE GOOSEBERRY.
1217. Large Lancashire Gooseberries adapted for a cottage garden. —
Red : * Prince Regent, Wonderful, * Top Sawyer, * Huntsman, Companion,
Lion, Lancaster Lad. Yellow : * Rockwood, * Sovereign, * Smuggler.
Green : * Niger, * Greenwood, * No Bribery, Peacock. White : * Wel-
lington's Glory, * Whitesmith, * Queen Charlotte, Eagle, Fleur de lis. —
(A Townsman in Gard. Chron. 1841, p. 84.)
The most valuable red gooseberry in cultivation is perhaps the red Cham-
pagne, generally called the Ironmonger in Scotland, the fruit of which is of
superior flavour, is well adapted for all the purposes to which gooseberries
are applied, and by matting it may be preserved on the bush till December.
The branches of this variety grow more upright than those of any other
gooseberry, and hence the plants occupy less space, and are in no danger of
having the fruit soiled by being too near the ground. They are also parti-
cularly well adapted for training in the upright manner on espaliers. The
fruit of the Pitmaston green gage will hang on the branches till it shrivels
and almost candies. The red Warrington is an excellent gooseberry, either
for the table or wine-making, but it is of pendulous growth, and part of the
fruit is apt to be rotted in wet seasons. There is a general prejudice against
the large Lancashire kinds, which, it is alleged, are deficient in flavour; but
this is not the case with many of them ; for example, those recommended
(1217) for a cottage garden; and from our own experience we can assert
that it is not the case with the sorts marked * in the above selection.
1218. Propagation, nursery culture, and choice of plants. — The common
mode of propagation is by cuttings, which should be formed from shoots
taken from healthy vigorous plants in autumn, as long and straight as they
can be got. The point of the shoot should be shortened two or three
inches, to where the wood is firm, and the buds mature ; and the cutting,
which should, if possible, be twelve or fifteen inches in length, should after-
wards be treated as directed in p. 2(50. They should be planted in sandy
loam, in a moist situation, shaded from the direct influence of the sun, but
not covered or confined by the branches of large trees. Some of the Lan-
cashire growers tie a little moss round the lower part of the cutting, which
is said to cause it to strike stronger roots. In loamy moist soil they need
not be planted above three inches deep, but in ordinary garden soil six inches
will be safer; in either case the cutting must be made quite firm at its lower
extremity. Cuttings of the growing wood will succeed under a hand-glass,
but it can seldom be necessary to take so much trouble. Where there is
only one plant of a rare kind, the most certain and rapid mode of propa-
gation is by laying down the branches along the surface of the ground, as
practised by the stock-growers in propagating plum and Paradise stocks
(625). Suckers are occasionally resorted to, but as they generally contain a
greater number of adventitious buds at the lower extremities than shoots
from the branches, they are apt to throw up more suckers than them.
Gooseberries seldom remain longer in the nursery than two years, being
transplanted into rows two feet by one foot the autumn of the same season
in which they are struck. No other pruning is requisite than removing
suckers or shoots from the stem, so as to leave three, or at most four,
divergent shoots to form the head.
1219.— Soil, situation, and final planting. — The best soil is a cool marly
loam, warm, deep, well manured, and kept moderately moist; either by the
THE GOOSEBERRY. 563
situation and subsoil, or by the surface being covered by the branches of the
bushes, so as greatly to lessen evaporation. The situation should be open,
and by no means shaded with standard fruit trees, the gooseberries grown
under which are almost always bitter. In general gooseberries and all fruit
shrubs should be cultivated in plantations by themselves (904) ; but in small
gardens they may be placed in rows along the borders, either as dwarfs or
espaliers : plants one, or at most two years' from the cutting, are most
suitable, and the distances in both cases have been already given (904
and 906).
1220.— Mode of bearing, pruning, and training.— The fruit is produced on
the shoots of the preceding year, and on spurs from shoots of three or more
years' growth. The largest fruit is always produced on the wood of the
preceding year, and as the spurs grow old, and increase in size, the fruit
becomes smaller, though it increases in quantity ; which, indeed, is the
case with all fruit grown on spurs. The gooseberry requires to be pruned
in early summer, because in general it produces more shoots than can be
allowed to remain, without depriving the fruit-bearing branches of a due
share of light and air. All superfluous shoots, therefore, should be stopped
with the finger and thumb when they are between one inch and two inches
in length, and again stopped at the second joint, when they have made a
second growth. A common fault in gardens is to allow the shoots of goose-
berries and currants to grow nearly their full length before they are thinned
out, in consequence of which the fruit is deprived of its due share of
nourishment, light, and air, and more strength is communicated to the
root than is required for the due adjustment of the root and top. Hence,
in almost all gardens, we find the gooseberry and currant bushes far too
luxuriant. All the training the gooseberry, treated as a bush, requires, is
to stop or prune it in such a manner as to keep the bush rather open in the
centre, and the branches all radiating outwards from the stem, or from the
main branches ; crossing one another as little as possible, and when they do
cross, never touching. On espaliers they should be trained in the perpen-
dicular manner (808 and 906), or at an angle of 45°, or half that angle; and if
only two upright shoots are trained from every plant, the trellis or espalier
rail will be the sooner covered. Where plants are in abundance, which they
may in many cases be by raising them from cuttings at home, only one upright
shoot may be trained from each cutting, and these being planted at one
foot apart, the trellis or rail, if not more than five feet high, will be com-
pletely covered in three years. If the champagne or ironmonger is planted,
and the plants, when cuttings, allowed to make only one vertical shoot
from the terminal bud, then after they have made two years' growth
against the espalier rail, they will have reached its summit, and may
be spurred in afterwards from within a foot of the ground to the top of
the rail. If a double espalier rail, such as we figured in the Suburban Land-
scape Gardener, fig. 69, p. 232, is used, a very handsome gooseberry hedge
will thus be formed, which will bear abundance of fruit of the best flavour,
because freely exposed to the light and air, for twelve or fifteen years.
1221. The growers of gooseberries for prizes necessarily take much more
pains in pruning and training than the gardeners of private gentlemen. The
plants are raised from cuttings in the usual manner, and in the autumn of
the first year they are transplanted to the soil and situation where they are
to produce their fruit. This is, if possible, a deep warm, rich, marly loam,
564
THE GOOSEBERRY.
Fig. 373. Hooked
ttick for training prize
gooseberry bushes ; length
two feet.
These are applied
Fig. 374. Forked
stick for training prize
gooseberry bushes; length
two feet.
moderately moist, at the bottom of such a slope as shall at once produce
shelter from the highest winds of
the locality, and ensure a certain
degree of coolness, and supply of
moisture, from what may be termed
the insensible escape of the rain
which has sunk into the soil in
the upper part of the declivity.
Being planted, the next step is
to prepare for pruning and train-
ing, by procuring a few hooked
sticks, (fig. 373) and forked sticks
(fig. 374); the former to hold
down the branches that are in-
clined to grow upwards, and
the latter to support those which
are inclined to grow downwards.
to the plant in the manner shown in fig. 375, in
which, also, the roots appear regularly
spread out in every direction. In the
autumn of the second year these three
shoots will have produced a number of
side-shoots, most of which may be
shortened to one eye, and the others
reduced to one-half of their length.
No shoots should be left either at the
origin or the extremities of the branches,
but only at the sides ; the fewer the
number of shoots, and the younger the
tree, the larger will be the fruit. Thus
the plant, when pruned in the Novem-
, „ , .,, . „
ber of the second year, will consist of
three principal shoots, each bearing two young shoots, shortened to about
seven inches of their length. These last, in the pruning of the third year,
are to be left with two shoots only of new wood ; these shoots being placed
in such a manner as to preserve the symmetry of the plant, without crowd-
ing it in any part. The same system of pruning and thinning is continued
in future years — cutting out the old wood occasionally, so as to preserve a
moderate and constant supply of strong, healthy young shoots, from which
alone large and fine fruit can be expected. Whenever the extremities of
the branches grow more than from twenty inches to two feet from the main
stem, they must be cut back ; for large fruit will never be produced at the
extremities of long branches. The roots of the plants must also be attended
to, by cutting a trench round the plant at the distance to which the branches
are limited, so as to shorten all the main roots to that length, smoothing
their extremities with the knife, and filling up the trench with fresh marly
loam, enriched with cow- dung. Some growers even carry the system of
root-pruning so far as to lay bare the whole of the roots, and thin out and
shorten the larger ones in the same manner as is done with the branches,
re-covering the roots with fresh soil. The fruit after being set is
thinned out, as well as the branches, and not more than one or two berries
Fig. 375. A trained prize Gooseberry-bush,
two years growth from the cutting.
THE GOOSEBERRY. 565
are allowed to a branch when the object is prize fruit ; we have, indeed, seen
not more than two berries to an entire bush, the shoot being pegged down
to within a few inches of the ground, and a saucer of water placed under
each berry, in order, by its evaporation, to keep its surface moist and
promote its swelling. The berries intended for prizes are protected from
heavy rains by a cap of oiled paper, or by a bell-glass, or any other suit-
able contrivance ; because should a slight shower fall on them at the time
they are ripening, they are very apt to burst. These caps, however,
must not be put on except when rain is expected, in order not to deprive
the leaves of sun and air. Prize gooseberry bushes are thought to be at their
best when five or six years old from seed, and four or five years from cuttings.
1222. Gathering and keeping. — Unripe gooseberries for tarts are in a fit
state for that purpose by the end of April, and they may be thinned out
from those that are to remain for ripening till the middle of July. If two-
thirds of the produce of every plant is thinned out in a green state, it will
add considerably to the size of those which remain. Ripe gooseberries
should be gathered the day in which they are sent to table, but both these
and unripe fruit may, when necessary, be kept a week or more, by being
placed in the icehouse-room, or in the fruit-cellar. Gooseberries may be
preserved on the trees, either by matting-up each bush separately ; by cover-
ing with canvas, or matting both sides of an espalier or gooseberry-hedge ; or
by inclosing a square of bushes by pales or canvas frames six feet high ; con-
structing the framework of a roof over this space, and covering it with can-
vas. This will exclude birds and insects, and also, in a great measure, light,
hy which the decay of the fruit will be retarded for several weeks ; more
especially if the covering has been put on a few days before the fruit is
thoroughly ripe.
'1223. Insects, diseases, and casualties. — No pest is more common in gar-
de j is than the gooseberry caterpillar, by which is meant the larva of several
kijids of moths, saw-flies, and some butterflies. They are all hatched on
th/3 leaves, and the great art of preventing them from injuring the plants is
to watch for the appearance of the eggs, and as soon as any are seen commence
syringing the plants powerfully with lime-water, using an inverted rose on
:he syringe, so as to throw the water against the under-sides of the leaves,
i .3 it is there that the eggs are deposited. We feel confident that lime-
\-ater, when properly prepared (202) and applied, will destroy, at all events
in its young state, the larva of every insect that lives on the leaves of plants ;
buv to those who find it insufficient, we would recommend, first, to moisten
theyeaves by the syringe or watering-pot, and then to dust them, either with
powdered quick-lime, coarse tobacco powder, or the powder of white helle-
bore \ Veratrum album) ; or if either of the two last plants be used, the
powde\- may be mixed with soapsuds, and the plants watered or syringed
with it \ but in this case the skin of the fruit will not escape, being covered
with tlA liquor. Lime-water, therefore, is in our opinion the only unex-
ceptionable application. Unfortunately in many gardens the caterpillars are
not obser/ed until they have attained a considerable size, and done great
part of the mischief, when they are also more difficult to destroy. Hand
picking is ii 'commended in such cases, but the mischief being already done,
this only prevents the insect from attaining maturity, which, no doubt,
is an adva^ tage, by lessening the number of females for producing future
broods Se ^ the section on insects, p. 99.
566 THE RED AND WHITE CURRANT.
1224. Forcing. — The gooseberry may be forced in pots, and this is fre-
quently done in the north of Germany and Russia, especially where there
are Scotch gardeners. The temperature is never allowed to be high, and
abundance of air is given during sunshine. Mr. Hay, at Bristol, plants
gooseberries and currants in pots in November, removes them to the peach-
house in January, and sends the plants to table, with ripe fruit on them, by
the end of April. Ribes divaricatum and R. niveum ( E. of Tr. and Sh., pp. 470
and 471), produce rich perfumed fruit well adapted for tarts, and for im-
proving, by cross fecundation, the common gooseberry.
SUBSECT. IX. — The Red and White Currant.
1225. The Red and White Currant— Ribes rubrum. L. and R. r.
var. album, (Groseiller commun, Fr. ; Gemeine Johannisbeere, Ger. ;
Aalbesseboom, Dutch ; Ribes rosso, Ital. ; Grosella, Span. ; — E. B. 1289,
Arb. Brit, vol. iii., p. 977 ; and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 477) — are
deciduous shrubs, the red variety indigenous in England and other parts of
Europe, and the white variety produced from it by culture. The fruit in
a wild state is small and very acid, but in gardens it has been increased in
size and greatly improved in flavour. It contributes to the dessert from the
beginning of July to September, and by matting up (1222) the fruit will
hang on the trees till November or December.
1226. Use. — The appearance of large red currants at table is brilliant,
and contrasts well with dishes of white currants, and with green fruit, such
as apples, pears, and plums. The taste cannot be called rich, but it is
agreeably subacid and cooling. The red currant is much used for jellies,
jams, wines, to acidulate punch, and for tarts ; and continues longer in season,
both for the table and the kitchen, than any other summer fruit.
1227. Varieties. — The best are the White Dutch, red Dutch, Knight's
Sweet red, which is less acid than the red Dutch, and Knight's large red.
No selection can be better for a cottage garden, or for a garden in the coldest
part of the country ; but for display the Champagne currant may be added,
which is large and of a very pale red.
1228. The propagation and future treatment of the red and white cur-
rant scarcely differs from that of the gooseberry. When the fruit is
required to be large, only a limited number of bunches ought to be allowed
to remain on the branches, and the greater part of the summer shoots ought
to be stopt and stopt again in order to throw strength into the fruit ; admit
the sun and air to give it colour and flavour, and also to ripen the wood.
Even in general cultivation, stopping the shoots in the end of June ought
to be performed, as, by so doing, the buds at the base are enlarged. The
currant is very frequently trained against a north wall, because there it
ripens later, and is thought to hang longer on the tree ; but its flavour in
such a situation is inferior to what it is when grown in the open garden,
either as a bush, or on an espalier. The fruit should be gathered in a dry
state, and it should not be heaped up on a dish till it is about to be sent to
table. Late in the season it is sometimes disfigured by cobwebs, dust, and
particles of decayed leaves, in which case it should be washed and dried on a
sieve, or by hanging up in the fruit-room before it is presented at the dessert.
The currant, like the gooseberry, is attacked by the larvae of moths, by a
species of aphis, by a coccus, and when the fruit is ripe it is sometimes
devoured by earwigs, The latter may be lured into bundles of bean-stalks
THE RASPBERRY. 567
or reeds, and shaken out of them into hot water or lime-water ; end the
former may be destroyed by the usual means. See 1223 and 355. The
red and white currant may be forced in the same manner as the gooseberry,
and the fruit will ripen in the same period.
SUBSECT. X. — The Black Currant.
1229. The Black Currant, Ribes nigrum, L. (Cassis and Poivrier, Fr. ;
schwartze Johannisbeere, Ger. ; Ribes nero, Ital. ; — E. B. 1821. Arb.
Brit., vol. ii., p. 983, and Ency. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 480), is a deciduous
shrub, common in woods throughout great part of Russia and Siberia, and
occasionally found apparently wild in Britain. It is sometimes brought to
the dessert, but its use is more frequently to make jams, jellies, wines, and
to flavour punch, or as a gargle for sore throats. In Scotland the berries
are eaten in puddings and tarts ; and in Russia, and also in Ireland, they are
put into spirits, as cherries are in England. The Russians also ferment the
juice with honey, and thus form a strong and agreeable liquor. The dry
leaves form such an excellent substitute for green tea, that few persons can
detect the difference. By far the best variety is the black Naples, which is
easily known from the other varieties by coming earlier into leaf ; and next
the black grape. Cuttings strike readily, and other points of treatment are
the same as for the red currant, excepting that the fruit of the black currant
is produced chiefly on the shoots of the preceding year, though partly also
from spurs or blossom-buds at the base of these shoots. The plant is less
subject to insects than either the red currant or the gooseberry. It forces
well, and in Russia this is practised for the sake of the young foliage. Ribes
aureum has fruit resembling the black currant, and, with other species of the
genus, might doubtless be made to contribute to the varieties, or improvement,
of our gooseberries and currants.
SUBSECT. XI. — The Raspberry.
1230. The Raspberry, Rubus Idaeus, L. ( Framboisier, Fr. ; Himbeere-
strauch, Ger. ; Framboos, Dutch ; Rova ideo, Ital. ; and Frambueso,
Span. ; E. B. 244, Arb. Brit., vol. ii. p. 737, and Encyc. of Trees and
Shrubs, p. 313), is a suffruticose deciduous plant, with biennial stems, a
native of Britain and other parts of Europe in moist woods, and cultivated in
gardens from an unknown period, though it is doubtful whether it was
known to the Romans. Even in a wild state the fruit is grateful to most
palates, and it has been enlarged in size and greatly improved in flavour by
cultivation. The shoots which are produced from the stock during one
summer produce fruit the next, and afterwards die. Technically the shoots
are called canes, from the straight smooth cane-like appearance of the shoots
of some of the varieties, more especially the Barnet. The fruit ranks in the
dessert with the gooseberry and strawberry, but its principal uses are for
jams, tarts, sauces, sweetmeats, and ices ; and it is employed on a large
scale in preparing cordial spirituous liquors, and cooling syrups. Raspber-
ries are reckoned next in efficiency to the strawberry in dissolving the tartar
of the teeth, and as like that fruit, and the fruit of the bramble, it does not
undergo the acetous fermentation in the stomach, it is recommended to gouty
and rheumatic patients.
1231. Varieties. — Above a dozen are in cultivation, but those the best
worth cultivating are the following :, the Red Antwerp, Yellow Antwerp,
Barnet, which is the tallest growing land, Cornish, and Red Globe. For a
568 THE RASPBERRY.
small garden the red and yellow Antwerp and the twice-bearing red are
recommended ; and for a cold and late situation the early prolific, Barnet,
red Antwerp arid yellow Antwerp.
1232. Propagation^ soil, and other points of culture. — The only mode of
propagation is by suckers, except by seeds, which is only resorted to when
new varieties are wanted. Seedlings carefully treated will produce fruit the
second year. The suckers are separated in autumn, either by taking up the
whole plant and dividing it, or by slipping them off from the sides and roots
of the main stock. They may be planted at once where they are finally to
remain in a compartment by themselves, in rows from north to south, four
feet apart every way. They will grow in any good garden soil, and if on the
lower part of a slope towards the north, east, or west, the soil will be kept
moderately moist by its position, and the situation will not be so much
exposed to light and heat as if it sloped to the south. The raspberry grows
naturally in soft, peaty, or vegetable soil, shaded by woods, and always
moist ; but it is most prolific in fruit, and the fruit is better flavoured, in the
more substantial and drier soil, and opener situation, of the garden. In
making a plantation three or more suckers are allowed to each stool, and
planted in a triangle at six inches apart. The plants will produce fruit the
first year, but if this fruit, or even a third part of it, can be dispensed with,
the suckers for the succeeding year will be greatly strengthened by cutting
the stems of the newly-planted plants down to within six inches of the
ground. The plantation being established, the future treatment consists in
going over the stools every year early in May, and selecting six or seven of
the strongest suckers from each stool for next year's bearing wood, and
destroying all the rest, unless they are wanted for a new plantation. In
autumn, as soon as the fruit is gathered, the stems which have borne it
should be cut down to the ground to give light and air to the suckers; but
as these are sometimes liable to be injured by frost, they should not be
pruned till the following March. They may then be shortened to two-
thirds or three-fourths of their length, by cutting off the weak wood at the
extremities of the shoots. If large fruit is wanted, but few stems (canes)
should be left to each stool, and these should be tied singly to stakes placed
round the stool in a circle, at about a foot distance from it, so that the canes
when tied to the stakes shall be bent outwards; which position at once
facilitates the development of the buds all along the canes, exposes the fruit
more freely to the sun and air, and allows room for the suckers to rise
upright from the stool without shading the fruit-bearing canes. Some-
times, instead of a circle of stakes round each plant, a line of rails or of
iron-wire, or long rods with the bark on, is placed between every alternate
two rows of raspberries, supported at about three feet from the ground by
stakes; and to these rails, wires, or rods, the caries from the adjoining plants
are bent over and fastened by ties of matting or willow-twigs. In this way
every alternate space between the rows is covered by the bearing canes
which are bent over it, and the other spaces are left open for gathering the
fruit. Where a large crop of fruit is wanted, without regard to the size of
the berries, half the number of the canes on each plant may be bent over, so
as to meet the half of those of the adjoining plant, and a foot or more of the
points of the canes of each plant may be interwoven and made fast by
matting. A row of raspberries thus treated will present a series of arches
of fruit-bearing branches, alternately with columns of suckers ; the bending
THE RASPBERRY. 569
of the bearing canes will cause every bud to break, the fruit-bearing laterals
will be exposed to the sun and air without being crowded by the suckers, and
the latter have more room for their foliage, and hence grow stronger, and
ripen their wood better. This being the easiest and most economical mode
of training the canes, is that most generally adopted in gardens. Where
very large fruit is required, the whole or the greater part of the suckers may
be destroyed as fast as they appear, and the blossoms may be thinned ; but
this practice, by destroying the plant, requires a double plantation, — one for
producing suckers, and another for producing fruit ; and hence it should
only be adopted in gardens where there is abundance of room. To'obtain
a successional crop late in the season, the canes of the red and yellow Ant-
werp, and of the twice-bearing varieties, may be cut down to the ground in
spring, and the suckers, which will be produced with more than usual vi-
gour, may be stopped in the beginning of June, which will cause the buds to
break and produce fruit late in the season ; generally, till it is destroyed by
frost. The suckers of the twice-bearing raspberry naturally produce a
second crop, — that is, they produce fruit the first year as well as the second.
The ground between the rows should be manured and dug every year, but
no attempt should be made to grow a crop between the rows after the first
year. A new plantation may be made every six or seven years, or oftener,
if the plants should show any symptoms of degeneracy ; or if their tra-
velling roots should grow out of bounds, which they are very apt to do from
the outside suckers always being the strongest, and consequently selected for
bearing in preference to the inside suckers. The doctrine of the excretions
of the roots of plants (917), has also been alleged as a reason for renew-
ing a plantation of raspberries more frequently than is done in the case of
most other plants, (see G. M. vol. x. p. 14), but general experience does
not appear to us to justify any treatment in respect to the raspberry not
equally applicable to other plants with travelling roots, which remain
several years on the same spot.
1233. Gathering. — The fruit begins to ripen in the end of June, and con-
tinues being produced till October. It should be gathered immediately after
it becomes ripe, which is known by every part of it being equally high-
coloured, and by the pulpy part separating readily from the conical recep-
tacle. If allowed to remain ripe on the plant for two days, the eggs of a
beetle, Byturus tomentosus, which had been deposited in it when in flower,
become maggots, and render it unfit to be used. If gathered and kept two
or three days, the same effect takes place ; or the fruit becomes mouldy and
unfit for use.
1234. Forcing. — The raspberry forces equally well with the gooseberry and
currant, either in pots or planted in the free soil of a cherry -house ; or it may
be planted in pits, and trained under the glass, which is the practice in
Holland.
1235. The Cloudberry, Rubus Chamssmorus, L., the fruit of which is
superior in flavour to that of the raspberry, grows on mountains in the High-
lands of Scotland and Sweden, in moist, peaty places, but it is cultivated
with great difficulty in gardens. The crimson bramble, R. arcticus, has
also a high-flavoured fruit, and it may be grown even in the neighbourhood
of London, in beds of moist peat. The dewberry, R. casius, the stone
bramble, R. saxatilis, the upright bramble, R. suberectus, and the common
bramble, R. fruticosus, may all be cultivated in gardens, by the amateur
570 THE STRAWBERRY.
of leisure, who by cross fecundation, with skill, care, and perseverance, might
raise some new varieties worthy of a permanent place among cultivated
fruits.
1236. The Nootka Raspberry, R. Nutkanus, Arb. Brit., vol. ii., p. 745,
and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 318, produces large red fruit, which is
found to make excellent tarts. If the same care were bestowed on this spe-
cies which has been given to the raspberry, we have no doubt it would be-
come one of our standard fruit shrubs. R. odoratus, a closely allied species, or
perhaps, only a variety, with fragrant foliage, is said to produce yellow
fruit of a large size, and a very fine flavour,, (ibid.).
SUBSECT. XII. — The Strawberry.
1237. The Strawberry. Fragaria, L. (Fraisier, Fr. ; Erdbeerpflanze,
Ger. ; Aadbezie, Dutch; Pianta di fragola, Ital. ; and Fresa, Span.;) is
an herbaceous stoloniferous plant, of which there are several species, natives
of Europe, the temperate parts of Asia, and North America. The fruit has
received its name from the practice, more common in former times than at
present, of laying straw or litter between the rows. The fruit of the Euro-
pean strawberry in a wild state, gathered from the woods, has long been
esteemed by the rich as well as the poor, but little or no improvement took
place in its culture till the introduction of the Virginian Strawberry or
Scarlet, the Pine or Surinam Strawberry, and the Chili Strawberry, which
are considered by botanists as distinct species. All these sorts will breed
together indiscriminately, and thus have been produced some hundreds of
sorts, many of very great excellence, and chiefly by British gardeners ; for
till within these few years, no other strawberry was cultivated on the Conti-
nent than the small sort common in the woods. What renders the straw-
berry of particular value in our eyes is, that like the gooseberry, it can be
grown in as great perfection in the ground plot of the cottager, as in the
finest walled garden of the extensive landed proprietor.
1238. Use. — The fruit is much valued in the dessert, of which, without
the aid of glass, it may form a part from the beginning of June to November,
and by the aid of the forcing-pit from March till May. It is of very
general use in confectionery, and is recommended medicinally in cases where
acid fruits are injurious. It dissolves the tartareous incrustations of the
teeth, promotes perspiration, and has many other good qualities. In short,
it is one of the most inoffensive fruits, even when eaten to excess.
1239. Varieties. — These have been classed by Mr. Thompson as under :
1. Scarlet strawberries. — Fruit mostly small, colour bright, and flavour
acid, with slight perfume. 1. The old scarlet, syn. scarlet, Virginian, &c. ;
middle size, globular, of a uniform light scarlet ; flesh firm, pale scarlet,
and high flavoured. A great bearer, and from its colour and flavour the best
of all strawberries for the confectioner. 2. The Grove End scarlet, syn.
Atkinson's scarlet. Ripens after the preceding, and is a more abundant
bearer. 3. Roseberry, syn. Rose, Scotch scarlet, Aberdeen seedling, and
prolific pine : an excellent bearer, and well adapted for forcing. 4. Gam-
stone scarlet. 5. Slack roseberry. 6. American scarlet; rich sugary flavour,
and a good bearer, ripening late ; and 7. Coul late scarlet.
2. Black strawberries. — Fruit conical, with a neck, flavour rich, and
highly perfumed. 1. Downton, syn. Knight's seedling: a good bearer,
ripening late ; the fruit preserves well, and makes excellent sweetmeats.
THE STRAWBERRY. 571
The plants, when the fruit is setting and swelling, require to be liberally
supplied with water. 2. The Pitmaston black ; and 3. The sweet cone, are
both very high-flavoured, but too delicate for general cultivation. 4. Elton JX^
seedling, syn. Elton. A great bearer, ripening late.
3. Pine strawberries. Fruit large, varving from nearly white to almost .
purple ; flavour sweet, and often perfumed. 1. Keens' Seedling, syn. Keens'
Black Pine : a great bearer, ripening early in the season ; the best straw-
berry for general purposes, and for forcing. 2. Old Pine, syn. Carolina,
and twenty other names. Fruit large, conical, with a neck ; flesh, pale
scarlet, firm and juicy, with a rich grateful flavour ; a good bearer in strong
loamy soil, in an open, airy situation, but not in a light soil, or when much
sheltered or shaded. The leaves are of a darker green than those of any
other strawberry. 3. Myatt's Pine ; high flavoured, but a shy bearer. 4.
Myatt's British Queen. A larger fruit than that of Keens' Seedling, and
having more flavour ; an abundant bearer, and a very free grower. 5.
Swainstone Seedling; fruit large, bearing considerable resemblance to Keens'
Seedling, but with a brisker flavour, and may be distinguished further by
its scabrous leaf-stalks ; a great bearer in the usual strawberry season, and
it also produces an abundant late succession.
4. Chile Strawberries. Fruit large, seeds prominent, flesh more or less
insipid. 1. Wilmot's Superb. Fruit very large, roundish, sometimes cock's-
comb-shaped, pale scarlet, flavour indifferent ; ripens rather late ; attains a
large size in strong, rich soil, but has no other recommendation.
5. Hautbois strawberries. — Scapes tall and strong, fruit middle-sized, pale
greenish white, tinged with dull purple; flesh solid and musky. 1. Prolific "yf
hautbois, syn. Conical hautbois, double bearing, and various other names.
Fruit large for this class, conical, dull purple ; flesh greenish, firm, rich,
and perfumed ; ripening in the end of June or July ; an abundant bearer.
In plantations of this variety there are commonly a number of plants found
sterile, from the abortion of the female organs, and sometimes of the stamens,
for which reason runners ought to be taken only from those plants that are
prolific. 2. Large fiat hautbois. syn. white hautbois, Bath hautbois, &c.
Fruit large, roundish, reddish next the sun ; flesh greenish- white, firm,
juicy, and musky ; a great bearer, ripening rather later than the preceding
sort, and, like it, subject to sterility. 3. Black hautbois; darker coloured
and higher flavoured than the two preceding varieties, but not so prolific.
6. Green strawberries, comprehending the Fragaria collina and F. viridis
of botanists. 1. Green strawberry, syn. green pine, pine-apple, green
alpine, &c. Fruit tolerably large, roundish, of a powdery green, tinged
with brownish red next the sun ; flesh solid, greenish, very juicy, with a
somewhat pine-apple flavour : ripe in July, and an abundant bearer, at least
in the Hort. Soc. Garden.
7. Alpine and wood strawberries, comprehending the Fragaria semperflo-
rens, and F. vesca of botanists. The alpine and the wood-strawberry differ
chiefly in the form of the fruit, which in the alpines is conical, and in the
wood varieties, roundish. 1. Red alpine, syn. scarlet alpine, Des Alpes a
fruit rouge, Des Alpes de tons les mois & fruit rouge, Des Alpes de quatre
saisons a fruit rouge. Fruit the largest of its class, conical, red ; flesh rich,
and high flavoured ; bears abundantly in light, sandy, rich soils, especially ^
when liberally supplied with water in dry hot weather, and continues pro-
ducing from June to November : the only strawberry generally cultivated
572 . THE STRAWBERRY.
in French gardens. 2. White alpine, syn. Des Alpes a fruit blanc, &c., only
differs from the preceding sort in having the fruit white, and the flavour
somewhat more delicate. 3. Red wood, syn. Rouge commun, Des bois a fruit
rouge, &c., resembles the preceding in colour and flavour ; but the fruit is
smaller, and the plants do not bear so long in succession. 4. White wood,
only differs from the preceding in having the fruit white.
1240. Selection of strawberries from the above classes in the order of their
ripening. — 1. Old Scarlet, first or second week in June; 2. Grove-end
scarlet ; 3. Keens' seedling ; 4. Roseberry ; 5. Swainstone Seedling ; 6. Old
pine ; 7. Black roseberry ; 8. Prolific, or conical hautbois ; 9. Large flat
hautbois; 10. Myatt's British Queen ; 11. Downton; 12. American scar-
let ; 13. Elton seedling ; 14. Coul late scarlet. To these are to be added,
15. The green strawberry ; 16. The red alpine ; and, 1.7. The white alpine,
which commence bearing in July, and if properly treated produce fruit till
they are destroyed by frost.
1241. A selection for a small garden may consist of — 1. The Swainstone
seedling; 2. Keens' seedling; 3. Old pine; 4. Prolific hautbois ; 5. Down-
ton; 6. Coul late scarlet; 7. Elton ; and 8. Red alpine. To these the old
scarlet may be added for confectionery.
1242. A selection for a cottage garden. — Swainstone Seedling, Keens'
Seedling, and Red Alpine.
1243. A selection for a confined, shady situation, or for growing in an
orchard shaded by standard fruit-trees. The alpines, woods, and greens.
1244. Propagation, soil, <^c. — All the sorts are propagated by runners,
but the green strawberry and the alpines are sometimes also increased by
division and by seeds. The runner plants are taken off when their roots are
two or three inches in length, which is generally the case in the last week of
July, or early in August. By some they are planted where they are finally
to remain, which is the best mode when there is abundance of ground, and
a scarcity of hands ; and by others they are planted in nursery beds, a foot
apart every way, where they remain till the end of February or beginning
of March following ; and they should then be removed and planted with
balls, by means of a hollow trowel (fig. 29 in. p. 135). When runner plants
are to be transplanted without receiving any check, they are rooted in
pots in the manner already described (1091). The soil for all the
varieties, except the greens and alpines, should be a strong loam, well en-
riched with stable-dung ; and the best situation for all of them, is one which
is open and fully exposed to the sun. For the greens and alpines the soil
should be lighter, and if the situation is a walled border facing the east, and
hence somewhat shaded from the meridian and afternoon sun, the plants,
by being kept cooler, will thrive with less watering. Nevertheless, alpines
will thrive remarkably well, and their fruit will have a higher flavour, in
the most exposed and sunny situation, provided they are abundantly supplied
with water. This is proved by the extensive plantations in the openest part
of the royal kitchen-garden at Versailles, where, not being able to accom-
plish all the watering in the mornings and evenings, it is continued over-
head, even during the hottest sunshine. (G. M., p. 387.)
1245. Culture. — Though the strawberry, like most herbaceous peren-
nials, excepting grasses, is found chiefly in woods and waste places not
subjected to agriculture or the pasturage of domestic animals, yet in a state
of culture it is found most productive of large high-flavoured fruit, when
THE STRAWBERRY. 573
grown in the open garden in plantations freely exposed to the sun and air.
The place of the strawberry in a rotation of crops in the kitchen garden is
given in 919 — 4. The plants are generally planted in rows, but sometimes
in beds ; and they are occasionally planted as edgings to gravel- walks. In
this latter mode they bear well : the gravel of the walk retaining moisture
and its surface reflecting heat, while nutriment is obtained from the border ;
but the fruit in this situation is apt to be soiled by the gravel after heavy
rains. In whatever way the strawberry is grown it requires to be renewed
every third, fourth, or, at the latest, fifth year. Instances, however, are
given of the pine grown on a strong loamy soil, which has been top dressed
every two or three years, and producing good crops for twelve or twenty
years. In some of the sorts, such as Keens' seedling, the Swainstone, and
hautbois, the scape which bears the fruit is strong and rises above the leaves
and keeps it clean ; but in others, as in the scarlets, the scapes are short
and wreak, and the fruit reclines on the ground ; and with all this class of
strawberries mulching is a desirable point of culture.
1246. Culture in rows. — In the ordinary mode of culture the runners are
planted in rows varying in width with the kind of strawberry, and the time
during which the plantation is wished to last. If that should be four or five
years, the rows of the kinds belonging to the first four classes may be two
feet six inches apart, and the plants placed at one foot six inches distant in
the row. Next year a few good-sized early fruit will be produced from
each plant ; a good crop the year following, and a full crop during the third
and fourth years ; after which, owing to the large size which the stools will
have attained, the fruit, though produced in abundance, will be smaller. As
the ground will not be fully occupied the first year, a row of onions may be
sown in the middle between every two rows of strawberries. A little manure
may be dug in every year late in autumn, diminishing the quantity if the plants
run much to leaf, and increasing it if the foliage appears deficient in vigour.
Top dressings may also be applied in autumn or winter with great advantage ;
and such may consist of leaves, dung, any rich compost, or even loam alone,
and their own decayed foliage may also be included; of the latter, therefore,
the plants should not be deprived, by previously mowing and clearing off the
leaves in autumn, as is often improperly done. The strawberry being a
native of woods, is naturally covered with leaves every autumn, and hence,
a top dressing that would smother many other kinds of plants, will prove
beneficial to the strawberry. All the runners should be taken off, excepting
such as are wanted for a new plantation, as soon as they appear, and more
especially before the fruit has ripened.
1247. Culture in buds. — The large kinds are planted in rows two feet
apart and eighteen inches distant in the row ; each bed contains two rows,
and an interval of three feet wide alternates with each bed, as an alley from
which to water and gather the fruit, &c. The late Mr. Keens grew his
strawberries in this manner. The runners were first planted in a nursery
bed, where they remained from August till March ; when they were removed
to the fruiting beds. There they bore an excellent crop the first year, a
very good crop the second, and a good crop the third ; after which the
plants were dug down. Another mode of growing strawberries in beds is as
follows : a plot of ground is laid out in beds three feet wide, with alleys
between fifteen inches wide ; and each bed is filled with plants one foot apart
p P
574 THE STRAWBERRY.
every way, early in August. Next year, after the plants have borne their
crop, they are dug down, with or without manure, as may be deemed neces-
sary, and replanted. In this way strawberries are grown on the same
ground for a number of years, no plant ever producing more than one crop.
A third mode of growing strawberries in beds consists in having every alter-
nate bed, not of strawberries, but of some low-growing crop ; and keeping it
under low- growing crops for two, three, or more years. The beds are then
prepared for the reception of strawberries, and they are filled simply by
allowing the runners of the adjoining beds to take possession of them. This
they will have done, in the most effectual manner, by the end of August,
when the plants must be thinned out where too thick, and the parent beds
all dug down and cropped with low-growing vegetables, such as turnips,
carrots, onions, &c., for one, two, three, or four years, according as it may
be desired to have large or small fruit. When the runners are only allowed
to bear one crop, the fruit will be large and early, but if they are retained
for three years, the fruit will be much smaller the third year than the first.
This mode is attended with very little labour, and if the runners are only
allowed to produce one crop it will be as abundant and large as by any mode
of culture whatever. In some gardens formerly beds of runners, neither
thinned or manured, were allowed to produce four or five crops, but the fruit,
though abundant when the soil happened to be a strong loam, was so small
that in the present day it would not be thought fit to send to table. Plant-
ing in rows and renewing the plantation every three or four years for scar-
lets, and five or six for pine sorts, or in the case of al pines every second
year, is evidently preferable to any mode of growing on beds.
1248. Mulching and watering. Mulching is useful both for keeping the
fruit clean, and retaining moisture in the soil. If stable litter is used, and
put on just before the leaves expand, it will serve also as manure ; the ani-
mal matters which adhere to it will be washed in by the rains, and by the
time the fruit is ripe the litter will be bleached as white as clean straw.
Short grass may be used as a mulch, but it is too retentive of moisture, and
the same may be said of leaves. Coarse gravel requires too much labour in
laying down and taking off; but flat tiles form an excellent mulch, retaining
moisture, and reflecting heat among the leaves and fruit. Some persons
have had tiles made of a semicircular form, each with a small semicircle,
about three inches in diameter, cut out of it, so that two of these tiles cover
a circular space round the plant ; but not only is this a needless refine-
ment and waste, the tiles being unfit for anything else, but a portion
of the ground is left unmulched ; whereas, by using common drain
tiles the ground can be more completely covered, no extra expense
is incurred in their manufacture, and they are as fit for roofing, and
variety of other purposes, as if they had never been used for mulching.
Watering is essential to a good crop of strawberries in dry weather, and may
be performed on a large scale by the watering barrel, fig. 325, in p. 384, or
on ordinary occasions by the watering pot. The best time is the evening or
early in the morning, because at these seasons least is lost by evaporation
(826) ; and the water should always, if possible, be of a temperature some-
what higher than that of the soil. Some amateurs grow their strawberries
in beds having small open brick channels as alleys, and these and the beds
being formed on a perfect level, by filling the alleys with water, it penetrates
THE STRAWBERRY. 575
the soil of the beds on each side. Surface irrigation, however, appears pre-
ferable, because the soil being warmest there, the water will carry down
heat to the interior of the soil.
1249. Culture of particular kinds. The strawberries from which it is
most difficult to procure good crops are the Old Pine and Myatt's Pine. The
Old Pine will not fruit at all unless the situation be open, and it succeeds
best in strong loam, though the late Mr. Keens found it thrive best
on a light soil. The plants should be kept from August to March in
a nursery, at a foot apart every way, and after being planted out
they will bear well for three years, but not longer, unless well supplied with
top dressing. Myatt's Pine requires a rich loam, and the plants should be
placed in rows, on a sloping surface to the S. or S.E., four feet apart, in order
that the intervals may be trenched down as soon as the plants have fruited ;
the runners are permitted to establish themselves on the fresh ground, and
remain there to fruit, while the preceding year's plants are destroyed. This
process, like that of growing strawberries on annual beds, must be repeated
every year. The Scarlet Strawberry ^ when only to be grown for three
years, may be planted in rows twenty-one inches apart, and each plant eigh-
teen inches distant in the row. The Hautbois, grows naturally on a clayey
loam or chalk, but it also, like the pine, thrives in light soil, which may be
well supplied with manure, which does not produce excess of foliage in this
variety, as it does in the old pine and some others. The rows may be two
feet apart, and the distance between the plants eighteen inches. In all
plantations of this variety a number of sterile plants will be found, which
as soon as they are discovered ought to be taken up and destroyed. Many
gardeners suppose that it is necessary to retain a number of what are termed,
improperly, male plants, that is, those in which the stamens are perfect, but
the receptacle and pistils imperfect, yet as the rudiments of all the parts
are evident, the plants cannot be said to be dioecious ; but it is better
to propagate only from hermaphrodite plants, for though some of the
runners of these may prove sterile, yet the greater part will be pro-
lific. This variety forces remarkably well and preserves its musky
flavour. The Alpine strawberry may be raised from seed on a bed of
light rich earth early in spring ; the plants will be ready to plant out in
beds, at a foot distance every way, in July, and they will come into
bearing in two or three weeks afterwards. The plantation will last three
years. A better mode than raising the Alpine strawberry from seed, is to
select runners from stools which have borne the largest, handsomest, and
best-flavoured fruit. This is the mode practised in the neighbourhood of
Paris (G. M., 1841, p. 266), where this strawberry is brought to a much
higher degree of perfection than it is in England. Late in autumn all the
runners and some of the lower leaves should be removed, to prevent the fruit
from damping off. The white Alpine is generally considered as having a
more delicate flavour than the red. Both varieties are much weakened by
runners. Both force readily, and in France, two or three year old stools
are used for this purpose, and they are taken up and potted the autumn
previously to forcing them. The Green strawberry, and Wood strawberry,
should be treated exactly like the Alpine.
1250. Retarding a crop.— This may be done to a certain extent by plant-
ing on the north side of an east and west wall, or in any situation sliaded
from the sun, or exposed to the north ; but the most effective mode of pro-
p p£
576 THE CRANBERRY.
curing a late crop is to remove all the blossoms that would have produced
the first crop ; and then, after allowing the plants to receive a check from
the dry warm weather, which usually occurs in the latter end of June, to
supply water abundantly. The water in this and in all other cases should
have been sufficiently long exposed in a pond or basin to acquire the tempe-
rature of the atmosphere ; or this temperature, and a few degrees more, may
be given to it artificially by a portable heating apparatus. Strawberry plants
which have been early forced, when turned out into the open garden generally
produce some fruit late in the season (1093), and this quantity may be in-
creased in number and size by judicious watering.
1251. Accelerating a crop in the open garden. — This may be done by
planting a row close along the base of a wall having a south aspect. The
best variety for this purpose is the Bishop's wick, which has small leaves
and an early habit, and which, so treated by Mr. Williams of Pitmaston,
ripened its fruit towards the end of May. Another mode consists in planting
on the south side of an east and west ridge of soil. The ridge may be no
larger than to admit of a single row, or it may be four feet or five feet high,
so as to admit of three or four rows on the south side for accelerating a crop,
and an equal quantity on the north side for retarding one. If the ground
on the south side is covered with flat tiles, bricks, flints, or pebbles, they
will retain moisture, conduct heat to the soil, and reflect it also among the
plants. At East Combe, near Blackheath, a ridge of this kind, the sides of
which form an angle of 45°, ripens fruit three weeks earlier than the flat
surface of the same garden. The common calculation is a fortnight earlier
for the south side, and eight or ten days later for the north side ; so that
by means of a ridge, the strawberry season in the open garden is extended
at least three weeks. Sometimes these ridges are built of brick-work, in
steps, and sometimes they are formed of stones, in the manner of a wall
built without mortar, the plants being placed in the interstices. In which-
ever way the ridge is formed, there ought to be a gutter of three inches or
four inches in width along the apex, as a channel for supplying warm water
to the roots. It would be an improvement also to cover the south side of
the ridge during nights by mats or canvas, supported on hoops or rods at
nine inches or one foot above the plants, to check radiation. Ridges of this
kind require to be taken down every year after the crop is gathered, and
replanted with the earliest runners that can be got. The ordinary slope of
the ridge is an angle of 45°, because loose soil will remain stationary at that
angle ; but where the ridge is to be faced with stone or brick, the slope
may be nearly perpendicular, or at all events 70°. In the garden of a cottage
which has been built on a platform, the sloping bank which supports the
latter might be planted with strawberries, either with or without the addi-
tion of stones or tiles.
1252. Gathering the fruit should take place when it is quite dry, and they
should be taken to table the same day. It should always be gathered with
the calyx attached, though this used to be generally neglected in Scotland
and on the Continent.
1253. Forcing. — See 1090.
SUBSECT. XIII.— The Cranberry.
1254. The Cranberry, Oxycoccus, Pers. (Airelle, Fr. ; and Heidelbeere,
Ger. — Arb. Brit., p. 1028, and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 616), is a
THE MULBERRY. 577
genus of low trailing shrubs ; one, O. palustris, the English cranberry, a
native of Britain and the north of Europe in moist bogs ; and the other, O.
macrocarpus, the American cranberry, a native of swamps in the United
States. The fruit of both has long been gathered from the native habitats
of the plants, and used for tarts and other purposes ; and it forms an article
of exportation both from Sweden and North America. Both sorts may be
cultivated in gardens in peat-soil, kept moist ; and if it is enriched with
thoroughly rotted dung, the vigour of the plants will be greatly increased,
and the flavour of the fruit improved. The English cranberry requires a
more constant supply of moisture than the American ; but the fruit of both
is better flavoured when grown with much less moisture than they experi-
ence in their native habitats. The American cranberry has even been grown
in beds of dry peat-soil, and produced a plentiful crop of excellent fruit.
The plants are readily propagated by layering the shoots, or by taking off
their points and striking them in sand under a hand-glass. Both species
may be grown on the margin of a pond, among moist rockwork.
J 255. The Scotch cranberry ', Vaccinium Vitis idaea L. ; the whortle-
berry, V. Myrtillus L. ; the great bilberry, V. uliginosum L. ; and various
other species of Vaccinium, bearing edible and very agreeable cooling acid
fruit, may all be grown in dry peat. They are all described in our
Arboretum, pp. 1078 to 1167, and in the Ency. of Trees and Shrubs, pp. 604
to 615. When a garden is situated in a part of the country where peat
soil abounds, and perhaps forms part of the garden or adjoins it, it may be
worth while to attempt growing these fruits ; but not otherwise, as the only
useful one, the cranberry, can be obtained from the grocers' shops in all large
towns from December till March.
SUBSECT. XIV.— The Mulberry.
1256. The black or garden Mulberry, Morus mgra, L. (Murier, Fr. ;
Maulbeerbaum, Ger, ; Moerbesseboom, Dutch ; Moro, Ital. ; and Morel,
Span. Arb. Brit. vol. iii. p. 1342, and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 705),
is a middle-sized deciduous tree, a native of Persia, and supposed to have
been introduced into Europe by the Romans. It has been cultivated in
England since the middle of the 16th century, for its highly aromatic fruit,
which ripens in August, and, like that of the strawberry, does not undergo
the acetous fermentation in the stomach. An agreeable wine is made from
the juice, and a syrup from the unripe berries. It is readily propagated by
cuttings or truncheons, and will thrive as a standard in any good garden
soil in the central districts of England ; but north of York, and in Scotland,
it requires a south wall. As the fruit drops as soon as it is ripe, the tree is
generally planted on a lawn or grass plot ; but the fruit attains a larger size
when the soil round the tree is kept slightly dug and well manured ; and
previously to its ripening the space under the branches may be sown
thick with cress seed, which will form a close, soft carpet for the fruit to
drop on. In a small garden the tree may be very conveniently grown as an
espalier. The fruit is produced chiefly on short shoots of the same year,
which are protruded from last year's wood, and on spurs from the two-year
old wood ; both laterals and spurs being produced mostly at the ends of the
branches. The tree being of slow growth, very little pruning is required
for either espaliers or standards ; though no doubt thinning out the branches
would strengthen those that remain. The fruit should be gathered just when
578 THE WALNUT AND SWEET CHESTNUT.
it is about to fall, and used the same day. The tree forces well in pots, and
the plants for this purpose may be procured by planting entire branches, so as
to form at once bushes two or three feet high (G. M., 1812). The branches
should be taken from the parent trees in autumn, after the leaves have
dropped, and after being potted they may be plunged under a north wall
till February, when they may be transferred to a pit or forcing-house, where
they will produce fruit the same year early in June. The tree is remark-
able for the great age which it attains, and its vitality; instances being com-
mon of trees growing after remaining out of the ground for a year, or being
transplanted in full leaf, and after remaining a year dormant. One, or at
most two, mulberry-trees are sufficient for a suburban garden, whether large
or small.
SUBSECT. XV.— The Walnut.
1257. The Walnut, Juglans regia, L. (Noyer, Fr.; Walnussbaum,
Ger.; Walnootboom, Dutch', Nocil, Ital. ; and Nogal, Span.', Arb. Brit.,
vol. iii., p. 1420 ; and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, 732), is a deciduous
tree, of large size, a native of Persia and Caucasus, which has been cul-
tivated in England as a fruit and timber tree from the middle of the
16th century, or before. The ripe kernel is used in the dessert, and
the fruit whole, in a green state, before the nut and its involucre, or husk,
harden, forms an excellent pickle. The timber, being very light in propor-
tion to its strength and elasticity, is much used for gun-stocks. The variety
most esteemed for its fruit is the Thetford, but the large French and tender-
shelled are also good sorts. They are propagated chiefly by budding on the
common walnut, or by inarching ; but as there is little demand for these
trees, most of those which are sold in the nurseries are seedlings. The tree
thrives best in a deep sandy loam, and it is generally planted in the north
margin of the orchard, or on a lawn, or in a paddock. Seedlings will bear
in from five to seven years from the seed, or sooner by ringing the branches.
The fruit is produced, as in most amentacious trees, from short shoots of the
current year protruded from the extremities of the preceding year's shoots.
It is gathered by hand for pickling, and too frequently beaten down with
rods when ripe ; but as it drops of itself just before the leaves, no beating
down, or gathering from the branches, is requisite. The fruit is best kept
in dry sand, or slightly covered with straw. Little or no pruning is ever
given to this tree, though there can be no doubt that thinning out the
branches would throw more strength into the fruit of those which remain.
1258. The Pacane-nut Hickory, Carya olivaeformis, A.B. iii. p. 1441, and
E. ofTr.and Sh. p. 736, some varieties of which, Michaux says, produce
fruit which is far superior to that of the European walnut, (and of which
Washington is said to have been so fond that during the war of independence
he had always his pockets full of them); and the shell-bark hickory, C. alba,
A. B. iii. p. 1446, and E. of Tr. and Sh. p. 739, may be grafted on the
walnut, and treated in all respects like that tree.
SUBSECT. XVI. — The Sweet Chestnut.
1259. The Sweet Chestnut, Castanea vesca, W. (Chataignier, Fr. ; Cas-
tainenbaum, Ger. ; Karstengeboom, Dutch ; Castagno, Ital. ; and Castano,
Span. ; E. B., 886 ; Arb. Brit., vol. iii. p. 1716, and Encyc. of Trees and
Shrubs, p. 911), is a large deciduous tree, a native of Spain and Italy, and
THE FILBERT. 579
cultivated in the South of England, more especially in Devonshire, for its
fruit, as well as its timber. The nut is brought to table roasted, and eaten
with salt, or with salt fish, or stewed in cream. In Spain and Italy, it is
used as an article of food, boiled, roasted, in puddings, cakes, and bread.
In France and Italy there are a great many varieties in cultivation, and
upwards of twenty have been grown in the Garden of the Horticultural
Society, of which the Downton and Prolific are among the best. For a
small garden, the Chataigne exalade of the South of France deserves the
preference, not only as producing the best fruit of all the varieties for the
table, but on account of the tree being an abundant bearer, and of so small a
size that it might be very well grown as an espalier. The varieties are pro-
pagated by grafting on the species. The fruit is produced in the same
manner as that of the walnut, and every other particular respecting its cul-
ture is much the same as for that tree.
SUBSECT. XVII.— 7%« Filbert.
1260. The Filbert, Corylus Avellana, L. (Noisette, Fr. ; Nussbaum,
Ger. ; Hazelnoot, Dutch ; Avellano, Ital. &; Span. ; E. B. 723, Arb. Brit.,
iii. p. 2017, and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 921), in a wild state is
the hazel-nut, common in woods in many parts of Europe, on loamy
soils. Its use in the dessert is familiar to every one. By cultivation
several varieties have been obtained, of which the best are the red and
white filbert, and Cosford, which ought to be in every collection ; the cob-
nut, because its branches grow more upright than the other varieties;
and the great cob-nut, the Downton large square nut, and the Spanish
nut, on account of their large fruit. All these varieties are usually propa-
gated by grafting on the common hazel-nut, or on the Spanish nut, which
grows very fast, and differs from all the others in not sending up suckers.
" The plants should be trained to a single stem, from a foot to two feet in
height, and then be permitted to branch into a symmetrical head, rather
open in the middle, and not of greater height than a man can conveniently
reach from the ground to perform the necessary operations of pruning and
gathering." (Gard. Chron., 1841, p. 51.) The fruit is produced from the
preceding year's wood, and in unpruned trees is always most abundant at
the extremities of the branches, where the leaves of the preceding year have
had abundance of light and air. Hence the importance of pruning so as to
keep the bush open in the centre. The spring, at the time the male blos-
soms are shedding their pollen, is the best time for pruning, as by the
shaking of the trees the pollen is diffused. The young shoots should be
shortened to half their length, cutting to a female blossom, and removing all
side suckers. If a plantation is to consist of a single row, the plants may be
placed from eight feet to ten feet apart ; but if there are to be several rows
together, the intervals between them may be ten feet or twelve feet. The
whole may be treated like a plantation of currants on a large scale. The
usual situation for a plantation of filberts is the orchard, where single rows
may be introduced, for a few years, between rows of standard fruit-trees. If
a separate plantation of filberts is formed, currants or gooseberries may be in-
troduced in the intervals between the plants for four or five years — care being
taken to destroy them whenever their branches are within a foot or two of the
filberts. A plantation of filberts will last twenty years, and if occasionally
manured, it will produce from 20 cwt. to 30 cwt. of nuts per acre
580 THE BERBERRY, ELDERBERRY, CORNELIAN CHERRY,
annually. The nut weevil lays its eggs in the fruit in June, where it is
hatched, and escapes in August. There is no practical preventive of this
insect, and all that the gardener can do is to remove all the nuts that have
been perforated by it. The fruit is gathered when the calyx turns brown,
and at a time when it is quite dry, and it may be preserved through the
winter with the husks, or in dry sand, or in air-tight vessels. Some put
them into large garden-pots, sprinkling a little salt amongst them, which is
said to preserve the husks from getting mouldy and rotting ; the pots are
turned bottom upwards on boards, and covered with earth or sand to exclude
the air. The dealers subject them to the fumes of sulphur in close vessels,
when newly gathered and dried, in order to improve the colour of the
calyx.
SUBSECT. XVIII.— The Berberry, Elderberry, Cornelian Cherry, Buffalo-berry,
and Winter Cherry.
1261. The Berberry, Berberis vulgaris, L. (Epine vinette, Fr.; Berbe-
ritzen, Ger.; Berberisse, Dutch; Berbero, Ital., and Berberis, Span.; E.
B. 49, Arb. Brit. i. p. 298, and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 42), is a
deciduous shrub, a native of Britain in woods and hedges on dry soil, and
sometimes planted in gardens for its fruit ; which is not eaten raw, but is
excellent when preserved in sugar, in syrup, or candied. The berries are
also made into jelly and rob, both of which are not only delicious to the
taste but extremely wholesome, and they are pickled in vinegar when green
as a substitute for capers. They are also used instead of lemon for flavouring
punch, for garnishing dishes, and for various other purposes, independently of
their medicinal properties. When the fruit is to be eaten, there is a variety in
which it is larger and less acid, B. vulgaris, var. dulcis,(.E. ofTr. andSh., p. 43),
of which there are plants in the Hort. Soc. Gardens, from which scions may
be procured for budding or grafting on the common berberry. For all the
other purposes the species may be taken, though for the curious there are
varieties with yellow, white, purple, and black-coloured fruit ; and there is
one also without seeds, B. v. asperma, of which the delicious confitures
d'epine vinette, for which Rouen is so celebrated, are made.
1262. The Magellan sweet Berberry, Berberis diilcis, D. Don, syn. B.
buxifolia, B. rotundifolia, has round black berries about the size of those of
the black currant, which are produced in great abundance, and used in its
native country, both green and ripe, as we use gooseberries, for pies, tarts,
and preserves, for which it is said to be most excellent. (See Arb. Brit. i.
p. 301, and E. of Tr. % Sh. p. 47-) The plant is evergreen, quite hardy,
and very ornamental, flowering from March to June, and ripening its fruit
in June and July. It has ripened fruit in the nursery of Mr. Cunning-
ham, at Edinburgh, who says, it is as. large as the Hamburgh grape, and
equally good to eat.
1263. The Nepal Berberry, B. aristata, Dec., syn. B. Chitria, a native of
Nepal, and B. asiatica, Roxb., also from Nepal (Arb. Brit. i. pp. 306, 307,
and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 49), produce purple fruit covered with a
fine bloom, which in Nepal and other parts of India are dried in the
sun like raisins, and, like them, brought to table. The plants are quite
hardy and fruit abundantly in English gardens, and the amateur of
leisure might add them and the Magellan berberry to his collection of hardy
fruits.
BUFFALO BERRY, AND WINTER CHERRY. 581
All the species of berberry throw up numerous suckers, and become
crowded with shoots and branches, and hence when fruit is the object they
should be trained to single stems, for one foot or two feet in height, and all
suckers removed ; and the branches should be kept moderately thin. All
the species will succeed perfectly in any good soil, and in an open situation
in the orchard.
1264. The Elder-tree, Sambucus nigra, L. (Sureau, Fr.; Hollunderbaum,
Ger.; Vlierboom, Dutch; Sambuco, ItaL, and Sanco, Span.; E. B. 476,
Arb. Brit, ii. p. 3027, and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 513), is a low
deciduous tree, a native of most parts of Europe, and chiefly found near
human habitations. It is highly ornamental both when in flower and in
fruit. An infusion of the flowers is used to flavour some articles of confec-
tionery, and a wine is made from the fruit by boiling it with spices and
sugar. Immense quantities of fruit are grown in Kent, and other places in
the neighbourhood of London, and sent to market for making this wine,
which is always taken hot, and commonly after supper. The tree requires
a good soil and an open airy situation, and should be kept free from
suckers.
1265. The Cornelian Cherry, Cornus Mas. L.; C. mascula, L'Herit. (Cor-
nouiller, Fr.; Kernel Kirsche, Ger.; Kornoelje, Dutch; Corgnolo, ItaL;
Cornejo, Span.; Arb. Brit. vol. ii. p. 1014, and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs,
p. 501), is a low deciduous tree, a native of the middle and south of Europe,
in the margins of woods, and in soils more or less calcareous ; and it has been
cultivated in gardens, from the time of the Romans, for its fruit, which,
however, was not much esteemed by that people. It was very general in
ancient gardens ; its fruit being very ornamental on the tree, and also found
excellent in tarts, robs, and preserved in various ways. As seedling plants
of this species of Cornus bear only male blossoms for twelve or fifteen years,
and some continue to do so always, it is desirable to procure plants which
have been grafted, or raised by layers from fruit-bearing trees, the flowers
of which are always hermaphrodite. Du Hamel says that there are varieties
of cornel in France and Germany with wax-coloured fruit, white fruit, and
fleshy round fruit. The tree' should be planted in a situation open to the
south, but sheltered from high winds.
1266. The Buffalo berry, Shepherdia argentea, Nutt. ; Hippophae argentea,
Pursh. (Rabbit berry, Amer., and Graisse de Buffle, Fr. ; Arb. Brit. vol. iii.,
p. 1327, and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 700), is a low tree, a native
of the banks of the Missouri, where it flowers in April and May, and
ripens its scarlet diaphanous berries in September. These are said to be
about the size of the red currant, much richer to the taste, and they are
produced in such abundance as to form one continued cluster on every
branch and twig. The tree being dioecious, care should be taken to pro-
cure both sexes. There are plants in England, but, as far as we know, they
have not yet ripened fruit. In an account of this fruit in the Gardener's
Magazine for 1831, the writer considers it "one of the greatest acquisitions
of the fruit -bearing kind that has recently been brought into notice in the
United States."
1267. The Winter Cherry, Physalis Alkekengi, L. (Coqueret, Fr., and
Judenkirsche, Ger.), is a herbaceous creeping rooted perennial, a native
of the south of Europe, quite hardy, and growing freely, and producing
fruit abundantly m common garden soil. The fruit is yellow, and about
582 THE GRAPE.
the size of a cherry, with an agreeable sweetness ; it ripens in September,
and will hang on the plant, protected by its inflated calyx, through great
part of the winter. It was well known to the ancients, and was cultivated
in most gardens till late in the last century, since which it has been neg-
lected. In the neighbourhood of New York the fruit is grown in large
quantities, and dried, and used as a sweetmeat, in which state it is most
excellent (G. M. 1842, p. 331). Several other hardy species, including
P. pubescens, also produce edible fruit.
SECT. II.— Half-hardy or Watt Fruits.
1268. The wall-fruits of Britain include all those which in the central
districts of England require the aid of a wall to bring them to perfection.
These are the grape, peach, nectarine, almond, apricot, fig, pomegranate,
love-apple, egg-plant, and Peruvian cherry.
SUBSECT. I. — The Grape.
1269. The Grape Vine, Vitis vinifera, L. (Vigne, Fr.; Weintrauben, Ger. •
Druif, Dutch ; Vigna, ItaL, and Vina, Span. ; Arb. Brit. vol. i. p. 477,
and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 136), is a trailing or climbing deciduous
shrub, a native of Syria and other parts of Asia, and though enduring our
winters in the open garden, yet only ripening its fruit under glass or against
a wall. It has been in cultivation since the time of the Romans, both as
a wine and a table fruit. The grape abounds in tartaric acid, which in
general agrees with delicate persons better than any other ; and hence it is
universally considered one of the most wholesome of fruits. Many varieties
have been produced by different soils and situations on the Continent, in
countries where the vine is grown for many years on the same spot for wine;
and by seeds in Britain, where the fruit is grown solely for the dessert. All
the best kinds of grapes have either been fruited in the Horticultural
Society's Garden, or exhibited at their shows ; and from these and other
sources of knowledge, Mr. Thompson has prepared for us the following
selections : —
1. Grapes with round, dark, red, purple, or black berries.
Early black July, syn. Maurillon hatif, &c. — Bunches and berries small,
flavour sugary; ripe against a wall in the end of August or beginning of
September ; the blossom easily injured by cold. This is the first grape
which ripens on the open walls in the neighbourhood of Paris. In 1840
we found it in the shops in the last week in July.
\+ Slack Frontignan, syn. Muscat noir de Frontignan ; black Frontignac ;
black Constantia, &c. Bunches and berries of medium size; flavour musky,
rich ; ripe in October. A very excellent grape.
2. Grapes with oval, dark, red, purple, or black berries.
Black Prince, syn. Sir Abraham Pytche's black. — Large long bunches,
large berries, flavour sweet and pleasant ; ripe in October ; deserving a place
in a vinery, and will also ripen on a wall.
Black Hamburgh, syn. Frankendale, &c. — Large bunches, very large
berries, flavour sugary and rich ; ripe in October ; a good bearer, and deserv-
edly one of the most generally cultivated of grapes, whether under glass or
against a wall.
Black Moroeco, syn. Raisin d'Espagne, &c. — Bunches large, berries very
THE GRAPE. 583
large, flavour sweet and tolerably rich, ripening late. The blossoms require
to be set with black Hamburgh, or some other hardy grape.
West's St. Peters, syn. Raisin des Carmes.. — Bunches middle size, berries
large, flesh firm, flavour sugary and rich ; late hi ripening. A great bearer,
and one of the very best winter grapes.
3. Grapes with round white berries.
Royal Muscadine, syn. Chasselas dore, &c. — Bunches large, berries above
the middle size, flavour rich and sweet ; ripe in September. A good bearer,
and altogether an excellent grape.
Chasselas musque, syn. Le Cour. — Bunches middle size, long, berries
middle size, flavour rich, musky ; ripe in September. An excellent grape,
combining much of the flavour of the Muscat of Alexandria.
White Frontignan, syn. Muscat blanc. — Bunches and berries middle size ;
juice rich, with a highly musky flavour. A much-esteemed grape, which
will ripen either against a hothouse or against a wall.
4. Grapes with oval white berries.
White Muscat of Alexandria, syn. Passe musque blanc, &c. — Bunches
and berries large, flesh firm, musky-flavoured and delicious ; only ripens
under glass. Generally esteemed the finest and richest grape in cultiva-
tion, and particularly adapted for the hothouse and pine-stove.
Cannon-hall Muscat. — Closely resembling the Muscat of Alexandria;
but the flesh is firmer, and the skin yellower. The blossoms do not set
well, unless fecundated artificially; which may be done with their own
pollen, by means of a camel-hair pencil, or by the pollen of any other grape
that may be in flower at the same time.
5. Grapes with red, rose-coloured, greyish, or striped berries.
Red Frontignan, syn. Muscat rouge. — Bunches and berries middle size,
flavour rich, musky, and excellent. A grape of first-rate excellence.
Grizzly Frontignan, syn. Muscat gris, — -The same qualities, and equally
excellent as the preceding variety.
1270. A selection of grapes for early forcing. — OEsperione, Black Prince,
Cambridge Botanic Garden grape, White Muscadine, Royal Muscadine,
White Sweetwater, White Frontignan, Grove End Sweetwater, Red Fron-
tignan.
1271- The selection of grapes grown at Hungerton-hall (973), so as to pro-
duce three crops in a year in the same house. — Black Frontignan, syn. Purple
Constantia, White Frontignan, syn. White Constantia, Grizzly Frontignan,
Muscat of Alexandria, Stillwell's Sweetwater, West's St. Peter's, Black Da-
mascus, Black Tripoli, Black Hamburgh, White Portugal, Syrian.
1272. A selection of grapes of various favours and colours, placed in the
order of their ripening. — White and Red Muscadine, White and Red Muscats
of Alexandria, White and Red Frontignan, Black Muscadel, White Raisin,
White and Black Hamburgh, Black Prince, White Sweetwater, White
Nice, and West's St. Peter's. These sorts are of fourteen different flavours;
there are an equal number of whites and reds ; some with large bunches
and berries, as the Nice, and others with high-flavoured berries, as the
Frontignan. The foliage in autumn will be alternately tinged with red and
yellow ; and, supposing the Muscadines to be placed next the end at which
584 THE GRAPE.
the flue enters, they will ripen nearly a month earlier than any of the
other kinds.
1273. Grapes for a late crop in a vinery. — Black Damascus, Black Fron-
tignan, Black Hamburgh, Red Syracuse, Black Muscadel, syn. Black Raisin,
and White Raisin, Black Prince, and West's St. Peter's.
1274. Grapes for a house in which pines are grown. — White Muscadine
and Sweetwater, for early sorts ; and for a succession, Black Muscadel,
Hamburgh, and Damascus, White Frontignan, and Muscat of Alexandria.
Half of the whole number of plants should be Muscats, and half of the
remainder Hamburghs and Frontignans. One plant of each of the other
sorts will be enough.
1275. Grapes with small leaves, and hardy ; adapted for the rafters of
a green-house. — White and Black Sweetwater, Black Cluster, syn. Black
Morillon, Black Muscadine, Parsley-leaved Muscadine.
1276. Grapes with small leaves, less hardy than the preceding selection, and
fit for the rafters of a plant-stove. — Chasselas Musque, Blue Frontignan, Blue
Tokay, Royal Muscadine, and Parsley-leaved grape.
1277. Grapes with small bunches and berries adapted for being grown in
pots or boxes. — Black and White Corinth, Black Cluster, and Pitmaston
White Cluster, Red and Grizzly Frontignan, White and Red Bur-
gundy, &c.
1278. Grapes for a cottage garden where the climate is not very favourable.
— White Muscadine, Black July, Large Black Muscadine, and Pitmaston
White Cluster.
3 279. Grapes suitable for the open wall, or for cottages in situations where
the peach will ripen on the open wall — see Mr. Hoare's list in p. 472. If
the peach requires a flued wall, so will the grapes in this list ; and when
they are planted against a house, it should only be on those walls which are
decidedly warm, from facing the south and from a fire always being kept in
the room within, or from the wall containing a chimney-flue to a fire in
constant use.
1280. Propagation, see 606, 958, 968, and 981.
1281. Culture, pruning, training, 6$c., see Sect. II., pp. 452 to 472.
1282. Pruning. — The shoots of the vine, the rose, and indeed of plants
generally, have always on the lower part of the growing shoot two or three
weak leaves, which soon drop off, and the buds in the axils of these leaves
are generally so small as to be called by gardeners blind. They are never
developed unless the shoot is cut down to them, and even then, if they push,
they never produce blossoms. Hence, in shortening young wood of the vine
in the open air, it should seldom or never be cut to one of these blind buds,
but to a conspicuous plump bud, three, four, or five leaves from the origin
of the shoot. The largest leaves and best buds on vines in the open garden
will generally be found those produced between the middle of May and the
middle of June ; and such buds, if the vine is tolerably strong, will be
certain of producing shoots with blossoms. These remarks are applicable in
a particular manner to vines grown against walls and cottages, where no
extraordinary attention is paid to the soil; but for vines under glass or
against walls, with highly enriched borders, the young wood of the vine
may be cut off nearly close to the old wood, and the shoot that will be pro-
duced from an embryo bud will contain blossoms, as already noticed under
spurring-in pruning (963). It is necessary for the amateur vine-pruner to
THE GRAPE. 585
bear these two facts constantly in mind, because otherwise he might go on
pruning his vines for years, without ever having a single bunch of fruit.
By pruning vines in the open garden a week or two before the fall of the
leaf, they are put sooner to rest, and will burst their buds earlier the follow-
ing spring.
1283. — Thinning. The bunches ought to be reduced in number, when
more are produced than it v*ould be judicious to allow the plant to mature ;
and some of the leaves ought to be removed when they are so much crowded
about the bunches as to prevent them from colouring. In thinning out the
berries of bunches, the bunch ought never to be taken hold of by the fin-
gers, as is too frequently done, but by a small piece of hooked wire, and
the berries ought to be taken off with a pair of small scissors. Thinning
grapes with hands covered with perspiration, or with foul scissors, frequently
produces the rust, an incurable disease, which greatly disfigures the berries.
—(Gard. Chron. 1842, p. 289).
1284. — Setting the blossom. It sometimes happens, more especially in
early forcing, that the incipient bunches twist and shrivel up just before
coming into bloom ; the cause appears to be the want of heat at the root,
which may either arise from the roots being too deep, or from their being
outside, and not properly protected by thatching, (0000 ) or warmed by
hot dung. The permanent remedy for this evil is obvious j but as Mr.
Fish judiciously observes, " it is frequently of as much, if not of more,
importance, to know how to make the most of existing circumstances,
though unfavourable, than to be conversant with the very circumstances
and management that will ensure success." We will state Mr. Fish's remedy
for this serious evil. To keep the bunches from shrivelling and twisting up,
Mr. Fish suspended small pieces of lead, little stones, bits of clay, &c.,
with slight strings of matting to the points of his bunches, just when they
were coming into bloom, sometimes attaching an additional small weight
to the shoulder of the bunch (Gard. Chron., 1842, p. 189). In this way
the blossoms set, and the bunches came to maturity when every other
means had failed, and this not merely in a solitary instance, or on a small
scale, but in a house of great width in Mr. Tattersall's garden at Hyde
Park Corner, and in several wide houses, in which the roots of the vines
have got down into a moist clay, in the garden at Putteridgebury, the seat of
Colonel Sowerby, near Luton. We had an opportunity of seeing these
houses in March last, when the bunches in two of them were loaded ; the
one house with the berries set and swelling, and the other with the blossoms
beginning to open. As soon as the berries have fairly begun to swell, the
weights are removed. The rationale of this system we do not pretend to
know, unless it be the same principle of pressure which seems to facilitate
the rooting of a cutting, and the protrusion of spongioles from the root of a
cabbage plant, when applied to their lower extremities.
1285. Growing grapes in pots. — The only utility of growing grapes in
pots where there are plenty of hothouses, is to have a few to ripen in March
and April. West's St. Peter's, or the sort cultivated by Mr. Oldaker and
Mr. Paxton as such, (G. M., vol. ii., p. 174, and vol. xiii., p. 96) if properly
managed, will hang in good condition till the end of February, or, in some
seasons, till March ; in short, as Dr. Lindley observed, when commenting
on some grapes of this variety, exhibited by Mr. Paxton, on January 17th,
1837, it is "decidedly the best winter grape known." Where there is
586 THE PEACH
an early vinery, good grapes may be ripened in the beginning of May where
the border is protected from frost and snow: so that a regular succes-
sion can be had all the year round. Mr. Tillery, the Duke of Portland's
gardener, at Welbeck, has " put a dozen pots in on the 10th of October, and
cut on the 2nd of March ; another dozen in the beginning of November,
and cut in April. Where grapes can be grown on the rafters, and proper
attention paid to the borders," he observes, " it is so much time thrown
away to attempt growing them in pots. To the amateur and gardener with,
perhaps, only a hothouse or two, the case is different, for they are worthy of
all his care and attention." — Gard. Chron., 1841, p. 830.
1286. General treatment of the vine. — No tree or shrub will do with so
little water, either at the root or over the leaves, as the vine, provided the
border is sufficiently rich. Even in vineries watering may be totally dis-
pensed with during the whole of a course of culture, though it will facilitate
the breaking of the buds and the swelling of the fruit. Hence a vinery, if
formed of a handsome shape, with the sides and roof of glass, might be
covered inside with vines, with the floor matted or carpeted, so as to be
used, during a part of the summer season at least, as a reading or work-
ing room. In this case the vines should be planted outside ; or planted
inside, close to the outside walls, so as, in either case, to allow of the floor
being paved. The only drawback to vines so treated is the attacks which
they, in common with all plants, are liable to from insects ; and these can
only be got rid of by the use of water or some liquid, or by fumigation.
The vine, however, is less subject to insects or diseases than any other fruit-
bearing tree or shrub.
1287. Growing grapes for wine-making. — Excellent wine may be made
from unripe grapes, and these may be produced in abundance in the central
and southern districts of England, in the open garden on espaliers. The
plants may be trained on horizontal wires in the Thomery manner (905),
in that of Mr. Hoare (984), or the wires of the trellis may be chiefly per-
pendicular and two feet apart, and at each a vine cutting may be planted and
trained upright and spurred in, as recommended for the gooseberry and cur-
rant on an espalier (1220). After the lapse of three or four years to estab-
lish the plants, an immense quantity of fruit would be produced in this
manner on a small space. The best varieties for wine-making, where the grape
will ripen, are the Miller's Burgundy, known by its woolly leaves, and the
Claret, known by its leaves dying off of a dark claret colour; the Black
Cluster and the Muscadine will attain as great a degree of maturity as the
kinds mentioned, and will answer both for wine making and eating. It is
unnecessary to observe, that the walls and roofs of cottages (986) will bring
the grapes nearer to maturity than an espalier in the same climate.
SUBSECT. II. — The Peach and Nectarine.
1288. The Peach and Nectarine, Persica vulgaris Dec. ; and P. Isevis
Dec.; ( Pecher, Fr. ; Pfirschbaum, Ger. ; Persikkeboom, Dutch ; Persico,
Ital. ; and Alberchigo, Span.; Arb. Brit., vol. ii. p. 680, and Encyc. of Trees
and Shrubs, p. 266), is a deciduous tree under the middle size, a native of
Persia, and cultivated in gardens for its fruit from the time of the Romans.
The nectarine (peche lisse, Fr.), is distinguished from the peach by having
a smooth skin, while that, of the peach is downy. The Almond is supposed
AND NECTARINE. 587
by many to be the peach in a wild state, but for convenience in treating of
their culture we have kept them apart, both in the Arboretum Britannicum,
and in this work. The peach has long been cultivated extensively in
France, from whence our best varieties have been obtained ; it is highly
prized in India, and is common in the warmer parts of the United States as
an orchard fruit.
1289. Use. — The peach and nectarine are dessert fruits, next in estimation
to the grape and the pine-apple ; they also make delicious preserves, and the
peach, when gathered a little before it is ripe, most excellent tarts. In the
Southern States of North America, and in some parts of France, the pulp is
fermented, and brandy obtained from it by distillation. A few of the green
leaves put into gin or whisky give these spirits the flavour of noyau. As
both the leaves and the skin of the fruit contain prussic acid, the use of the
former should not be carried to excess, and the skin of the latter should
always be removed before the pulp is eaten.
1290. Properties of a good peach or nectarine.— Flesh firm ; skin thin, of
a deep or bright red colour next the sun, and of a yellowish green on the
shady side ; pulp yellowish, full of high-flavoured juice ; the fleshy part
thick, and the stone small.
1291. Varieties. — These are naturally arranged into two divisions, peaches
and nectarines : and each of these again into freestones or melters (peches,
fr., the peach, and peches lisses, fr., for the nectarine) ; and clingstones
(pavies,/r. for the peach, and brugnons,/r. for the nectarine) ; the flesh of
the former parting readily from the stone, and that of the latter adhering to
it. There are upwards of fifty kinds of peach and nectarine in nursery
catalogues, but the few of decided excellence are included in the following
selection by Mr. Thompson. They are all free-stones or melters ; few or no
clingstone peaches or nectarines being thought worthy of cultivation in British
gardens.
1292. Select Peaches arranged in the order of their ripening.
Grosse Mignonne, syn. French Mignonne, and above thirty other syno-
nymes. Large, flatly globose, greenish yellow and deep purplish red,
dotted, flesh melting, yellowish white, red at the stone ; rich and vinous ;
middle of August to the beginning of September. A very good bearer, forces
well, and is not subject to mildew.
Red Magdalen, syn. Madeleine de Courson, &c. Middle size, round, pale
yellow and red, dotted, flesh melting, white, slightly tinged with red at the
stone ; rich and vinous ; end of August to the beginning of September ; the
tree is a good bearer, but requires a favourable situation, whether on a south
wall or a peach-house.
Royal George, syn. Madeleine a petites fleurs, &c. Middle size, round,
flesh melting, whitish and dotted, deep red, rich and excellent; early in August
and beginning of September. The tree is a good bearer, and forces well, but
apt to mildew ; in other respects this is one of the best of peaches.
Noblesse, syn. Vanguard, &c. Large, roundish, pale greenish yellow and
red, clouded with darker red, flesh melting, greenish white to the stone ;
rich and excellent ; end of August to the beginning of September. A good
bearer and forces well.
, Malta, syn. Belle de Paris. Large, roundish, or somewhat obovate,
pale greenish yellow, clouded with red ; flesh greenish white, rich ; end of
August or beginning of September ; tree hardy, a good bearer ; the fruit
588 THE PEACH
bears carriage well, and will keep longer after being gathered than perhaps
any other variety.
Barrington, syn. Buckingham Mignonne. Large, roundish; pale yellow
and red, flesh white, rayed with red at the stone, melting and rich ; middle
of September ; a good bearer.
Bellegarde, syn. Galande, &c. Large, round, deep red clouded with
> darker red, flesh melting, white, rayed with red at the stone ; excellent ;
beginning to the middle of September. A very good bearer, forces well, and
altogether a most excellent peach.
Late Admirable, syn. Royal, &c. Large, roundish, greenish yellow,
clouded with red, flesh melting, white, red at the stone ; excellent ; middle
^ to the end of September. A good bearer, and the best late peach.
1293. Select Nectarines, arranged in the order of their ripening.
Elruge, syn. Claremont, &c. Middle size, somewhat oval, pale green and
w deep violet ; flesh melting, pale to the stone ; tender and delicious ; end of
August to the beginning of September. A very good bearer, and one of the
most valuable of nectarines.
Violette Hdtive, syn. Hampton Court, &c. Middle size, roundish ovate,
pale green and dark violet, flesh melting, pale green rayed with red at the
stone ; of highly excellent flavour ; end of August to the beginning of Sep-
tember. The tree a very good bearer. This and the preceding sort are the
two best nectarines in general cultivation.
New White, syn. Flanders, &c. Large, roundish, white, tinged with red;
flesh melting, white, tender, vinous ; end of August to the beginning of
September. A good bearer, but being rather tender it should be budded on
some hardy peach or nectarine. A tree of this variety at Butleigh, in
Devonshire, completely covers a wall twelve feet high to the extent of forty-
four feet; it is trained in Mr. Callow's manner (803 and 1297), and its
produce, when thinned to four feet per square foot, is from one hundred and
fifty to one hundred and eighty dozen ; a quantity not unusual for it to bear.
(G. M., vol. x., p. 38).
Pitmaston Orange. — Large, roundish ovate, orange yellow, and brownish
red ; flesh melting ; orange-red close to the stone ; rich and sweet ; begin-
ning of September. A very good bearer, and a vigorous tree.
1294. Peaches and Nectarines for a wall to come in, in succession, from
the beginning of August to the end of September, arranged in the order of
their ripening. Peaches : — Early Anne, t Gross mignonne, * Royal George,
* Double montagne, * Noblesse, * Malta, * Royal Charlotte, t Bellegarde,
Barrington, t Late Admirable. Of those marked *, two or three plants
may be planted ; and of those marked t, three or four, according to the
extent of the wall devoted to this fruit. The best Nectarines for a wall
are, the t Elruge and t Violette Hative. A more extended selection of
Peaches and Nectarines for a wall has been already given (888).
1295. Peaches for a cold late situation. — Acton Scot, which ripens about
London in the end of August, and is a very hardy tree ; the Bellegarde, and
the Malta, included in our first list (1292).
1296. A selection of Peaches for forcing. — Bellegarde, Noblesse, Grosse
mignonne, Royal George, Royal Charlotte, and Barrington (see 992).
1297. Propagation and nursery culture. — Budding on plum stocks is the
general practice ; but some of the more delicate kinds are budded on the
almond, strong growing seedling peaches, or on the apricot. On the peach
THE PEACH AND NECTARINE. 589
stock they grow very vigorously at first, but do not long continue to thrive.
For general purposes the plum stock is by far the best, as from its abundance
of roots it transplants readily; while the roots of the almond and peach, being
few and very remote, they transplant with difficulty. The French gardeners
use the almond stock for light chalky or sandy soils, and the plum stock for
clayey or loamy soils. When the plants are not removed the first year to
where they are finally to remain, they are cut down in the nursery to three
or four eyes, and the shoots produced trained in the fan manner, already
described at length (801). This may either be done in the open garden
against a row of stakes, or the plants may be removed to a wall, which is the
best mode for ripening the wood. To ensure this result the plants should
in no case be placed in very rich moist soil. An expeditious mode of
covering a wall with peach or nectarine trees, where the subsoil is dry, or
the bottom of the border paved, or rendered impervious to the roots of the
trees by other means, is thus described by a gardener who practised it in
Essex. Kernels of peaches, nectarines, or apricots, are planted underthe
walls on the spots where the trees are finally to remain, in January ; and
the plants raised are either budded with the desired sorts in the August of
the same year, or grafted in the splice manner already described (652) in
the following March. When budding is employed, the point of the shoot
produced by the bud is pinched off after it has grown six inches or eight
inches in length, and only five buds are allowed to push ; the five shoots
produced by these buds are shortened with the finger and thumb to five
inches or six inches in length, and these being disbudded, so as to admit of
only two shoots from each, a complete fan-shaped tree is produced in one
season. These trees bear the third year, and those which are grafted bear
the second. (G. M., vol. ii., p. 149.) A wall might be covered with equal
expedition by stopping the shoots of seedlings in the same manner as the
shoot produced by a bud ; but in this case there is the risk of some, or
perhaps most, of the sorts, not proving so good as some of the old established
kinds. The quickest mode of proving the quality of peaches, or of the fruit
of other trees raised from seed, is to take a bud from them, and insert it near
the extremity of a lateral branch of a tree of the same species (045-2).
Budded on the Moor-park apricot, the flavour of the peach is said to bo
greatly improved ; on the mirabelle or mirabolan plum, the tree is some-
what dwarfed (1205).
1298, Soil, situation^ fyo. — A fresh loamy soil on a dry bottom answers
best, and care should be taken not to enrich the soil so much by manure as
to occasion the production of longer shoots than can be properly ripened. In
few situations should the peach border be more than eighteen inches or two
feet in depth, and it need not be more than ten. feet or twelve feet in width,
even when the walls are fifteen feet in height. (See 886.) The peach in
Britain is almost always planted against a south wall, but in some sheltered
situations it will succeed on a south -east or south-west aspect. Against a
south-west wall the blossoms are more liable to be injured by the heavy
rains from that quarter, and the shoots are apt to grow stronger, in which
case they ought to be laid in more horizontally than in the case of a wall
facing the south. Mr. Glendinning recommends all peach walls to be covered
with horizontal copper wires, extended longitudinally at six inches or seven
inches" distance, and fastened to oast-iron eyes driven into the wall. The
advantage is, that a man can tie two trees to the wires with bast ligaments,
QQ
590 THE PEACH AND NECTARINE.
in the same time that he can nail one tree to the bricks. When nails and
shreds are used, he prefers the latter of a dark colour, and narrower than
are generally used, because they look neater, and they last long enough, as
they are never applied a second time. Where the peach is grown only for
tarts it may be tried as an espalier. Where there is a choice of plants from
a nursery, trees three or four years trained, if grafted on plum stocks, may be
chosen, and the trees, if carefully removed in October or November, will
bear a few fruit next year. " In planting never dig a pit, because, by the
sinking of the loose soil the tree will in two or three years be much too deep;
spread the roots carefully out on the surface of the border, and cover them
three inches with soil." This is Mr. Glendinning's mode with the peach, and
it would be an immense advantage to adopt it in the case of all fruit trees
and fruit shrubs whatever, which are planted on newly-trenched ground.
Where a wall to be covered with peaches is upwards of twelve feet high,
riders may be planted as before recommended (889), and these should always
be trees which have been several years trained, the object being to cover the
walls as soon as possible. Permanent dwarf trees may be planted at fourteen
feet to twenty feet apart, according as the wall is twelve feet or fifteen feet
in height. (See 890.)
1299. Mode of bearing, pruning, 8$c. — The blossom-buds in all the differ-
ent varieties of peach, nectarine, and almond, are produced almost exclu-
sively on the wood of the preceding year ; and that wood seldom produces
blossom a second time. There are, however, occasional small spurs produced
on two-year-old wood, but these cannot be reckoned on. The great art in
pruning the peach, therefore, is to produce an annual crop of young wood
all over the tree, which can only be done by shortening back lateral shoots
on every part of it. In the course of the spring and summer, all the shoots
that are not wanted to bear the following year should be disbudded (771),
that is, entirely removed as soon as the buds begin to expand; and in the course
of the winter pruning following, all the shoots left ought to be shortened
according to their strength and situation, the weakest cut to one or two buds,
the less weak to one half or more of their length, and the strongest shortened
one-fourth or one-third of their length. According to the common mode of
fan- training (801), Callow's mode (803), and Hay ward's mode (804), these
shoots are left all over the tree, as equally as can be done by the eye, or as
the shoots produced admit of; but, according to Seymour's mode of training
(802), they are left at regular and fixed distances, and the buds being all
removed between these fixed points, no laterals are produced anywhere else ;
so that the tree once fully formed on this system, nothing can be more
regular than its future treatment. Notwithstanding these advantages,
Seymour's system has not been adopted to such an extent as might have
been expected ; and the same remark is applicable to Mr. Callow's system,
which we agree, with Mr. Glendinning (see an excellent article on the cul-
ture of the peach on open walls in the G. M. for 1841), appears a great
improvement on the common fan mode of training.
1300. Mr. Callows mode of training. — By the common fan manner of
training, Mr. Callow found that the lower branches soon became weak,
from having been laid in at a less angle than the others, which deprived them
of their due proportion of sap. While striving to obviate this difficulty, he
was struck with the form of the lower branches of some elms, which, though
they projected ever so far horizontally, still had their extremities always
THE PEACH AND NECTARINE. 591
inclined upwards. Taking these branches for his guide, he altered his mode
of training, and, by turning up the extremities of the branches, so as to give
all an equal inclination and equal curvature, convex towards the horizontal
line of the earth, he was enabled to maintain all parts of the tree in e^ual
vigour. This mode of training, which he adopted about 1800, has continued
to be his practice ever since, and under it the trees have grown to a large size,
and have continued in a full state of health to a considerable age. By the
adoption of this very simple and natural system of training, Mr. Glendinning,
who adopted it extensively at Bicton in 1832, observes, various inexplicable
failures will be avoided ; such as premature decay, an unequal quantity of
young wood in the centre of the tree, and the constant and grievous calamity
of losing the entire under limbs, which completely disfigures the tree for ever.
Hay ward's mode of training is founded on the same principle as Mr. Callow's,
viz. that the sap will always flow in the greatest quantity to the most vertical
buds.
1301. Shortening the young wood of the peach. — This is practised by all
the different modes of training that are or ever have been used in Britain.
The effect of shortening the shoots of the peach is not merely to throw more
sap into the fruit, but to add vigour to the tree generally, by increasing the
power of the roots relatively to the branches. The peach being a short-
lived tree, it has been justly remarked by Mr. Thompson, were it allowed
to expend all the power of its accumulated sap every year, it would soon
exhaust itself, and die of old age ; as the standard peach trees do in a few
years in the unpruned American orchards, and in those of Italy, and as the
almond does in the neighbourhood of Lyons and Vienna. No tree is so apt,
as the peach, to produce over-luxuriant shoots, technically water-shoots, or
gourmands. These may always be known by the extraordinary vigour of
their commencement, which is almost always from latent buds after the
regular buds of the tree have been developed. These buds ought to be
rubbed off immediately, and as fast as they appear, in order to throw the sap
which would have been wasted by them into the other parts of the tree ; or
if the entire tree is too strong, the shoots may be left to grow, care being
taken to disleaf them (772) as fast as they advance, in order that no new
sap may be generated. Besides these over-luxuriant shoots, others will arise
not suitably situated ; as when they come on the main stem, or on the fronts
of the branches, technically fore-right shoots ; all of which ought to be
rubbed off, retaining only such as are required to bear fruit the following
year ; such as may be wanted to supply the place of a branch which has
been or is to be cut out ; such as may be wanted for propagation, and such
as are terminal, unless the tree has attained its utmost limits when the ter-
minal shoots may be stopped at two or three joints. What is called the
summer pruning of peach trees, commences as early in spring as the leaf-
buds can be distinguished from the blossom-buds, when all that are not
wanted of either should be rubbed off; and it continues till the fall of tho
leaf, immediately after which the winter pruning may be performed, but
should not be deferred later than February. In winter pruning the rule, as
in all similar cases, is to cut to a leaf-bud, and as this sometimes is situated
between twin blossom-buds, care must be taken not to injure the latter, as
it is in such situations that the fruit is produced with least expense of sap
to the tree ; the branch attracting sap to the fruit from the root, and also
returning sap to it from the leaves. When there is only one blossom-
Q Q 2
592 THE PEACH AND NECTARINE,
bud, a shoot is as necessary for it as if there had been two. In either case
the shoot may be shortened to three or four leaves after the fruit is stoned,
which will be quite sufficient to maintain a circulation of the sap in connec-
tion with the fruit.
1302. In summer-pruning the peach in cold, late situations, it is found
that stopping the shoots, when they are an inch or two in length, facilitates
the production of blossom-buds and the ripening of the wood. The French
method of disbudding in spring and summer, and pinching off with the finger
and thumb in the latter season, instead of leaving the young shoots to
become woody, and afterwards using the knife, and also their mode of
pinching off the blossom-buds, instead of allowing more blossoms than are
wanted to set their fruit, and afterwards thinning it out, and of taking out
all the leaf-buds not wanted as soon as they have swelled a little, so as to
have very few shoots to remove, well deserves to be imitated by the British
gardener. A French gardener seldom uses his knife to a peach-tree in the
summer season ; and, indeed, if he were to allow as much of the strength of
the tree to run to waste hi fruits to be thinned out, and shoots to be cut away
in winter, his borders, which are narrow, shallow, and poor compared with
those in British gardens, would be unable to support the tree.
1303. Thinning the fruit must be attended to when the blossoms have
not been thinned, or not thinned sufficiently : it should commence when the
fruit are about the size of large peas, and be continued till the stoning season
is over. Healthy trees may be allowed to ripen four peaches to every
square foot. The smaller the number and the larger the size, the less will
the tree be exhausted in proportion to the weight of fruit produced ; for, as
we have already observed, a greater exhaustion is produced by the seed and
stone than by their fleshy envelope. Ten dozen of peaches, weighing 12 Ibs.,
will exhaust the tree nearly twice as much as five dozen amounting to the
same weight.
1304. Treatment of the peach border. — The peach, as well as most other
wall-fruit trees, Mr. Errington, Mr. Glendinning, and Bother scientific and
experienced gardeners, observe, is most commonly planted in borders far too
deep and too rich. If a good loamy soil from the surface of an old pasture-
ground can be procured, and if the border is not cropped, it will require no
manure for several years. If the soil is either poor at first, or becomes poor,
bone manure may be applied, as decomposing slowly; or if the trees become
weak, the surface may be annually mulched with stable dung. All fruit-
tree borders, Mr. Glendinning observes, should be occasionally forked up ;
but no spade should ever be used for this purpose, not even among goose-
berry bushes ; for more injury is done by it than most people are aware of.
No vegetables should ever be cultivated in fruit-tree borders, more especially
none that require manure, Mr. Callow stirs his peach borders with the
fork frequently during the summer months i digs them slightly with the
spade in winter, laying the soil up in ridges i and he never sows or plants
vegetables on peach borders, except a few lettuce or endive near the walk.
Throughout the summer the peach border will require occasional watering,
more especially when the fruit is approaching to maturity ; but water ought
to be withheld when it is atoning and when it is ripening ; as in the former
case it ia found to cause the fruit to drop.
1305. Over Jwvurfantpmeh trmst may be reduced by disloafing, root -pruning
(776)} or, what ia perhaps the best mode, especially if the tree has been too
THE PEACH AND NECTARINE.
693
deep planted, or that effect has been produced by the sinking of the tree or
the raising of the border, by taking up and replanting, bringing the roots
within six inches of the surface. The operation may be performed in autumn
immediately after the fall of the leaf; and during next summer the surface
of the border should be well mulched to retain moisture and encourage the
production of fibres.
1306. Old decaying peach trees may sometimes be renovated by cutting
them down and renewing the soil, but in general it is far better to root them
out and plant young trees.
1307. Protecting peach trees during winter and spring. — In cold elevated
situations some gardeners protect the branches of their peach trees from
severe frost by tucking in among them branches of broom, birch, or beech,
which serve to check the radiation of heat from the wall. Others, when
the branches are frozen, water them well before sunrise, which, when the
vegetable tissue is not too far ruptured by frost, saves the branches from
injury by thawing them more gradually than the sun would do, as well
as by supplying moisture for evaporation. Mr. Barren, at Elvaston Castle,
in Derbyshire, a low moist situation, found his peaches, apricots, and plums
very subject to the gum, and to die off by whole branches at a time.
Suspecting that this might be owing to the effect of the frost on the imper-
fectly ripened wood, he hung up netting made of hay ropes before the trees,
and at about one foot distance from them, in the beginning of winter, leaving
them on all spring, and has never since experienced these evils. The
blossoms of peach trees are also protected by tucking hi branches of spruce-
fir, birch, or beech, which have been cut in summer, and dried and stacked
on purpose, and which having been so treated retain their leaves ; and also
yew branches, the leaves of which do not drop off like those of the pine and
fir tribe. The best protection of this kind, however, is afforded by the leaves
of common fern, tucked in along the shoots as shown in fig. 376. The
Fig. 376i Branch of a peach-tree, with the young wood protected by fern.
stalk of the leaf is introduced into a shred at the base of the lateral
shoot which is to bear the fruit, and the point of it is brought to the point
of the lateral ; it is there wound once or twice round the nail near the point
of the shoot, taking care to reserve an inch or two of the point of the frond to
be turned in between the point of the shoot and the wall, which is a sufficient
fastening if properly done. As soon as the fruit is set the fern is removed.
The most efficient mode, however, of protecting the peach and all other
wall-fruit trees, is by a thin canvas covering let down from a temporary
wooden coping, as used in the Horticultural Society's Garden (463). Another
very good mode is that which is described as adopted by Mr. Callow. Iron
rods are attached horizontally to the temporary coping, from which bunt-
594 THE PEACH AND NECTARINE.
ing is suspended by rings; each piece of bunting is of the size of the
tree ; and in the day-time it is drawn from the sides to the middle, and
fastened to the wall till near sunset, when it is spread out again. A very
efficient mode is to cover the wall with double netting, and allow it to remain
on till the fruit is fairly set. This mode dispenses with much daily labour,
and, like the thin canvas, protects the blossoms from the frequently too
powerful rays of the sun, which, striking against a south wall, is more than
the peach, as a standard in its native country, has to bear at the blossoming
period of the season.
1308. Growing the peach on a flued wall. — When this is the case, fire
should not be applied till after the fruit has stoned, the object being not to
force forward the blossoming of the trees in spring, but to accelerate the
ripening of the fruit and wood in autumn. The maturation of the wood
may, in some cases, require the border to be thatched to throw off heavy
rains, and lessen the flow of moisture to the shoots.
1309. The acceleration of the ripening of a crop of peaches on a common
wall has been effected by covering the border, to the width of five or six feet
from the bottom of the wall, -with tiles; the reflection of the heat from
which has been found by Mr. Barron (G. M. 1840,) to ripen the fruit
in the lower part of the wall, a fortnight before that on the upper part.
The retardation of a crop may be effected on the same principle, by inter-
posing a screen of canvas, or boards, or any other convenient medium
between the trees and the sun. It should, however, be placed merely as a
screen, and not as a preventive against the escape of radiant heat from
the wall and ground, a principal object in spring covering ; when retardation
is required, the screen should be placed so as to intercept the sun's rays,
leaving at the same time an opening at top for the escape of radiant heat.
1310. Gathering should take place a day or two before the fruit is to be
used, and before it is dead ripe, and it should be laid on clean paper in the
summer fruit-room. Peaches may be gathered in the heat of the day
without any deterioration of flavour ; in this respect they are very different
from such northern fruits as the gooseberry, currant, and strawberry, which
should be gathered in the morning. Provision for the dropping of ripe fruit
should be made as already directed (998).
1311. Diseases, Insects, 3$c. — The peach and nectarine are liable to the
honey-dew, mildew, gum, blister, and canker. The mildew may be de-
stroyed by watering the leaves and dusting them with sulphur ; but little
can be done with the other diseases, excepting taking care that the regimen
is suitable. The blister (la cloque, Fr.) is produced by cold when the leaves
are just expanding, and it thickens and distorts them in such a manner, as to
prevent the proper elaboration of the sap. Nothing can be done with them but
taking them off, as soon as warmer weather favours the production of healthier
foliage. Lifting the trees and replanting them in fresh soil, and taking care
that the shoots are annually thoroughly ripened, will check incipient canker
and gum, and enable trees tainted with these diseases to continue bearing for
some years longer than they otherwise would have done. The red spider,
the chermes, the black and green aphis, and the coccus, attack the peach.
The last should be washed off by syringing with soft-soap and water, or
with clear water, and a hard brush. The chermes is the cause of the
leaves rising into unsightly red blister-like tubercles, and can only be de-
stroyed by the use of tobacco- water, which, after it has taken effect, may be
THE ALMOND. 595
washed off with clear water. The curled leaves, however, being better than
no leaves at all, should not be taken off till the shoot has elongated and pro-
duced two or three perfect leaves. For the other insects mentioned, wash-
ing abundantly with lime-water, or even with common clear water, will in
general keep them under. In order to destroy the eggs of insects which
may be deposited on the branches, many gardeners wash them over after the
spring pruning with a mixture of lime-water, so thick as to act like white-
wash, and form an incrustation on the shoots, which prevents or retards the
hatching of the eggs by the exclusion of air ; others use a mixture of soft-
soap, sulphur, lime, and soot, which destroys the eggs ; and some use soft-
soap and sulphur alone. In general, however, where the trees and soil are
in a good state, and their treatment proper, the free use of clear water will
answer the purpose of all other washes. Woodlice, earwigs, the large blue
fly, and wasps, attack the fruit when it is ripening, and may be collected by
means of bundles of bean-stalks or reeds, flower-pots partially stuffed with
hay, and glasses or bottles of sugared water. See the Chapter on Insects.
1312. The essential points of peach culture are thus given by Mr. Callow,
already mentioned : — " Use a strong loam for the border ; never crop it ;
add no manure ; keep the trees thin of wood by disbudding and the early
removal of useless wood ; shorten each shoot according to its strength, at the
spring pruning ; elevate the ends of the leading branches so that they may
all form the same curvilinear inclination with the horizon ; and, what is of
the utmost importance in the culture of the peach, at all times keep the trees
in a clean and healthy state." — (Gard. Mag. vol. x. p. 40.)
1313. Forcing the peach and nectarine. — See 989 to 1017.
SUBSECT. III. — The Almond.
1314. The Almond, Amygdalus L. (Amandier, Fr. ; Mandelbaum, Ger.;
Amandelboom, Dutch; Mandorlo, Ital. ; and Almendro, Span.; Arb. Brit.
vol. ii. p. 674 ; and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 263), is a deciduous
tree, a native of Persia and other Eastern countries, closely resembling the
peach, and supposed, as we have already observed (1286), to be that fruit
in its unimproved state. There are two kinds — the common or sweet
almond, (A. communis, L.\ and the bitter almond (A. c. amara, Dec.)
Though these sorts are kept nominally distinct, yet when either are raised
from seed, both bitter and sweet almonds are frequently found on the
same tree; and this is frequently the case even with grafted varieties.
Of both the bitter and the sweet almond, the kernel of the stone is the only
part used ; that of the sweet almond is brought to the dessert in an imper-
fectly ripe, and also in a ripe, and in a dried state. Both kinds are culti-
vated in the south of Europe, and in the Levant. The kernels are much
used in cookery, confectionery, perfumery, and medicine. The varieties
best deserving culture are, the tender-shelled, the fruit of which is small ;
the sweet, which is larger ; and the Jordan, which is also large and sweet.
These and all the other varieties are propagated by budding on the plum, and
sometimes on seedling almonds for dry situations. The trees are commonly
grown as standards, and as such will ripen fruit in fine seasons as far north
as York ; but at Edinburgh they require a wall. In Britain, the tree is
more valued for its blossoms than for its fruit ; but nevertheless, in every
suburban garden, where there is room, there ought to be a tree or two for
the latter purpose, as well as several for the former.
.
596 THE APRICOT,
SUBSECT. IV. — The Apricot.
1315. The Apricot, Armemaca vulgaris, Lam. (Abricotier, JPV. / Apriko-
senbaum, Ger.; Abrikoos, Dutch; Albicocco, Ital. ; and Albarico-gueira,
Span. ; Arb. Brit. vol. ii. p. G82 ; and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 267),
is a low deciduous tree, a native of Caucasus, very extensively distributed
through the countries of the East, and cultivated in European gardens
from the time of the Romans. In British gardens the apricot is the earliest
wall-fruit, flowering with the sloe in March, ripening about the end of July,
and supplying the dessert till the middle of September. Its uses are the
same as the peach ; in addition to which it makes excellent marmalades,
jellies and preserves, and tarts even when gathered green, and of the
smallest size. In the Oases of Upper Egypt the fruit of a particular variety
called the Musch-Musch, is produced in great quantities and dried, so as to
form an article of commerce.
1316. — Varieties. These are much less numerous than those of the peach.
The following selection is by Mr. Thompson.
Large early, syn. Abricot gros precoce. Large, somewhat oblong, com-
pressed, bright orange red next the sun, elsewhere pale orange ; flesh juicy
and rich; ripens about the middle of July. The earliest large sort of
apricot.
Royal. Large, roundish oval, resembling the Moorpark in appearance and
equalling it in richness of flavour, but differs in ripening about ten days
earlier, and having no pervious channel along the edge from the base to the
apex of the stone ; ripens about the end of July or beginning of August ;
a valuable sort.
Moorpark, syn. Abricot peche, &c. Large, roundish, brownish-orange,
intermixed with ferruginous specks ; flesh very rich and juicy; stone pecu-
liarly perforated, so that a pin may be introduced from the base to the apex ;
ripens in the beginning or middle of August.
Breda, syn. Abricot de Hollande, &c. Rather small, roundish, or ob-
tusely four-sided, deep brownish orange ; flesh deep orange, juicy, rich, and
high-flavoured. Ripens from the beginning to the middle of August, on
walls, and as the tree will succeed as a standard the fruit may be obtained
at a much later period of the season ; the fruit from standards will, of course,
be smaller, but it will be richer, and it is excellent for preserving. As
the tree generally bears over-abundantly in the open ground, when the
season is favourable for the fruit setting, it requires and deserves a little
shortening and thinning of the shoots as a winter pruning.
1317. — Apricots for walls of different aspects. See p. 422.
Turkey, syn. Large Turkey. Large, roundish, deep yellow, with brown-
ish orange-red spots ; flesh pale yellow, juicy, and rich ; ripens in end of
August or beginning of September.
1318. Apricots for the walls of a Cottage. The best is the Moorpark,
which in Lincolnshire, and other parts of England, bears well on the gable
ends, and ripens early in consequence of the heat communicated to the wall
by the flue. The fruit is thinned, and the thinnings are sent to market for
tarts, and afterwards the ripe fruit, the whole producing twenty shillings or
upwards. Next to the Moorpark the Breda may be taken as the hardiest,
and the red Masculine as the earliest.
1319. — Propagation, nursery culture, §c. For dwarfs, the apricot is gene-
THE APRICOT. 597
rally budded on the muscle plum, or on any other variety ; but the Breda,
when intended for a standard, is budded on the St. Julian plum, which pro-
duces a strong clean stem. The Moorpark is sometimes budded on an
apricot stock ; and when it is wanted to have very dwarf plants, some recom-
mend budding one variety on another that has been previously budded on a
mirabelle plum. As the apricot is a very early plant, budding may be com-
menced sooner than in the case of the peach. The nursery culture is the
same as for that tree, and the plants remove equally well after being three or
four years trained.
Io20. — Final planting, pruning, §c. In the warmer parts of the country,
an east or west aspect is preferred to the south, the heat of which brings
forward the blossom too early, and renders the fruit mealy. Where the fruit
is only wanted for tarts, it may be grown as a standard or as an espalier.
It would well repay to give standards a winter pruning in order to regulate
the branches, and moderately shorten the young shoots to prevent their
becoming naked as they elongate, a tendency which both standard apricots
and peaches have in this climate. The blossom is produced chiefly on the
young shoots of the last year, but partly also upon spurs which rise on the two
or three years old shoots. The fan method of training is generally preferred ; or
the horizontal manner, with the branches elevated so as to form an angle of 22^°
with the horizon. We mention 22^° rather than 20°, because experience has
taught us that the parts into which a right angle is divided, look best when they
are halves, quarters,. or thirds. The reason seems to be that the relation of
these divisions to a right angle is more easily ascertained by the eye. In
almost every other respect, what has been advanced respecting the pruning,
training, and general management of the peach, will apply to the apricot. The
chief point of difference in the treatment required for the two trees is founded
on the precocity of the apricot, which has given rise to the following re-
marks, the scientific and experienced author of which will be readily recog-
nised by our readers. " In consequence of the tree blossoming so early, its
blossoms, particularly in the case of young trees, are extremely liable to
drop off in setting. This is not to be wondered at, when it is considered that
the ground is frequently at the time (March) in as cold a state as at any
period of the whole season, neither the sun's heat nor the warm rains having
reached so far below the surface as to warm the soil in contact with the
roots ; and thus whilst the latter are in a medium perhaps a little above
freezing, the tops, exposed to a bright sun against a wall, are at that period
of the season occasionally in a temperature as high as 90° or 100° Fahr.
The injurious effects of this disparity must be sufficiently obvious to every
one, and the only remedy to be adopted is to have a very complete drainage
below the roots, and the whole soil of the border, not retentive, but of a
pervious nature. If it could also be kept perfectly dry previous to the com-
mencement of vegetation, and then only allowed to receive the rain when
warm, avoiding the cooling effects of melting snow and hail, the tree would
thus be placed under circumstances comparatively more natural." (Penny
Cyc., vol. x., p. 500.) Thatching the border, therefore, for the sake of the
roots, and covering the branches with netting of hay ropes, may very pro-
perly l)e adopted with the apricot, in all low, cold, moist situations (838).
Naked stems or branches of apricot trees trained against a wall are apt to
be scorched to death in summer, and hence limbs or whole trees are some-
times lost. In order to prevent this, it is advisable to train shoots so as to
598 THE FIG.
protect such naked parts from the direct rays of the sun ; and if some of
these shoots should be at variance with the regular disposition of the
branches, still the mind would find sufficient compensation for the slight breach
of irregularity that might be apparent, in the discovery of design and utility.
The fruit should be gathered before it is thoroughly ripe, otherwise it is apt
to become mealy. The tree is much less subject to insects than the peach ;
probably from the more coriaceous nature of its bark and leaves. It does
not force well, but one or two plants of the red Masculine may be tried in the
peach-house.
SUBSECT. V. — The Fig,
1321. The Fig, Ficus Carica L. (Figuier, Fr.; Feigenbaum, Ger.; Vig-
genboom, Dutch ; Fico, Ital. ; and Higuera, Span. — Arb. Brit., vol. iii.,
p. 1365, and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 712), is a low, deciduous tree,
a native of Asia and Barbary, in situations near the sea, and naturalised in
Italy and the south of Europe, where it has been cultivated since the time
of the Romans, as it has been in Greece and Egypt from the earliest ages.
In British gardens the fig is chiefly cultivated under glass ; but it will arrive
at maturity on the open wall in warm situations, and indeed wherever the
grape will ripen. The fruit is of no use, except in a ripe state, when it is
much prized for the dessert by many persons, while others prefer the dried
figs of commerce. The fig is much cultivated in the south of France and
Italy, where the varieties are numerous. Among the best of those grown
in British gardens are the following : —
Brown Turkey, syn. Brown Italian. Fruit middle-sized, obovate ; skin
brown ; pulp very delicious; the plant equally desirable for growing against
a wall or hi pots.
Brunswick, syn. Madonna, &c. Fruit very large ; skin pale green on
the shaded side, next the sun of a brownish-red ; flesh pinkish, extremely
rich, sweet, and high-flavoured ; ripe the beginning and middle of August.
The leaves deeply and more beautifully divided than in any other variety.
" This," says Mr. Lindley (Guide to the Orchard, <^c.), "is one of the most
useful of the hardy figs. In a south-eastern corner, trained against a wall,
it ripens by the middle of August in even unfavourable seasons. In an
ordinary summer, in the neighbourhood of London, it begins to mature by
the beginning of that month. It is, perhaps, the largest purple fig we have,
and the most useful variety that can be selected for a small garden." At
Whiteknight's, near Reading, it ripens as a standard.
Marseilles, syn. Pocock, &c. Fruit small ; the skin pale green ; flesh
white, dry, sweet, and rich ; ripe in August ; succeeds well in the highest
temperature of a pine-stove, in which it was for many years cultivated by
the late Mr. Knight, of Downton Castle. On the open wall it is but an
indifferent bearer.
Nerii. Fruit rather less than the Marseilles, and more long in shape ;
skin pale greenish-yellow ; pulp similar in colour to that of a pomegranate ;
much the richest fig known in Britain ; there is in its juice a slight degree
of very delicate acid, which renders it peculiarly agreeable to most palates ;
succeeds best under glass, in a low temperature.
Pregussata. Fruit large ; skin reddish -purple ; pulp deep red ; remark-
ably sweet and rich ; seeds unusually small ; ripe from August to October.
Small brown Ischia. Fruit small ; skin brown ; pulp purple, of a very
THE POMEGRANATE. 599
high flavour ; leaves less divided than most other sorts ; ripe late in Sep-
tember.
Yellow Ischia, syn. Cyprus. Fruit large; skin yellow ; pulp purple and
well-flavoured; leaves large, and not much divided; ripe in September;
the tree grows luxuriantly, but does not produce much fruit in England.
1322. Selections of the best figs for forcing are enumerated, p. 486 ;
those adapted for walls of different aspects, p. 422 ; the best for a cold, late
situation are, the brown Turkey, the small green, and black Ischia : the
first much the best.
1323. Propagation, culture, $c. — The fig roots readily from cuttings of
the ripened wood, and it may be also budded or grafted, and trained in the
nursery like any other fruit-tree. Young plants, however, of two or three
years' growth are preferable for removal, as the fig is then very abundantly
furnished with fibrous roots. It requires a south wall, and a light soil tho-
roughly drained, to which, however, water of the same temperature as the
soil must be abundantly supplied as soon as the first leaves are expanded,
when the fruit is setting ; for if the roots are too dry at that time, the fruit
will drop off. The fan mode of training is most suitable ; and as the fruit
in the open air is produced on the points of last year's shoots, a number of
such shoots should be preserved all over the tree. See on this subject what
has already been stated on the treatment of the fig under glass (1032). The
ripening of the fig might be accelerated by planting it against a flued wall,
and by protecting the wood by fern, spruce branches, or hay -rope netting,
(1320). In some parts of the south of England the fig is grown on espaliers,
and as a standard ; and when the winters are mild, it bears abundantly when
so treated. It succeeds remarkably well at Tarring and Lancing in a loamy
soil on chalk; and in the gardens of Arundel Castle, in the same county,
the standard fig-trees are as large as full grown apple-trees. Care should be
taken in gathering the fruit not to destroy the bloom, nor to crush it by
laying one above another. They will keep good only for two or three
days.
The culture of the fig under glass, is given in p. 485.
SUBSECT. VI. — The Pomegranate.
1324. The Pomegranate, Punica Granatum, L. (Grenadier, Fr.; Grana-
tenbaum, Ger. ; Granaatboom, Dutch ; Melagrano, Ital. ; and Granado,
Span. — Arb. Brit., vol. ii., p. 939, and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 456)
is a low, deciduous tree, in its form and mode of growth not unlike the
common hawthorn. It is a native of the south of Europe and other warm
countries ; and has been long cultivated in the north of France as a green-
house tree, in the same manner as the orange, for the beauty of its fruit.
This also was formerly the case in England, but at present the pomegranate
is with us entirely neglected. As it is a most ornamental fruit both on the
tree and at table ; and as it can be brought to maturity against a south wall
in situations where the fig will ripen, we would recommend one plant to be
tried wherever there is room. Plants of the cultivated pomegranate will be
best obtained from Genoa, where it is propagated by layers and cuttings and
by grafting on the common sort. It may be trained in the fan manner,
taking care to leave a sufficient number of lateral spurs, on the points of the
shoots proceeding from which the blossom is produced. The ripening of the
fruit might be greatly accelerated by planting the tree against a flued wall,
600 THE PINE-APPLE.
and as the tree is greatly injured by such a winter as that of 1837-8, it
might be advisable to protect the wood during winter by hay-rope netting.
SUBSECT. VII. — The Peruvian Cherry.
1325. The Peruvian Cherry, Physalis peruviana, is a biennial, a native of
Buenos Ayres, Lima, and other parts of South America, where it grows
from six feet to ten feet high. It is occasionally cultivated in British stoves
and forcing-houses for its fruit, which is produced through the winter as well
as during summer, and tastes exactly like that of the hardy species (1267).
It is commonly trained against a trellis, on the back of an early forced vinery
or peach-house ; but, treated like the capsicum or love-apple, it will ripen
its fruit in abundance, during summer, against a south wall.
SECT. III. — Tropical or Sub-tropical Fruits.
1326. The fruits which we include in this section are such as require to
be grown entirely or chiefly under glass, viz. : the pine-apple, banana, the
orange and lemon tribe, the melon and cucumber, and some fruits not in
general cultivation, but which may be tried by the curious amateur.
SUBSECT. I. — The Pine-apple.
1327. The Pine-apple, Ananassa sativa, Lindl. (Ananas, Fr.; Ger.; and
Ital.; Pijn appel, Dutch; and Pina, Span.), is a low evergreen shrub, a
native of South America, the natural history of which having been given in
p. 443, we have only here to describe the varieties best worth cultivating.
1328. Pines cultivated chiefly for their high flavour.
The Queen. One of the best varieties at present known for general cul-
tivation. It grows freely, fruits early, and, being higher flavoured than
many of the larger kinds, is still the most valuable for a small family.
Exposed to a very high temperature in the months of June, July, and
August, it is liable to become hollow near the core, but early or later in the
season it is not subject to that defect. It is the sort generally grown by
gardeners for the London market. The Ripley Queen, a slight variety of
the common Queen, is probably the best ; the leaves are greener and broader,
and it does not throw up so many suckers.
The Moscow Queen. An excellent variety, but rather a slow grower; the
fruit is about the same size as the common Queen, but superior to it in
flavour.
The Slack Jamaica. An excellent fruit at all seasons of the year, but
particularly in the winter months, when pines rarely come to perfection ; it
cuts firm to the core, is highly flavoured, keeps some time after it is fully
ripe, and bears carriage better than any other variety. It is, however, rather
a slow grower, and the fruit seldom attains a large size.
The Brown Sugar-loaf. The best of the sugar-loaf kind ; it is a large,
handsome, and highly- flavoured fruit, swells freely in the winter months ; its
flesh is firm and juicy.
The Black Antigua. An excellent and highly flavoured pine if cut when
it begins to turn from green to yellow, but if allowed to remain on the plant
until it is quite ripe it loses all its richness.
1329. Pines cultivated chiefly for their large size*
The Enville. Deserving a place in collections as one of the handsomest
THE BANANA. 601
pines in cultivation ; although it is neither rich nor highly-flavoured. The
crowns are often cock's-comb like.
The White Providence. May be grown to a large size, and the shape is
very handsome, but the flavour inferior.
The Trinidad, syn. Pitch Lake Pine. Said to be grown in the island of
Trinidad to the weight of 26 Ibs. In England it has been grown to the weight
of 5 Ibs. or 6 Ibs., and of that size the flavour is good.
1330. Culture. This is given at length in Sect. I., p. 443, and we shall here
give a general summary. Plant in turfy, rich, but not adhesive loam, well
enriched with rotten stable dung or old night soil ; plunge the pots in tan or
leaves, or some other medium that will produce, or at least retain heat. At no
period, either of winter or summer, allow the temperature of the air of the
house to fall lower than 70°, but in summer let it rise for the Queen varieties
as high as 80° or 85°, and for the other sorts as high as 90° or 100° ; the
bottom heat should never be under 70°, and it may rise as high as 90° when
the atmosphere is at or above that temperature ; in summer give air early
in the morning, and shut up at three in the afternoon with a high temper-
ature, syringing the plants overhead ; grow the Queen pines by themselves ;
the Black pines by themselves, as they require a higher temperature ; and
the large pines also by themselves, as they require larger pots and more room
than the other kinds. Treated in this manner pines will seldom be infested
with insects ; but if they should, the remedies have been already given (953),
To cause a pine to show fruit give it a check by withholding water for a con-
siderable time, till the leaves have become quite lax and almost flagging, and
then supply water and heat liberally.
SUBSECT. II. — The Banana.
1331. The Banana, Musa sapientum, L. (Bananier, Fr. y and Pisang,
Ger.), is a scitamineous plant, the natural history and culture of which has
been already given, p. 512. Every plant throws up a single flower-stem,
which flowers and fruits ; after which the plant dies, and is succeeded by a
sucker. The fruit of none of the varieties contains seed, and hence these
suckers are the only means of propagation. There are several species or
varieties, but those best worth cultivating in BritahVare the M. s. Cavendishii,
syn., M. s. chinensis, and the M. s. dacea, both already noticed, and the M. s.
St. Helenensis, to be afterwards described. Several other kinds have been
fruited in the Edinburgh Botanic garden, and in the stove of Sir George
Thomas Staunton, at Leigh Park, Hampshire, but the above three sorts are
best worth cultivating for their fruit, (See J. M4Nab and R. Carter, in
G. M. 1842.)
Musa sapientum, var. St, Hekntnsis^ the St. Helena Banana, grows to
the height of fourteen feet. The usual weight of each bunch of fruit is from
60 Ibs. to 80 Ibs., being double the weight of the bunches produced by any
of the other varieties that have fruited in Scotland, It was introduced from
St. Helena to the Edinburgh Botanic Garden in 1830.— (J. M4Nab, in G.
M., 1842.)
M. a. var. dacea, the dacoa Banana, is considered by Mr. M'Nab as
next in value to the St. Helena variety. Its average height of stem, in the
Edinburgh Botanic Garden, is seven feet, producing clusters from 10 Ibs. to
20 Ibs. weight. The fruit is smaller and drier than that of the St. Helena
Banana, but perhaps rather higher flavoured. At Leigh Park, this variety,
602 THE MELON.
when allowed plenty of room in a congenial climate, grows twenty feet high,
with a stem measuring three feet in circumference at the base ; leaves ten
feet long and three feet broad ; the bunch of fruit weighing above 50 Ibs.
The fruit is more pointed than that of M. s. Cavendishii, and of excellent
quality.
M. s. var. Cavendishii, syn. M. s. chinensis, the Duke of Devonshire's
Banana, is valuable on account of its fruiting at a small size, and within a
year from the time the suckers are taken off. The fruit is not so plump as
that of the two preceding varieties, and it has a great tendency to smother
one half of each cluster in the folds of the leaves, unless very great heat be
given just at the time it is developing its flower-spike.
1332. Culture, S$c. Twenty plants of Musa s. Cavendishii, may be fruited
within the year, in a pit thirty feet by fifteen feet, and the weight of fruit
produced may be from 400 Ibs. to 500 Ibs. An equal weight of pine apples
may be fruited in the same space in the same time ; but much additional
room would be required for bringing them forward, for six months at least,
before they were put into the fruiting-house. The summer temperature for
the Banana is 65° min., and 85° max., or more with sun heat. Winter
temperature, 65° min., and 75° max. The Bananas that ripen in winter
are but little inferior to the summer fruit. For other details see R. Carter,
in G. M., 1842.
SUBSECT. III. — The Melon.
1333. The Melon, Cucumis Melo L. (Melon, Fr. ; Melone, Ger. ;
Meleon, Dutch; Mellone, Ital. ; and Melon, Span.), is a trailing or climbing
tendrilled annual, the history and culture of which will be found in p. 487,
and the following are the best varieties at present in cultivation.
1334. Melons with red flesh.
Black rock, syn. Rock Cantaloup. Fruit very large, round, depressed at
both extremities, covered with knobs, or carbuncles ; weight, from 81bs. to
141bs. A large showy fruit, but of inferior flavour. The Dutch rock can-
taloup is a smaller-fruited variety, weighing from 5lbs. to 8lbs.
Early Cantaloup. Fruit small, nearly round, ribbed, but not warted ;
flavour good ; weight from 21bs. to 41bs. Valuable for its earliness and for
being a great bearer.
Netted Cantaloup, syn. White-seeded Cantaloup. Fruit round, and rather
small ; skin pale green, closely reticulated ; flesh dark reddish orange, with
a rich sugary juice ; weight, from 21bs. to 5lbs.
1335. Melons with green flesh.
Franklyns Green-flesh. Roundish, sometimes a little netted, skin green-
\c ish-yellow when ripe, flesh exceedingly tender and rich ; weight from 31bs.
to 41bs. One of the best melons for a general crop. Bailees Green-flesh is
an improved variety of this kind.
Improved Green-flesh. Roundish, not ribbed like most of the other kinds
of green-flesh ; slightly netted, skin thin, and pale yellow when ripe; flesh
thick, green, and of exquisite flavour ; weight, from 41bs. to 51bs. A good
bearer, and one of the best of cantaloup melons.
Beechwood. Oval, greenish yellow, netted ; flesh pale-green, rich and
sugary ; a good bearer, and one of the very best.
THE CUCUMBER. 603
1336. Persian Melons.
Keising Melon. Egg-shaped, about eight inches long by five inches wide
in the middle ; colour, pale yellow, netted all over ; flesh nearly white, high-
flavoured, and texture like that of a ripe Beurre pear.
Large Germek Melon. Shaped like a depressed sphere ; usually six inches
deep, and varying from seven inches to nine inches in breadth ; skin sea-
green, and closely netted ; flesh green, becoming paler toward the middle,
firm, juicy, rich, and high-flavoured ; weight from 5lbs. to 61bs. ; ripens
early, and a good bearer.
Green Hoosaince Melon. Egg-shaped ; five inches long by four inches
broad ; skin light-green, netted ; flesh pale greenish- white, tender, full of
pleasant, sweet juice. Hardy, and a great bearer.
Persian Pine-apple Melon. Ovate, netted ; skin of a deep colour when
ripe ; flesh granulated, the juice not so luscious as in some other varieties ;
weight about 31bs. A handsome variety.
Sweet Ispahan. Fruit ovate, from eight inches to twelve inches long ;
skin nearly smooth, of a deep sulphur colour ; flesh white, extending about
half way to its centre, crisp, sugary, and very rich ; weight 51bs. to Gibs.
1337. Winter Melons.
Winter Melons are but little cultivated in England, but they are
common in the south of France and Spain, and annually imported by the
fruiterers in the autumn. They are oval or oblong, netted, with white
flesh, and a sugary flavour. The two best varieties are the Dampsha, and
the Green Valencia. Both sorts have the valuable property of keeping till
the whiter months, if hung up by the stalks, or in nets, in a dry room.
1338. Water Melons.
The Water Melon is the Cucurbita citrullus, L. (Pasteque, Fr. ;
Wassermelone, Ger. ; Water-meloen, Dutch ; Cocomero, Ital. ; and Arbusi,
jRtm.) is a trailing annual, producing a large, round, smooth, dark -green
fruit, with dark seeds. It is full of watery juice, which is refreshing, but
almost without flavour. It is much cultivated hi Italy and other parts of
the south of Europe, but very rarely in England. The foliage is very orna-
mental, and the shoots extend to a great length. The time for ripening
melons to a high degree of perfection in Britain extends from about the
middle of June to the middle or latter end of September. Ripened before
or after these periods the flavour is inferior, for want of sun.
SUBSECT. IV. — The Cucumber.
1339. TheCucumber, Cucumis sativus L. (Concombre, Fr.; Gurke, Ger.;
Komkommer, Dutch; Citriuolo, Ital. ; and Pepino, or Cohombro, Span.)
is a trailing or climbing tendrilled annual, of which we have already given
the history and culture, p. 494. The varieties in cultivation are continually
changing, but those considered the best, at the present time, are the
following: —
Syon House. Skin of a smooth and shining green, with few or no spines;
usual length between eight inches and nine inches. Hardy, and a great
bearer, and, according both to Duncan and Ayres, the best of all cucumbers
for pot culture.
Hurt's Early Frame. Skin of a deep green, with black spines ; length
/
604 THE PUMPKIN AND GOURD.
from eight inches to ten inches. A very early cucumber, and well adapted
for winter forcing.
Duncan's Victoria. Skin deep green, set thickly with black spines; length
from twenty-four inches to twenty-eight inches. Mr. Duncan, who raised
this variety, has had fruit four inches long previous to the expansion of the
bloom, and twenty-four inches long in nine days from the setting! He con-
siders it one of the finest varieties of cucumber in existence.
Weedons Cucumber is an excellent kind for early forcing, and is a good
bearer; but, according to Ay res, it is neither long nor finely formed. Allen's
Victory of Suffolk Mr. Ayres considers a splendid variety ; he has grown it
to the length of twenty-four inches in the open garden, and to thirty inches
in pots. Snow's Horticultural Prize approximates to Mr. Ayres' criterion
of a perfect cucumber the nearest of any he has yet met with. The Small
Russian cucumber is considered the best for pickling, and the large white
Bonneuil for stewing.
SUBSECT. V. — The Pumpkin and Gourd.
1 340. The Pumpkin, or more properly Pompion, and Gourd, Cucurbita Z*.
(Courge, Fr.j Kiirbis, Ger.; Kauwoerde, Dutch; Zucca, Ital.; Calabaza,
Span.; and Albobaro, Port.} are trailing or climbing tendrilled annuals,
natives of tropical climates, and long in cultivation, both in the old and new
world, for their fruit. This, in some varieties, is used in a ripe state, and in
others before it is fully grown, in soups, stews, pies, tarts, boiled or fried, and
as a substitute for greens or spinach. In Hungary, sugar has been obtained
from the gourd at the rate of lOOlbs. to between 2000 Ibs. and 3000 Ibs. of
pumpkins ; and an excellent edible oil is obtained there from the seeds, at
the rate of 1 Ib. of oil to 5 Ibs. of seeds. The tender points of the shoots may
in many cases be substituted for the fruit, or used as greens or spinach. The
kinds in cultivation are very numerous, but the leading sorts are as follow : —
The Pumpkin, or Pompion, C. Pepo, L, (Potiron, Fr.; Pfebenkiirbis,
Ger. ) Large, roundish, smooth, green striped or blotched with white. The
oldest variety in cultivation in England j tender and excellent in an unripe
state as a substitute for greens, and mixed with apples in pies, but not near
so good when fully ripe.
Spanish Pumpkin., C. Pepo var. L.; Potiron d' Espagne, Fr,; Spanische
Pfebenkiirbis, Ger. Middle size, somewhat flattened ; skin green, smooth,
hard ; flesh firm, and of an excellent flavour. Said to be greatly preferable
to the preceding variety.
The Vegetable Marrow, C. ovifera, var. L.; Courge a la mobile, Fr.;
Markige Melonen-kiirbis, Ger.; Succada, Ital. Under the middle size, oval,
five inches to eight inches long ; pale yellow ; flesh tender till the fruit is
ripe, when it becomes stringy. One of the best gourds in cultivation when
used in a young state, and before the seeds begin to be matured. The sweet
gourd of Brazil closely resembles this variety both in form and properties.
The Mammoth Gourd, syn. American Gourd, C, maxima, Pepo, Dec. ;
Potiron jaune, Fr.; and Melonen-kurbis, Ger. Very large, sometimes
weighing 160 Ibs., and one has been grown of the enormous weight of 245 Ibs.,
at Luscombe, in Devonshire ; round ; fikin yellow ; flesh deep yellow, solid.
Used as a substitute tor turnips, carrots, &c., in soups and broths, and for
potatoes and other vegetables, with meat. It is only used when ripe, and
in that state will keep several months, even though a portion should be cut
THE PUMPKIN AND GOURD. 605
off for use every day. The Harrison pumpkin is a new American variety of
the Mammoth, supposed to be the most productive known.
The Squash-melon pumpkin, or bush gourd, C. Melopepo, L. ; Courge
melonee, Fr. ; Melonen-kiirbis, Ger. Middle size ; round ; skin yellow
when ripe. Chiefly used in a green state when of the size of a hen's egg.
Much cultivated in America as food, for men, cattle, and swine. The early
orange squash is mentioned by Kenrick (American Orchardist, 1841. p. 370),
as a new summer variety; very early, and of superior quality. The Canada
crook-neck, he says, is, without doubt, superior to any and all others for a
late or main crop : the fruit, in a dry and mild temperature, will keep till
the following summer. The seeds of these two varieties, we believe, may be
obtained of Mr. Charlwood.
The Turban pumpkin, or Turk's-cap, C. Pepo, var. clypeata, L. ; Gerau-
mon turban, or'Patisson, Fr.; Pastenkiirbis, Ger.; and Zucca Gerusalemme,
Ital.; the warted gourd, C. verrucosa, L.; the orange gourd, C. aurantia,
L.; the bottle gourd, or false calabash, C. Lagenaria, L. , Lagenaria vul-
garis, var. turbinata, Ser. ; and various other sorts to be found in nursery-
men's catalogues, — are cultivated chiefly as ornamental fruits. The fruit of
the orange gourd is bitter ; and that of the bottle gourd is said by Dr. Royle
(Botany of the Himalayas, &c., vol. i., p. 219) to be poisonous. The bottle
gourd is at first long and cylindrical, like a cucumber, but as it ripens, it
swells chiefly at the upper end, thus acquiring the form of a Venetian bottle.
After being gathered, the end of the neck where it was attached to the plant
is cut off, the pulp and seeds carefully taken out, and the interior repeatedly
washed, so as to remove the bitter principle which constitutes the poison.
1341. Culture. All the sorts are propagated exclusively by seeds, which,
being large, require to be covered with nearly an inch of soil. They may
be sown in April, in a hotbed, under glass, or in a stove, to raise plants for
transferring to the open garden, at the end of May, under a warm aspect ; or
for planting out in the middle of May, on a ridge of hot dung, under a
hand-glass or half-shelter : otherwise sow, at the beginning of May, under a
hand-glass, without bottom heat, for transplanting into a favourable situa-
tion ; or sow three weeks later (after the 20th) at once in the open garden,
under a south wall, for the plants to remain. The smaller-fruited kinds do
best trained to an upright pole or trellis. From time to time earth up the
stems of the plants. As the runners extend five feet or more, peg down at
a joint, and they will take root. Water copiously whenever warm weather
without showers makes the ground arid; and thin out the shoots where they
are crowded. With those kinds the fruit of which is gathered green, by no
means allow any to ripen, because that would stop the production of young
fruit ; and where the fruit is to be used ripe, or where it is allowed to ripen
for the production of seed, do not allow more than one, if the kind is large,
or two or three, if it is middle-sized or small, to ripen on a plant. Where
the walks of a garden are covered with wire trellis- work, of the kind indi-
cated in figs. 124 and 125 in p. 186, they may be covered with the smaller-
fruited species, and even with cucumbers and water-melons during summer
when shade is desirable for the walk ; while, in winter, the trellis will be
left naked to admit the sun and air to dry the gravel or flag-stone. Nine
different modes of dressing the tops and fruit of gourds are given by an
eminent French cook in G. M. vol. viii. p. 184.
RR
606 THE TOMATO, THE EGG-PLANT,
SUBSECT. VI.— The Tomato, the Egg-plant^ and the Capsicum.
1342. The tomato, or love-apple, Lycop6rsicum esculentum, Dunal, (To-
mate, Fr. ; Liebes Apfel, Ger. ; Appeltjes der liefde, Dutch ; Porno d'oro,
Ital. ; and Tomates, Span.}, is a trailing annual, a native of South America,
which, when raised in a hot-bed, and afterwards planted against a wall in the
open air, will ripen its fruit in England. The fruit, which is an irregular
red or yellow berry from one inch to four inches in diameter, is never eaten
raw, but when ripe is used in soups and sauces, and for other purposes in con-
fectionery and cookery ; and in a green state it is pickled. The juice is
made into a sauce, which is considered excellent both for meat and fish.
Various recipes for making this sauce will be found in G. M. vol. i. p. 353 ;
and vol. vii. p. 698. The best variety is the large red-fruited. The seeds
may be sown in a hotbed in March, and transplanted once or twice into pots,
so as to be ready to transfer to the base of a south wall, or any other situa-
tion where it will enjoy the full influence of reflected sun heat, about the
middle or end of May, according to the situation and the season. The
vacant space between fruit-trees will answer for this purpose ; or a tempo-
rary wall of boards, five feet high, may be erected ; or, in warm situations,
they may be trained on a steep bank, raised artificially to an angle of 45°,
and covered with flat tiles. The plants have a very beautiful effect on an
espalier ; but they only ripen their fruit there in the warmest summers.
The fruit will be increased in size, and its maturity accelerated, by stopping
every shoot after it has produced one cluster of fruit, and by judiciously
thinning the leaves. The fruit ripens between August and October, and if
hung up in a dry airy part of the summer fruit-room, it will continue fit for
use till the end of November. One ripe fruit reserved for seed will contain
enough for any garden whatever : cleanse the seeds from the pulp, dry them
thoroughly, and preserve them in paper till next spring.
1343. The Eggplant, Mad Apple, or Jew's Apple, Solanum Melongena
L. (Melongene, Fr. ; Tollapfel, Ger. and Dutch ; and Melanzana, /to/.),
is an erect branchy annual, a native of Africa, and cultivated in British
gardens for its fruit, partly as an ornament, and partly for its uses in cookery.
The plant grows about two feet high ; the fruit is oval, and about the size of
a hen's egg, or larger when cultivated with extraordinary care. There are
two varieties, S. m. ovigerum, Poule pondeuse, ou Plante aux oeufs, Fr. in
which the leaves are without thorns ; and S. m. esculentum, in which there
are prickles on the stem leaves and calyx. The fruit of the first variety is
white and shining, and, though used in Spain and Italy, is not considered so
wholesome as that of the other. Of it there are varieties with the fruit,
large, small, round, oval, all of a dirty violet colour, which are used in great
quantities in Paris. It is divided lengthways, and fried in oil with pepper,
salt, and the crumbs of toasted bread, and in various other ways which are
detailed at length in French cookery books. In the garden the plant re-
ceives the same treatment as the tomato, though it requires a greater degree
of heat to ripen it, and should therefore always be trained against a south
wall. The fruit hung up will keep through the winter, and therefore the
seed need not be taken out till wanted for sowing.
1344. The Capsicum, or Bird Pepper, Capsicum L. (Piment, Fr. ;
Spanischer Pfeffer, Ger.; Spaanshe peper, Dutch; and Peberone, Ital.)
AND THE CAPSICUM. 607
There are three or more species in cultivation for their fruit, natives of
tropical climates ; the annual capsicum, the Spanish, or Guinea pepper,
C. annuum Z/., a native of South America, growing in our stoves about two
feet high, and producing pods, long or short, round, long, or cherry- shaped,
and red or yellow, in the autumn of the same year in which the seed is sown;
the bell pepper, C. grdssum, JF., a biennial, a native of India, producing
large red or yellow berries, which remain on through the winter; the
bird pepper, C. baccatum L., and the chilies or cayenne pepper, C.
frutescens, L. To these the French have lately added another variety,
the tomato capsicum, Piment tomate, JFV., the fruit of which is round,
yellow, furrowed, twisted like the tomato, and in a green state so mild
as to be eaten sliced in salad. This is also the case with the bullock's-
heart variety of the common capsicum, the C. cordiforme of Miller. In the
native countries of these plants there are numerous varieties which are cul-
tivated for using green, and for pickling, and for making the well-known cay-
enne pepper, which is much employed in curries and other preparations.
In Britain they are used chiefly for the two former purposes, and for putting
into vinegar, which from the fruit being in some places called chilies, is called
Chili vinegar. Medicinally, a small portion of the fruit put into a carious
tooth is said to give instant relief, and Chili vinegar mixed with barley water
forms an excellent gargle. It is also, from its pungent and digestive proper-
ties, the most suitable condiment to all kinds of fish. The ripe fruit ground
into powder, as cayenne pepper, is in great request as a condiment in every
part of the world, and more especially in hot countries : both in a green
and ripe state, it is much used as seasoning, and in the preparation of
pickles, and it also forms an excellent pickle of itself. Fresh gathered in a
green state, pickled, ripe, or as cayenne pepper, taken during dinner, it pre-
vents flatulency and assists digestion. When ripe, it may be preserved on
the plant for several years by hanging it up in a dry and moderately warm
room. In some families the green fruit is supplied daily throughout the
year, from plants kept in the pine-stove.
1345. Culture of the capsicum. — The seeds should be sown in March on
a hotbed, and transplanted from one pot into another till the middle of
June, when in warm parts of the country, the annual sorts may be trans-
ferred to a warm situation in the open garden, where they will at least pro-
duce fruit fit for pickling ; and if trained against a south wall, it will ripen
in many situations when the summer proves warm. In less favourable cir-
cumstances the plants should be kept in pots and under glass, either in a frame
or pit, or in a greenhouse. In this state they will ripen their fruit, which
will remain on the annual plants great part of the winter ; and that of the
biennial and frutescent kinds may be kept in the greenhouse in a fruit-
bearing state for two or three years. The market-gardeners about London,
who raise immense quantities of capsicums for pickling, transplant first on
heat, three inches or four inches apart, and in June plant out in rows, a foot
apart and six inches distant in the row. The fruit is gathered and sent to
the market as soon as it has attained the proper size ; and not being then
above half that of the ripe fruit, an immense quantity of pods is produced
during August and September. A single ripe pod will produce enough of
seed for a small garden, and it need not be separated from it till wanted for
sowing.
R R 2
THE ORANGE FAMILY.
SUBSECT. VII.— The Orange Family.
1340. The Orange family, Citrus, Z/., includes the sweet orange, bitter
orange, bergamot orange, lime, shaddock, sweet lemon, true lemon, and
citron. It is very doubtful how far the orange was known to the Romans,
though the citron is said to have been cultivated by Palladius in the second
century ; and it is generally thought that the golden apples of the Hesperides
either were, or bore some allusion to this fruit. One or more of the varieties
have been in cultivation as ornamental trees in the royal orangeries of France
since the commencement of the fifteenth century, and in the open air in the
warmest part of the south of Europe for its fruit, for at least three centuries.
In Britain, at the present time, the different species and varieties are culti-
vated under glass chiefly as ornamental trees, but in part also for their fruit,
which from some gardens is sent regularly to table throughout the greater
part of the year. We shall arrange the different kinds after the Histoire
Naturelle des Grangers of Messrs. Risso and Poiteau, as given by the latter
author in the Bon Jardinier for 1842.
1347. The common orange is the C. Aurantium, L. Granger, Fr. ;
Pomeranze, Ger. ; Oranje appel, Dutch ; Arancio, Ital. ; and Naranja,
Span. In the year 1500, there was only one orange-tree in France, which
had been sown in 1421 , at Pampeluna, then the capital of the kingdom of
Navarre. After having been taken from Pampeluna to Chantilly, and from
Chantilly to Fontainebleau, it was, in 1684, taken to the orangery at Ver-
sailles, where it still remains, holding the first rank among the numerous trees
there for its shape and beauty, under the name of the Grand Bourbon,
Fran£ois I., &c. From the establishment of the orangery at Versailles, the
taste for orange-trees spread extensively in France, till about the middle of
the eighteenth century, when it began to give way to a taste for more rare
exotics. The oldest orange-trees in England were planted at Beddington, in
Surrey, about the end of the sixteenth century, and here as in France it was
the most popular tree, till it was supplanted by a taste for plants of other
countries, and more especially the plants of the Cape. At present the taste for
the orange tribe is reviving, both in France and England. The uses of the fruit
of the orange in the dessert, in confectionery, and in medicine, and its flowers
in perfumery, are universally known. The more remarkable varieties of the
orange are the following : the China, (Arancino, /to/.,) pear-shaped, Nice,
tiny-fruited, fingered, blood- red, ribbed, sweet-skinned, Mandarin, and St.
Michael's. The last two are by far the best worth cultivating for their fruit.
The Mandarin orange, C. nobilis, H. K., is small, oblate, with a thin rind,
\ which separates of itself from the pulp, so much so, that when fully ripe the
latter may be shaken about in the inside like the kernels of some nuts. It is
originally from China, but is now cultivated in Malta. The flesh is of a deep
orange colour, and its juice and flavour superior to those of most varieties.
The St. Michael's orange is also small, but the skin instead of being of an
orange colour like that of the Mandarin, is of a pale yellow ; the fruit is
generally without seed, the rind thin, and the pulp extremely sweet. It is
the most delicious of all the oranges, and the tree is a great bearer. It is
in general cultivation in the Azores, from which it is shipped in large
quantities. The Tangerine orange is strongly recommended by some.
1348. Bigarade, Seville, or bitter orange, C. Bigaradia, Pdt.9 Bigara-
THE ORANGE FAMILY. 609
dier, Fr.; Melangolo, Ital., has-elliptic leaves, with a winged stalk, very
white flowers, and middle-sized, globose, deep-yellow fruit, the pulp bitter
and acid. This is the hardiest variety of the orange, and that which has
the largest and most fragrant flowers, which are produced in great abun-
dance. The fruit is chiefly used in making marmalade. The tree is that
chiefly grown by the French gardeners for its flowers, to gather for nosegays.
The varieties are the horned, the female, the curled-leaved, the purple, the
double flowered, the Seville, the myrtle-leaved, and the Bizarre. The
Curkd-kaved Bigarade, le Bouquetier, Fr., Melangolo riccio, Ital. has small
curled leaves, and thick clusters of flowers at the ends of the branches ; the /*
plant is very hardy, and it is that most generally cultivated in French gar-
dens for its flowers, and in Italy and Spain, for both its flowers and its fruit.
The double-flowered Sigarade is prized on account of its fragrant double
flowers, which last longer than those which are single. The plant requires
a very rich soil. The Seville Bigarade, or Seville orange of the shops, has
round dark fruit, with an extremely bitter rind. It is imported from Spain,
and used for marmalades, bitter tinctures, candied orange-peel, and for
flavouring Cura9oa. The myrtle-leaved Bigarade, is said to be employed by the
Chinese gardeners as an edging to flower beds, in the same way as box is in
this country. The Bizarre Bigarade is a lusus natura, with deformed
leaves, purplish or white flowers, and fruit half Bigarades, and half lemons,
or citrons, some having the pulp sweet, and others having it acid and bitter.
1349. The Bergamot orange, C. Bergamia, Poit., has small flowers, and
pear-shaped fruit, the whole plant having a peculiar fragrance, much valued
by the perfumer, who obtains from the flowers and rind of the fruit his
bergamot essences. The rind, first dried and then moistened, is pressed in
moulds into small boxes for holding sweetmeats, to which they communicate
a bergamot flavour. There are several varieties of this species in the
Genoese nurseries.
1350. The Lime, C. Limetta, Poit. (Limettier, Fr.), has obovate leaves
on a wingless stalk, small white flowers, and roundish pale-yellow fruit with
a nipple-like termination. The leaves and general habit of the plant
resemble those of the lemon ; but the acid of the pulp of the fruit, instead
of being sharp and powerful, is flat and slightly bitter. It is principally
used in flavouring punch and in confectionery. Among the varieties are the
Porno d'Adamo, in which Adam is supposed to have left the marks of his
teeth.
1351. The Shaddock, C. decumana, W. (Pampelmous, Fr.; Pumpelmuss,
Ger.; Pumpelmoes, Dutch; and Arancio massimo, Ital.) The leaves
are large and winged, and the flowers and fruit very large and roundish ;
the skin of the fruit is yellow, and the rind white and spungy ; the pulp
is juicy and sweetish. The plant forms an excellent stock for grafting other
kinds upon. The fruit makes a splendid show at table, and is found cooling
and refreshing. It has been grown successfully on the open wall in some
gardens in Devonshire, with the protection of glass and mats during the
winter months, but without artificial heat. M. Poiteau considers the "for-
bidden fruit " of the shops to be a variety of this species, but others make it
a variety of the lemon.
1352. The sweet Lemon, C. Lumia, Poit. (Lumie, Fr.) The fruit has the \/
leaves, the rind, and the flesh of a lemon, but with a sweet pulp. There
are many varieties iu Italy, but very few are cultivated either in France or
610 THE ORANGE FAMILY.
England. The flowers differ from those of the lime in being red exter-
nally.
1353. The true Lemon, C. Lim6num, Poit. (C. Medica, var. Limon, W.;
Limonier or Citronnier, Fr. ; Limonier, Ger.; Citroen, Dutch; Limone,
ItaL; and Limon, Span.) Leaves ovate-oblong, pale-green with a winged
stalk, flowers red externally, fruit pale-yellow, with a juicy and very acid
pulp. Unlike the other kinds of citrons, the lemon on the Continent is
generally raised from seed, and hence the great difference in quality of the
fruit obtained in the shops.
1354. The Citron, C. Medica, L. (Cidratier, Fr.; Citronier, Ger.;
Limcen, Dutch; Cedro or Cedrato, ItaL; and Limon, Span.) Leaves
oblong, flowers purple externally, and fruit yellow, large, warted, and fur-
rowed ; rind spungy and thick, very fragrant ; pulp subacid. Supposed to
be the Median or Persian apple of the Greeks. As an ornamental tree, it is
one of the best of the genus Citrus. A delicate sweetmeat is prepared from
the rind of the fruit, and the juice with sugar and water forms lemonade, and
is used to flavour punch and negus, like that of the lemon. The Madras
citron is the largest and best variety, and has been grown to an enormous
size, both in England and Scotland.
1355. Propagation and Culture. — All the kinds will root by cuttings,
either of the young wood partially ripened, planted in sand in spring, and
covered with a bell-glass; or of ripe wood put in in autumn, kept cool
through the winter, and placed on heat when they begin to grow in the
spring. Grafting and budding, however, are the usual and the best modes
of propagation, and the stocks may either be raised from seeds or cuttings :
citron and shaddock stocks are esteemed the strongest, and those of the
Seville orange the hardiest. For ornament the plants are generally grown
in pots or boxes (see 423 and 424) ; but for fruit and also for ornament,
when the luxuriance of the tree is an object, they will thrive best when
planted in the free soil in a house devoted to them ; or against a flued or
conservative wall, to be covered with glass in the winter season. At Bed-
dington they were planted against a wall, and protected by a temporary
structure ; and in the Duke of Argyle's garden at Whitton, where Miller
informs us the citron was grown as large and as perfectly ripe as it is in
Italy or Spain, the trees were trained against a south wall, flued, over
which glass covers were put when the weather began to be cold. The finest
oranges and lemons in Paris, some years ago, were grown by M. Fion
against a wall like peach-trees ; and in Devonshire, at Combe Royal, Lus-
combe, Butleigh, and other places, all the kinds are grown against the open
garden walls, and protected during winter, not by glass, but by wooden
shutters. In the south of Devonshire, at Luscombe, orange-trees have with-
stood the winter in the open air upwards of a hundred 3rears, and produced
fruit as large and fine as any from Portugal (see G. M. ii. p. 29, vi. p. 704,
x. p. 36). All the kinds of Citrus require a loamy soil, richly manured,
well drained at bottom, and rendered on the surface pervious to water, by
the soil being unsifted and mixed with fragments of freestone. When
grown hi pots or boxes a richer soil, better drained, is required than when the
trees are planted in a border. Being evergreens, and the sap in consequence
circulating during the winter (718), the soil, even in mid-winter, ought
never to be allowed to become so dry as might be the case were the trees
deciduous. When any of the sorts are grown for their fruit for the table,
THE CUA.VA, LO-QUAT, GRANADILLA, &C. 611
much the best mode is to grow them against a wall or trellis, either under
glass throughout the year, or against a wall to which sashes can be fitted
during the winter months. They may also be grown as standards in a span-
roofed house placed in the direction of north and south ; and if the situation
is warm and sheltered, the roof and sides of such a house may be entirely
removed in the summer season, and the ground turfed over, so as to give
the trees the appearance of standing on a lawn. Tall standard trees for this
purpose may be obtained from Genoa through the Italian warehouses. The
standard winter temperature for the orange is 48° with fire heat ; but as the
season advances it may be 15° or 20° higher ; and in summer it may vary
between 60° and 80°. The roots should never be kept in a temperature so
low as 40° ; at 45 ° a gentle circulation will be maintained, sufficient to pre-
vent the roots from perishing, as they very frequently do when, internally,
the juices of the plant are stagnant, and externally these are surrounded by
stagnant water, the consequence of imperfect drainage. As all the Citrus
tribe grow naturally in woods, and many of them in islands near the sea, a
situation somewhat shaded is preferable to one fully exposed to the sun ; and
a very high temperature during summer is less essential than the continuation
of a moderate degree of heat during winter. Orange -trees will bear
exposure to the sun if previously in good health ; but in all cases it would
be advisable to place a thin canvas screen between them and the rays of the
sun when the plants are first set out in summer, and especially when they
are trained against a wall. With regard to such plants as are required to
be brought into a flowering state, exposure to direct solar light will expe-
dite such condition. In the management of orange-trees in large boxes and
tubs, great care is requisite to ascertain that the water reaches the roots of the
plants ; for the balls of soil are generally so firm and compact that the water
•will not penetrate them, but passes off between the ball and the sides of the
box. The compactness of the ball is owing to the system formerly practised
by gardeners of sifting to a fine mould all the soil which they used in pot-
ting. By the present mode of using, in every case, comparatively rough,
turfy soil, more or less mixed with fragments of stone, balls so compact as
not to admit water poured on their surface can hardly occur. When orange-
trees in boxes are placed in the open air in the summer season, the situation
ought always to be thoroughly sheltered and partially shaded, more espe-
cially, as above observed, when the trees are first exposed, otherwise the
leaves will soon lose their deep green. Hence it is that orange-trees thrive
better in greenhouses with opaque roofs, even when not taken out in the
summer time, as used to be the case at Cashiobury, than any other tree, not
even excepting the camellia.
SUBSECT. VIII. — The Guava, Lo-quat, Granadilla, and other fruits little known in
British gardens.
IS5G. The Guava, Psidium L. — There are several species, but that
which has been found to succeed best in British stoves is Cattley's Guava,
P. Cattleyanum, LindL, an evergreen shrub or low tree, a native of China,
which produces abundance of fruit, about the size of gooseberries, of a purple
colour, juicy, and flavoured somewhat like the strawberry. It fruits very
well in a large pot in loamy soil, in a light airy situation, and the fruit ripens
in autumn, or in the winter season. On the back of the conservatory at
Worksop, it ripens two or three dishes weekly all through the winter, and
612 THE GUAVA, LO-QUAT, GRANADILLA, ETC.
the fruit is preferred to any other for the dessert. When well ripened, the
berries become as black as sloes, and are really delicious, resembling a straw-
berry in flavour.— Proceedings of H. S., vol. i., p. 200.
1357. The Lo-quat or Japan Quince, Eriobotrya japonica, LindL, is an
evergreen tree from Japan, of which there are some varieties that will stand
the open air against a wall ; but to ripen fruit they require the heat of the
peach-house in summer, and of the green-house in winter. Independently
of its fruit this is one of the handsomest trees for a conservative wall, on
account of its fine large foliage.
1358. The Granadilla, Passiflora Z/. There are five species of this genus,
the fruit of which may be eaten, viz. : the granadilla vine, P. quadran-
gularis L. ; the apple-fruited granadilla, or sweet calabash, P. maliformis
L. ; the laurel-leaved granadilla, or water lemon, P. laurifolia L. ; the
flesh-coloured granadilla, P. incarnata L. ; and the purple granadilla, P.
edulis. The latter will ripen its fruit in a green-house, but the others
require a stove. They are all twining shrubs, natives of South America or
the West Indies, and require abundance of room, and to be trained close to
the glass in the stove, excepting the P. edulis, which may be trained under the
rafter of a greenhouse.
1359. The Indian Fig, or prickly pear, Opuntia vulgaris Haw., is a
native of Barbary, naturalised in the South of Italy, and cultivated in
Virginia. The fruit is of a purplish red, with an agreeable subacid flavour.
It was cultivated by Justice, near Edinburgh, in 1750, and by Braddick in
the open air, in the neighbourhood of London, in 1820. It requires a dry
soil, and the protection of glass to ripen its fruit properly ; but it would
produce abundantly in a pit hi a layer of soil on a bed of stones, which
admitted of being occasionally heated by a flue.
1360. The Pawpaw, Carica Papaya, L., is a cucurbitaceous tree, a native
of the East Indies, of rapid growth in our stoves, and soon producing a very
showy fruit, larger than a lemon, and agreeable to the taste. It has been
ripened and sent to table for several years at Ripley Castle (G. M. 1838,
p. 432.)
All the above fruits, and some of those which follow, have been ripened
under glass in Britain, and sent to table ; more especially Cattley's Guava,
which is cultivated in many gardens.
1361. The Olive, C)lea europaea L, is a 'branchy low evergreen tree which
requires the protection of a greenhouse, and might be cultivated for the
sake of its fruit for pickling.
1362. Other exotic fruits which might be cultivated by the amateur, or
which may be included in a select collection of stove plants, are as follow :
The Great Indian Fig, Opuntia Tuna ; the Barbadoes Gooseberry, Pereskia
aculeata ; the Strawberry Pear, Cereus triangularis ; the Akee Tree, Blighia
sapida ; the Alligator Pear, or Avocado Pear, Laurus Persea ; the Anchovy
Pear, Grias cauliflbra ; the Durion, Durio zebethmus ; the Jamrosade
Apple, or rose-apple, Eugenia Jambos ; the Malay Apple, E. malaccensis ; the
Bastard Guava, E. Pseudo-Psldium ; the Cayenne Cherry, E. cotinifblia ;
the Cherimoyer, Anbna Cherimblia; the Custard Apple, A. reticulata; the
Alligator Apple, A. palustris; the Sweetsop, A. squambsa; the Soursop, A.
muricata ; the Mammee apple, Mammea americana ; the Lee-chee, Euphoria
Litchi ; the Long-yen, E. Longana ; the Mango Tree, Mangifera indica ; the
Mangosteen, — or Mangustin, Garcinia Mangostana ; the Cocoa-nut, Cbcos
REMARKS APPLICABLE TO FRUIT-TREES GENERALLY. 613
nucifera ; the Bread-fruit, Artocarpus incisa ; the Chinese Lemon, Triphasia
aurantiola ; the True Lotus, Zizyphus Lotus ; the Jujube Tree, Z. Jujuba ;
the Kaki, Diospyros Kaki. The last four will fruit in a greenhouse. To
these various others might be added from the last edition of the Encyclopedia
of Gardening, and from the 1st edition of the Horticultural Society's Cata-
logue of Fruits.
SUBSECT. IX.— Remarks applicable to Fruit-trees, and Fruit-bearing Plants
generally.
1363. Standard fruit-trees occasion less trouble in managing, and are
more certain in bearing, than either wall-trees or espaliers ; though there
are some trees, as the peach, which are too tender for being grown as stand-
ards, and others, as the vine, which are unsuitable. In standard trees, the
top will generally be adjusted to the root naturally, and hence in sucli
trees very little pruning will become requisite beyond that of thinning out
crossing or crowded branches ; but, in wall and espalier trees, as the top is
disproportionately small to the roots, pruning, or disbudding, &c., as a sub-
stitute, becomes necessary during the whole period of their existence. The
nearest approach which a wall- tree can be made to have to a standard, is
when in the case of north and south walls, one half of the branches are
trained on the east side of the wall, and the other half on the west side ;
or when one tree is made to cover both sides of a double (899) espalier.
Pruning may be rendered almost unnecessary by disbudding, disleafing, and
stopping ; but this will not always be the best course to pursue. When the
root of a wall-tree is to be strengthened, more shoots should be left than are
required for being laid in at the winter pruning ; and when the root is to be
weakened, all or a part of the shoots produced may be left, but they must
be disleafed or stopped as fast as they advance in growth (772) ; or the stem
may be ringed (770) ; or the young shoots twisted or broken down (774) ;
or the roots pruned (776).
Keeping roots near the surface, and encouraging the production of surface
roots, will have a tendency to moderate the production of wood ; and deep
planting and stirring the surface to one foot or more in depth, will throw the
roots down to a moister stratum, and encourage the production of wood, but
of an inferior quality for the future production of fruit. Dry sandy
soil, not rich, will produce moderate growth and precocity, both in the fruit
and the ripening of the wood, and rich deep soil the contrary ; hence dry
soil, comparatively poor, ought to be preferred for cold late situations, in
which it is always desirable to ripen early both the fruit and the wood. By
depriving a tree or a plant of its first crop of buds, a second crop will be
produced the same season, but some weeks later ; and on this principle late
crops of leaves may be produced on all plants, and of fruit on all such trees
and plants as have the power of forming blossom-buds, and expanding them
in the course of one season ; as, for example, the raspberry, strawberry,
grape, and all annual and biennial fruit-bearing plants whatever. As all
plants require a certain period of rest, by bringing on this period sooner in
autumn,. by disleafing and depriving the roots of moisture by thatching the
ground over them, they will be predisposed to vegetate sooner in spring. Hence
the advantage of pruning all trees, the young wood of which is not liable to
be injured by frost, immediately after the fall of the leaf. All wood that is
not thoroughly ripened should be protected during winter by branches, fern,
614 REMARKS APPLICABLE TO FRUIT-TREES GENERALLY.
hay, netting (1320), or some other means ; but as this is only applicable to
wall trees, the soil for all others should be so adjusted to the climate as to
ensure their wood ripening in the open garden or orchard. As the most
exhausting part of every fruit is the seed, and as the number of seeds in
every fruit is limited by nature, it follows that a few fruit grown to a large
size will be less injurious to a plant than the same weight of fruit pro-
duced in fruits of small size. As in plants in a state of seed-bearing, the
chief energies of the plant are directed to the nourishment of the seed, so in
those fruit-bearing plants in which the fruit is gathered green, such as
cucumbers, gourds, capsicums, peas, beans, kidney-beans, &c. ; none of
the fruit should be allowed to mature any seed, so long as any of it is
gathered in an unripe state. Hence the immense importance of thinning
out the blossom-buds of trees before they expand, and thinning out the fruit
before the embryo of the seed begins to assume that stage which in berries
and pomes is called setting, and in nuts and stone fruit, stoning. When a fruit
is once set or stoned, if the embryo of the seed be destroyed by the depo-
sition in it of the eggs of an insect, or the puncture of a needle, the fruit, if
it does not fall off, will ripen earlier, but will be in most cases of inferior
flavour. The same result will take place to a limited extent even with
leaves, when they are punctured.
Any check given to the head of a tree, such as disleafing, the attacks of
insects, disease, overbearing, &c., has a tendency to cause the plant to throw
up suckers, if it is natural to the root or stock to do so. As the leaves pro-
duced at the base of a young shoot are small and generally soon drop off, so the
buds in the axils of such leaves are never blossom-buds till they have become
invigorated by at least another year's growth ; and hence when young wood
is shortened, if blossom is the immediate object it ought not to be cut farther
back than to the first large bud. This is particularly applicable in the
case of vines, roses, &c. In shortening such wood on spur-bearing trees,
such as the apple and pear, only one or two of the imperfect buds are left
at the base of the shoot (see p. 639, Winter Pruning), and these the follow-
ing year generally become blossom-buds, if the tree is neither too weak
nor too luxuriant. In general, winter pruning a young tree retards the
period of its fruit-bearing, but greatly increases the vigour of the tree ;
hence delicate trees, such as the peach, require more pruning than very
hardy trees, such as the apple and plum.
" Summer pruning effects various objects : it exposes the fruit, where it
exists, and also the embryo fruit-buds, and leaves connected with them, to
the beneficial influence of light, air, and dews. This is effected by removing
those portions of shoots which as they advance would more and more shade
the lower parts and prevent them in a great measure from deriving advantage
from the above important agencies as regards vegetation; these may be termed
mechanical effects. Physiologically considered, the progress of the sap is
limited by summer pruning, and is directed towards the leaves and buds
on the lower parts of shoots, which are in consequence invigorated, more
especially as their free exposure to light, &c., enables them better to elabo-
rate this increased supply. But although the foliage so left to act is
increased in size and efficiency, yet the agency of this portion in producing
roots is notwithstanding less powerful than the whole mass would be if the
shoots were allowed to grow wild throughout the summer ; for in propor-
tion to the mass of healthy foliage so is the increase of roots. Hence
REMARKS APPLICABLE TO FRUIT-TREES GENERALLY. 615
excessive vigour is moderated by summer pruning, and this in a greater or
less degree according to the time and manner of performing the operation.
The longer the operation is deferred, and the less the portion cut off from
the shoots, the greater will be the strength which the roots will derive; and
the earlier and shorter the shoots are cut, the less will be the quantity of
foliage, and proportionally so the quantity of roots. Therefore, if a tree is
too vigorous, summer pruning should commence by disbudding such shoots
as they appear, as are not at all wanted to be retained for wood or spurs ;
and as soon as the shoots intended to produce fruit, spurs, or buds at their
base have become furnished with five buds, the extremity may be pinched
off. • As many as five buds are mentioned, because fewer does not complete
one turn of the spiral, which may be traced by following the arrangement
of the buds on a shoot of such fruit-trees as are usually trained on walls.
In the course of a fortnight the uppermost buds on the portion left will have
commenced to push, arid they must be allowed to go on for a longer or
shorter time without stopping, according as there may be more or less danger
of the buds at the base being also developed into shoots, instead of remaining
in the character of a fruit-bud till next spring. If the roots, and, of course,
the tree generally, require to be invigorated, the shoots will not be so nume-
rous and may be allowed to extend till after Midsummer, and then only
shortened for a little at first, in order that as much foliage as is consistent
with the principles al)ove explained may be left to act. It is a very preva-
lent but no less erroneous notion, that, in the case of an over-vigorous tree,
as much wood should be retained, and as many shoots allowed to grow as is
possible, in order that its vigour may oe moderated by the expenditure.
Those who hold this opinion may r-est^assured that the more a young tree
grows, the more it is capable of growing ; for growth is not a mere evolu-
tion of parts already formed, evolved by a determinate amount of expansive
power. If ten buds give rise to a hundred others, these last have the power
of originating, in the same ratio, one thousand, and so on, as long as force of
sap towards new formations is undiminished." All shoots under half an inch
in diameter, cut from the side of a stem before Midsummer, will generally heal
over the same season. Terminal wounds made by shortening, will not heal
over till a shoot has been produced, the base of which will cover the wound.
The fruit-bearing shoots of all trees, in a natural state, are chiefly such
as are lateral, while the wood of the tree is chiefly increased by the
vertical shoots ; hence some modification of lateral training will, in
almost every case, be found preferable to training vertically. Lateral roots
are also those which contribute most to fruit-bearing wood ; and tap or
deep-growing roots to upright and barren wood. All restraint imposed
on trees, whether by training, root-pruning, or ringing the branches, if
not followed up by art, will speedily end in dis'figuring the tree and rendering
it unfruitful, till it has assumed its natural form and habit of growth ; and if
the tree should be of a species so tender as not to ripen fruit in its natural
form as a standard, it will by assuming that form have become useless as a
fruit tree. In the case of all trees in a state of culture, and more especially
such as grow in soil the surface of which is heated more than that of the
general surface of the locality, as is the case of a border exposed to the
reverberation of the sun's rays in front of a south wall, artificial supplies of
water are necessary at particular seasons, and water therefore must be con-
sidered as much an element of culture as manure. All the diseases of fruit
616 CATALOGUE OF CULINARY VEGETABLES.
trees cannot be effectually prevented or cured by judicious culture, but most
of them may ; and all insects which live on the surface of trees, may be
destroyed or subdued by abundant washings with clear water by the syringe
or engine. All fruit-bearing plants (and indeed all others), grown in pots,
ought to be potted in soil which has not been sifted, and which, if not suffi-
ciently coarse to keep it so open as to receive water freely, should be mixed
with fragments of wood, bones, and stone, for that purpose, for supplying
manure, and for retaining moisture (749).
Most of the foregoing remarks were made when treating of particular
trees, but we have thought it might be useful to the amateur and the young
gardener here to recapitulate them.
CHAPTER V.
CATALOGUE OF CULINARY VEGETABLES.
1364. The culinary vegetables usually cultivated in British gardens are
herbaceous plants, annuals, biennials, and perennials, with one or two suf-
fruticose or shrubby plants. We shall first arrange them systematically,
and next class them jointly according to their culture in the garden, and
their uses in the kitchen. In the following arrangement, the names, which
are in italics, indicate kinds which are not at all, or not much in cultivation
at present, but which, for the greater part, have formerly been in use in
England, and still continue to be so on the Continent, or in some other part
of the world.
Ranunculacece. Nigella sativa Z,., the fennel-flower, formerly cultivated
for its seeds as a substitute for pepper, and still grown for that purpose in
France. There are very few plants in this order that are not poisonous.
Cructferce. Nasturtium R. Br., the water cress ; Barbarea R. Br., the
winter cress, and the American cress ; Carddmine L., the meadow cress ;
Peltaria £., the garlic cress ; Cochlearia Tow., the horse-radish, and the
scurvy cress; Thldspi Dec., the penny cress and garlic cress; Sisijmbrium
Z/., the hedge cress ; Alliaria Adan., the garlic cress ; Camelma barbarece-
fblia Dec., the perennial cress ; Senebiera, Poir., the wart cress ; Lepi-
dium £., the common cress; Brassica Z,., the cabbage, borecole, savoy,
turnip, &c. ; Sinapis Tow., the mustard ; Moricdndia Dec., the cabbage
mustard ; Eruca Tou., the rocket cress ; Crambe Tou., the seakale ;
Raphanus Z,., the radish; Erucdria Gaer., the Spanish mustard. The
general properties of this order are, anti- scorbutic, stimulant and acrid, and
there is scarcely any of the species the foliage of which may not be eaten ;
the seeds of all of them yield oil by expression.
Capparidacece. Cdpparis L., the caper.
Caryophyllece. Alsme Z,., the chick weed, which in spring may be used as
greens.
Malvdcea. Hibiscus esculentus Z,., the okro.
TropcBolece. Tropaeolum JL., the Indian cress, and the Tropseolum tuber.
The plants of this order have the same properties as the Cruciferae.
Oxalidacece. 6xalis L., the wood-sorrel, and Oxalis Deppei, B. C.
CATALOGUE OP CULINARY VEGETABLES. 617
the wood-sorrel tuber. The plants of this order are intensely acid : pure
oxalic acid is found in O. acetosella.
RutacecB. Ruta TOM., the rue.
LeguminosfB. Melildtus ccerulea Z,., the fragrant melilot for distilla-
tion ; Glycyrrhiza L.9 the liquorice ; Psordka Z,., the bread-root; Cicer L.,
the chick-pea; Faba Dec.) the bean; Jirvum Z,., the lentil; PisumZ,.,
the pea; Ldthyrus Z,., the Spanish lentil, and the tuberous Lathy rus;
tfrobus Tou., the tuberous bitter vetch ; Apios Boer., the tuberous Apios ;
Phaseolus Z/., the kidney-bean ; Soja Moen., the soy-bean ; Dolichos L.,
the Lubian bean ; Lablab Adan., the Lablab bean, and the Nankin bean ;
Cajdnus Dec., the pigeon pea; Arachis Z,., the American earth-nut;
Cercis Z,., the Judas-tree. None of the leaves of any of the plants of this
order are eaten by man; but the seeds of many of the species are farina-
ceous, the pods of some saccharine, as the sugar-pea, or nutritious as those
of the kidney-bean ; while the flowers of the Judas-tree have an agreeable
acidity, and are used in salads. The seeds of a number of species, as of
the laburnum, are poisonous.
Rosace a. Sanguisdrba Z/., the great burnet ; Poterium £., the common
burnet ; Potentilla anserma Z,., the silver weed.
Onagrdcece. (Enothera Z/., the tree-primrose, the roots of which are
edible, abounding in mucilage, and the tops used in salads; Epildbium
angustifblium Z/., the willow herb, the tender shoots of which are eaten as
asparagus, and the leaves as greens.
HydrocharidecB. Trdpa £., the water chesnut.
Portuldcece. Portuldca Z/., the purslane ; Claytonia Z,., the American
spinach.
Crassuldcece. Cotyledon Z,., the navelwort spinach ; Sedum Album Z,.,
the stone-crop salad.
Ficoideai. Tetragonia L., the New Zealand spinach.
UmbelKfercB. Apium Z,., the celery ; Petroselinum ZTo/m., the parsley ;
Carum Z,., the carraway; Bunium Zr., the earth-nut; Trdgium Spr., the
anise ; Sium L., the skirret ; (Endnthe pimpinelloides Thuil., the tuberous-
rooted dropwort ; Ligusticum Z,., the lovage ; Crithmum Z>., the samphire ;
Angelica Z/., the angelica; Anethum Z>., the fennel; Pastinaca i., the
parsnep ; Cumlnum Z/., the cumin ; Daucus Z>., the carrot ; Chaerophyl-
lum L.9 the chervil ; Myrrhis Z/., the myrrh ; Smyrnium L.> Alex-
anders ; Coridndrum Z»., the coriander. The leaves of most of the plants,
with the exception of the parsley, samphire, the prangos, hay-plant, and
perhaps a few others of this order, are unwholesome, and some of them are
poisonous ; but the seed or fruit is in no case dangerous. The stalks and
stems of the celery, the roots of the skirret, the parsnip, and the tubers
of (Enanthe pimpinelloides, are eatable ; while the leaves and tubers of
GEnanthe crocata are poisonous.
Valeriandcece. Valerianella Z)w/V., Lamb's lettuce.
Composites. Leontodon L., the dandelion ; Picris L., the Ox-tongue ;
Hypochwris Z>., the hawkweed ; Lactuca, L., the lettuce ; Sonchus Z/., the
sow-thistle ; Scorzonera Z/., the scorzonera ; Picridium Per., the salad Pi-
cridium ; Tragapogon £., the salsify ; ^Cichorium Z/., the endive and succory ;
Scolymus L., the Scolymus root; Arctium Z,., the Burdock; Cynara £.,
the artichoke and cardoon ; Carthamus Z/., the saffron-flower; I'nula Z/., the
elecampane ; Tagetes Z/., the tarragon marigold ; Spildnthes Z/., the Para
618 CATALOGUE OF CULINARY TEGETABLES.
cress, and the Brazil cress; Helianthus Z., the Jerusalem artichoke;
Calendula Z., the pot marigold; Balsamlta Desf., the costmary ;^ Tanacetum
Z., the tansy ; Artemisia Z., the tarragon, wormwood, &c. ; Anthemis Z.,
the chamomile ; Achillea Z., the tarragon milfoil. Dahlia Cav., the dahlia,
for its petals to be used in salads. Most of the species of this order are
wholesome, except some of the tribe Cichoraceae in their wild state, such
as Lactuca virosa Z., which is narcotic, and which is cultivated about Edin-
burgh, for the production of opium.
Campanulacece. Campanula Z,., and Phytenma Z,., the common, and the
wild rampion.
Convolvulacece. Ipomosa Z,., the sweet or Spanish potato.
Boraginece. Borago Z., the borage.
Solandcea. Solanum Z., the potato; and Nicotiana Z., the tobacco,
which is grown by gardeners for the destruction of insects.
LabidtfB. Mentha Z., the mint and peppermint : Satureja Z., the sa-
vory ; Thymus Z., the thyme ; Origanum Z., the marjoram ; Hyssopus Z/.,
the hyssop ; Teucriuni Z., the germander ; Rosmarinus Z., the rosemary ;
Stachys Z., the clown's allheal ; Marrubium Z., the horehound ; Lavan-
dula Z., the lavender ; Melissa Z., the balm ; Horminum Z., the clary ;
Melittis Z., the bastard balm ; Salvia Z., the sage ; Ocymum Z/., the basil.
All the plants of this order, without exception, are wholesome, and those
used for culinary, confectionery, or perfumery purposes, are tonic, cordial,
stomachic, or aromatic.
Plantagtnea. Plantdgo Z,., the star cress, formerly used in salad.
Amaranthdcece. Amardntus Z., the Chinese spinach. The leaves of
most of the species of this order may be used as pot-herbs.
Chenopodidcece. Basclla Z., the Malabar spinach ; Chenopodium Z., the
perennial spinach, the Quinoa, £c. ; Atriplex £., the garden orache, or
French spinach ; Beta Z., the beet ; Spinacia Z., the spinach ; Salicornia Z/.,
the marsh samphire. The leaves of many of the species may be used as pot-
herbs, and the roots of the beet, and seed of the Quinoa are wholesome
food, but the seed and fruit of some of the species are unwholesome.
PolygondcecB. Rumex Z., the common sorrel and Patience sorrel, Rheum
Z., the rhubarb. The leaves and shoots of the plants of this order are more
or less acid. The leaf-stalks of the rhubarb are excellent in tarts ; but the
roots are nauseous and purgative, and the whole plant somewhat astringent.
Laurinee. Laurus Z., the Sweet Bay, for its leaves, which are used in
flavouring confectionery.
Euphorbidcea. Euphorbia Lathy ris Z., the seeds of which are used as a
substitute for capers.
UrticdcecB. Humulus Z., the hop ; Urtica Z., the nettle.
Scitammece. Zinyiber Z., the ginger.
Dioscoreacece. f Dioscdrea Z., the yam ; Tdmus Z., the black bryony.
AsphodelefB. Allium Z., the onion, leek, garlic, shallot, &c. ; Asparagus
Z., the asparagus ; Alstrcemeria pdllida, the Chili arrow-root.
Tulipdcefs. Lilium Z., the Kamtschatka potato.
MelanthdcecB. Verdtrum album Z.. the white hellebore. The powdered
root is used for destroying insects.
Cyperdceae. Cyperus Z., the rush nut, a native of the South of Europe,
and cultivated in the warmer parts of France, for the tubers, which are
formed on its roots.
CATALOGUE OF CULINARY VEGETABLES. 619
Gram'mece. Zea L,, the Indian corn.
Fungi. Agaricus L., the mushroom ; Morcbella L., the morel ; Tuber
L., the truffle.
It thus appears that the esculent vegetables which might be cultivated in
British gardens belong to thirty-eight natural orders, and to above 140
genera ; and the number might have been increased from Gerard's Herbal,
and other old gardening or botanical books. All the species are either natives
of Britain, or of analogous climates ; or they admit of being brought to
maturity, with only one or two exceptions, in the open garden, during the
summer season. To know the natural order to which any culinary vegetable
belongs, is useful in two points of view : first, it suggests the idea that all the
other plants belonging to the same order are probably endowed more or less
with the same properties, and may be treated in the same manner, and in
cases of emergency used for the same purposes ; and secondly, that as every
plant draws from the soil, not only the nourishment common to plants in
general, such as carbon, but some particular saline principle, such as phos-
phate of lime, &c., it suggests the propriety of not allowing plants of the
same natural order to follow each other in the same rotation (917). For
these reasons we might have adopted a botanical classification in treating of
the different species and varieties ; but for the amateur and the practical hor-
ticulturist, an arrangement founded jointly on the culture and uses of the
plant, will, we think, be much more useful. At the end of each section, we
shall enumerate, from the Natural Arrangement (1364), the plants
which may be used as substitutes for those generally cultivated in gardens,
and which are treated of at length.
1365. Horticulturally and economically, therefore, the culinary plants of
British gardens may be thus arranged :
I. ESCULENTS. — Plants used for their nutritious properties.
Brassicaceous esculents, syn. cabbage tribe ; comprehending the white and
red cabbage, cabbage colewort, Savoy, Brussels sprouts, borecoles, cauliflower,
broccoli, Kohl Rabbi, and Chinese cabbage.
Leguminaceous esculents ; comprehending the pea, bean, and kidney-bean.
Radicaceous esculents, syn. esculent tubers, and roots ; comprehending the
potato, Jerusalem artichoke, turnip, carrot, parsnep, red beet, skirret, scor-
zonera, salsify, and radish.
Spinaceous esculents; comprehending the garden spinach, white beet,
orache, perennial spinach, New Zealand spinach, sorrel, and herb-patience.
Alliaceous esculents; comprehending the onion, leek, chives, garlic,
shallot, and rocambole.
Asparagaceous esculents; comprehending asparagus, seakale, artichoke,
cardoon, rampion, hop, &c.
Acetariaceous esculents, syn. salads; comprehending lettuce, endive, suc-
cory, celery, mustard, rape, corn-salad, garden-cress, American-cress,
winter-cress, water-cress, burnet ; and some of those included in other
sections, as the sorrel, tarragon, Indian cress, &c.
Adornaceous esculents, syn. seasonings and garnishings; comprehending
parsley, purslane, tarragon, fennel, dill, chervil, coriander, carraway, anise,
horse-radish, Indian-cress, marigold, borage, and some others included in
other sections.
Condimentaceous esculents, syn. plants used in tarts, and for preserving
620 CATALOGUE OP CULINARY VEGETABLES.
and pickling; comprehending rhubarb, Oxalis crenata, angelica, elecam-
pane, the samphire, caper ; and the Indian-cress, radish, kidney-bean, onion,
red cabbage, &c., included in other sections; and among fruits before given,
the cucumber, love-apple, egg-plant, capsicum, &c.
Aromaceous esculents, syn. sweet herbs; comprehending thyme, sage,
clary mint, marjoram, savory, basil, tansy, and some of those in other sections.
Fungaceous esculents; comprehending the mushroom, truffle, and morel.
II. HERBS ; plants used for their fragrance, for medicinal purposes, or as poisons
for vermin.
Odoraceous herbs, syn. fragrant herbs, plants used in domestic distillation ;
comprehending lavender, rosemary, peppermint, and others included in
preceding sections.
Medicaceous herbs, syn. medicinal herbs, plants used in domestic medi-
cine ; comprehending chamomile, hyssop, wormwood, horehound, balm, rue,
liquorice, blessed thistle, blue melUot, and some others.
Toxicaceous herbs, plants used in gardens for subduing or destroying-
insects ; comprehending the tobacco, white hellebore, foxglove, &c.
1366. Propagation and seed-saving. — The greater number of culinary
vegetables are annuals, or biennials, which are propagated by seeds ; but a few
are perennials or shrubby, and these are increased by division of the root, or
by cuttings or layers. The seeds are for the most part purchased annually
from the seedsman, whose business it is to procure from all quarters the
best kinds, and have them grown for him by a particular class of cultivators
known as seed-growers. The more select varieties are frequently grown
by private gardeners for their own use ; but this can only be done to a
limited extent, on account of the liability of varieties of the same species or
race, as of different kinds of cabbage or turnip, to become hybridised by
proximity, and by their flowering at the same time. The care and labour,
also, which are required for saving seeds on a small scale, is so disproportion-
ate to the produce, that it would render the seeds much more expensive
than if they were purchased ; and hence the practice is seldom resorted to,
except in the following cases : — to preserve a valuable variety, which
could not with certainty be purchased true ; and to grow a large quantity
of only one or two kinds for the sake of selling to, or exchanging with, the
seedsman, for small quantities of the different kinds which may be wanted.
1367. The selection of varieties is an important part of the gardener's care,
and one of more difficulty than in the case of fruit trees ; because in culinary
vegetables the kinds are continually changing, from the influence of soil,
culture, neglect, fashion, &c. ; so that a sort of pea, onion, broccoli, or cab-
bage, which is esteemed the best at one time, may in the course of a few
years be almost forgotten. The number of synonymes of varieties is also
very great, and though these were settled in most cases by the Horti-
cultural Society some years ago, yet from the frequent introduction of new
sorts the task would require to be undertaken almost yearly. In general,
dwarf-growing varieties come soonest to maturity, and, consequently, they
remain less time on the ground ; they also resist cold and drought better,
from their leaves lying close on the surface of the ground; and, for these
reasons, are preferable to tall-growing varieties. We shall, with the
assistance of several good practical gardeners, give a selection of the
best varieties in culture at the present time, recommending the amateur
CATALOGUE OF CULINARY VEGETABLES. 621
and young gardener to deal only with the most respectable seedsmen, and
to be guided by them in cases where he cannot profit from the information
contained in books.
1368. Whether a crop which is raised from seed ought to be sown where it
is finally to remain, or sown in a seed-bed and transplanted^ is an important
point for the gardener's consideration. His decision must be formed, partly
on the nature of the plant, and partly on the extent of garden-ground which
he can command. Some plants, such as the turnip, with the exception
of the Swedish, parsnep, radish, &c., will not produce a crop when trans-
planted ; and others, such as the beet and spinach, succeed but indifferently ;
while for the pea and bean, the labour, except in the case of the earliest
crops, would be disproportionately great to the advantage gained. The
carrot is sometimes transplanted on a prepared border for an early crop ; and
transplanting may be performed with tolerable success with the other sorts
mentioned if done when the plants are very young, and with proper care ;
but certainly it is only advisable to be performed except in cases of emergency.
All the cabbage tribe — lettuce, endive, &c. transplant freely, and there is a great
saving of ground by sowing them in seed-beds, instead of sowing them where
they are finally to remain. For example, if the lettuce or endive plants which
occupy a few square yards of seed-bed for a month, were at once sown
where they are finally to remain, they would occupy, perhaps, several rods
of ground one month longer than they otherwise would do. Thus a crop of
peas may be coming into flower, at the time when the endive or lettuce was
sown on the seed-bed, and when the lettuce or endive plants were ready to
transplant, the crop of peas will have been gathered, and the crop of endive
will follow it ; but had the crop of endive been sown where it was finally to
remain, an additional piece of ground, equal to that occupied by the peas,
would have been required. It is easy thus to see that by the transplanting
system half the garden ground will suffice that is requisite for the sowing
system ; and as a proof of the economy of this system generally, it may be
observed that it is the one followed by all the market- gardeners in the
neighbourhood of London. Another advantage attendant on the trans-
planting system — more especially in the case of esculents, the leaves of
which are the parts used — is, that the plants being deprived of part of their
tap-root, throw out a greater number of lateral roots, in consequence of
which the production of radical leaves is encouraged, and the tendency to run
to flower is retarded, while a more succulent growth is induced, owing to
the plants being placed in newly prepared soil. A corresponding effect, we
have already seen (p. 615), takes place when the tap-roots of trees are
shortened.
1369. Soils. — Though garden plants grow naturally in soils very different
both in their chemical constituents, and mechanical properties, yet in a state
of cultivation, there are few or none of them that will not thrive in the soil
of a garden, which is neither extremely sandy, gravelly, clayey, chalky, nor
peaty, provided it has been well pulverised and drained, and manured with
stable-dung. Practically, almost the only changes that can be made in garden-
soil are, to render it richer by stable-dung, or other animal manure ; lighter,
by the addition of leaf-mould ; more compact, by the addition of clay in a
natural state ; more open by the addition of burnt clay or sand ; more cal-
careous, by the addition of lime ; and more sandy on the surface, for the
purpose of raising seedlings to transplant, by working in a top-dressing
622 BRASSICACEOUS ESCULENTS, OR THE CABBAGE TRIBE.
of sand. Of these different ingredients, animal manure, sand, and leaf-
mould are alone universally in request in kitchen- gardens, for adding to their
soils, whatever these may be.
1370. For the proportion of each crop which under ordinary circum-
stances require to be cultivated, the quantity of seed, plants, or sets, necessary
for this purpose, the place of the crop in the rotation, the advantage of
sowing or planting in rows, and various other points of general application,
we must refer the reader back to the Chapter on the Cropping and General
Management of a Kitchen Garden in p. 434.
SECT. I. — Brassicaceous Esculents, or the Cabbage Tribe.
1373 . The cabbage tribe include the white and red cabbage, savoy,
Brussels' sprouts, borecole, cauliflower, and broccoli. All these are con-
sidered to have sprung from Brassica oleracea L., a cruciferous biennial,
found on the sea-shore at Dover and a few other parts of Europe, on chalky
or calcareous soil. At Dover the plant varies considerably in its foliage and
general appearance, and in its wild state it is there used as a culinary veget-
able, and found of excellent flavour, (G. M., viii. p. 54.) Improved
varieties have been cultivated in gardens since the time of the Romans, and
probably long before. They occupy a large space among the rotation crops
(923) of every kitchen- garden, because there is not a day in the year in
which one or more of the kinds is not required at table. We shall first
enumerate the varieties, and the best sub-varieties of each, and give what is
peculiar in their culture ; and conclude the section with the culture and
management of the cabbage tribe generally.
1372. The white cabbage, B. oleracea var. capitata Dec. (Chou pomme, or
cabus blanc, Fr.^) is perhaps the most general vegetable in cultivation in tem-
perate climates ; it is in perfection from May to November, and the Scotch or
field cabbage and the Vanack afford a supply through the winter ; from the
open air, when the winter is mild, and taken up and planted under cover when
it is severe. The properties of a good cabbage are, a small, short stem, and a
large, compact, well-formed head of succulent leaves, surrounded with but few
loose leaves. The best sub-varieties are, the early dwarf, syn. Battersea,
and the early York* for early and late crops, and the Cornish and Vanack for
main crops. The Vanack cabbage is always in season ; and as it sprouts
freely from the stem after being cut, and the sprouts form heads as well as the
summits of the plants, one plantation of this kind might serve the whole sum-
mer, and actually does so in some considerable gardens in the neighbourhood
of London. The main plantation of cabbages, to come into use in May, is made
about the end of October, and for this the seeds are sown in the last week of
July or first week of August. Many of the London market-gardeners are so
particular in this respect that they sow annually on the same day, viz. —
July 25, or as near it as circumstances will permit. The seeds are sown in
an open, airy situation, quite thin ; and watered and shaded, if necessary.
The ground for the plantation being prepared by deep digging and manur-
ing, if it is not already rich, the early sorts, being small, are planted out in
rows fifteen inches or eighteen inches apart, and about one foot distance in
the row ; the Vanack cabbage and Cornish at two feet distance, and eighteen
inches in the row ; and the Scotch cabbage, which, however, is but little
cultivated in gardens, at three feet between the rows, and two feet in the
row. For the Scotch cabbage to attain the largest size the seed should be sown
WHITE CABBAGE, CABBAGE COLEWORTS, RED CABBAGE, &C. 623
in cold, stiff soil, about the middle of August, and the plants transplanted in
the May of the following year. They will form immense heads by the middle
of November. The plants are commonly planted in drills, because that admits
of earthing up the stems, which, by encouraging the production of surface-
roots, adds to the vigour of the plants, and, it may be presumed, to the
richness and flavour of the cabbage. The routine culture consists in pulling
up any plants that run to flower, and supplying their places with others
left in the seed-bed on purpose ; hoeing up weeds ; stirring the soil with
a pronged spade or hoe, and watering when the weather is very dry. For
a late summer and autumn crop, sow in the end of February or beginning
of March, and transplant in May, June, or July. These two seasons of
sowing and transplanting are enough for the largest garden as well as the
smallest.
For a cottage garden the early York, Battersea, and Vanack are recom-
mended by Mr. Thompson (Gard. Chron. 1841, p. 84) ; and the early York,
Vanack, early Brompton, early Battersea, syn. nonpareil, by Mr. Paxton
(Ibid. 1842, p. 93). With spring planted crops in cottage gardens a mazagan
bean may be sown alternately with every cabbage plant hi the same row.
1373. The Couve Tronchuda, syn. large-ribbed cabbage, B. oleracea cos-
tata oblonga Dec. (Chou vert a grosses cotes, Fr. ; Tranxuda. Port.), is a
delicious vegetable, much more tender than the common cabbage. The
plants may be sown in the first week in August, preserved through the
winter in frames, and transplanted in spring about the same time as the
cauliflower ; or the seed may be sown on heat early in spring. The ribs of
the outer and larger leaves, when divested of their green parts, and well
boiled, make a good dish, somewhat resembling sea- kale. The heart or
middle part of the plant is, however, the best for use ; it is peculiarly deli-
cate, tender, and agreeably flavoured, without any of the coarseness which
often belongs to the cabbage-tribe. There is a dwarf variety known in Por-
tugal by the name of Murciana, which is much earlier than the other, and
unlike it, throws out numerous suckers from the lower part of the stem.
This, when cooked, is much more delicate and tender than the other taller
and coarser ribbed variety.
1374. Cabbage coleworts, are cabbages used before they have formed
hearts, or become cabbaged. The seeds of any early variety are sown from
the middle of June to the last week of July, and transplanted in August,
September, and October, as ground becomes vacant by the removal of peas,
beans, onions, &c. The plants are put in at from six inches to eight inches
apart every way, according to the size which they are expected to attain
before being gathered ; and they are occasionally watered if the season is
dry, so as to forward them as much as possible before winter. They are
gathered (or pulled up to retain the sap in them if they are to be sent to a
distance) as wanted, late in autumn, and throughout the whole of the
winter, and will be found far superior to the cabbage sprouts which can be
obtained at these seasons.
1375. The Red Cabbage, B. oleracea var. capitata rubra, Dec. (Choupomme
rouge, Fr.), is chiefly used for pickling, though sometimes for sauerkraut.
The seed is sown in spring, and treated in all respects like the spring sown
white cabbage. The dwarf red is esteemed the best sub-variety.
1376. The savoy, B. oleracea var. bullata major, Dec. (Chou de Milan,
ou pomme frise, Fr.), has wrinkled leaves, but in every other respect it
• 02
624 BRASSICACEOUS ESCULENTS, OR THE CABBAGE TRIBE.
resembles the common cabbage, and may be cultivated in the same manner.
As it is chiefly used during winter, and after it has been mellowed by frost,
only one sowing is necessary in March, for planting out from June to August.
The best varieties are the large late green, and the yellow, which, however,
is not so hardy as the other.
1377. Brussels sprouts, B. oleracea bullata geinmifera, Dec. (Chou de
Bruxelles, or a jets, Fr.), differs from the savoy in forming small green
heads like miniature savoy cabbages along its stem, which often grows three
feet or four feet high. These miniature cabbages are used as winter greens,
or with a sauce composed of vinegar, butter, and nutmeg, poured upon them
hot after they have been boiled. The top, or terminal cabbage, is very deli-
cate when dressed, and quite different in flavour from the side cabbages.
There is no particular variety, but as the plant is supposed to degenerate in
Britain, seeds from Brussels are preferred. These are sown early in April,
and the plants transplanted into rows, eighteen inches apart every way,
in June. The side leaves are sometimes taken off as the plants advance in
height, to throw more sap into the buds which form the sprouts, or side
cabbages ; these come into use after the first frost.
1378. Borecole, B. oleracea acephala sabellica, Dec. (Chou vert, or non
pomme, Fr.}. Of this variety there are many sub- varieties, but the best are
the dwarf green Scotch kale, syns. German greens, curlies ; and the dwarf
purple Scotch kale, the latter being valued by cooks, on account of its boiling
to a brighter green than the other. For very cold late situations there is
the Jerusalem hale, syn. Ragged Jack, a dwarf sub-variety, with long ser-
rated leaves, which, being produced close to the ground, the plants are less
injured by the frost than those of the taller varieties. The Buda, syn.
Russian kale, is so dwarf as scarcely to have any stem, and is very hardy.
The sprouts of this kind may be blanched like sea-kale by turning a pot
over the plant early in spring. As all the borecoles are only wanted during
winter and spring to supply the place of cabbage, the seeds are sown in April,
or later, and the plants put out, where they are finally to remain in June ;
or earlier or later, according to the situation, and the ground which may
become vacant. The distance of the Scotch kale may be two feet between
the rows, and eighteen inches in the row ; those of the Buda and Jerusalem
kale may be a few inches less.
3379. Cauliflower, B. oleracea Botrytis cauliflbra, Dec. (Chou-fleur, Fr.\
is the most delicate production of the cabbage tribe, both with reference to
the table, and to its culture. The head of embryo flowers is the part used,
and it ought to be compact, round, not broken at the edges, convex on the
upper surface, and succulent throughout. There are only two varieties, the
common, and the large Asiatic, the latter newly introduced. In books an
early and a late variety are mentioned, but in the seed-shops and gardens
they axe the same, the earliness or lateness depending on the time of sowing.
As it is desirable to have cauliflower as many months in the year as possible,
three sowings are made at different times, viz. : between the 18th and 24th
of August, for plants to stand through the winter and produce the first
crop next May and June ; in the end of February or beginning of March, on
a moderate hot- bed for transplanting in April, to produce the second crop in
July and August ; and in the beginning of April for transplanting in June
to produce a crop from September till the first, frosts ; or later if the plants
can be protected where they stand, or removed and planted in a shed or
CAULIFLOWER.
625
cellar. Of these three crops the heads produced by the first, if properly
managed, will be by far the largest, on account of the great quantity of pre-
pared sap that will be accumulated in the plants, from the prolonged period
of their growth.
The first crop. — When the plants have leaves one and a half inches
broad, prick them out at three inches or four inches apart, either in the
open garden, for transplanting in October, or under a wall, or in some other
warm, sheltered situation, to remain through the winter, and be transplanted
in spring. In most parts of Britain, cauliflower requires the protection of
glass through the winter, and hence the first crop is almost always planted
in patches of four or five plants, placed so as to be covered by a hand-glass
or bell-glass (434, 435, 462). The glass remains over the plants through-
out the winter, air being admitted every fine day, either by tilting up the
glass with a brick or other prop ; by taking it off altogether ; or, if the cover
of the glass forms a separate piece from the sides, taking it off, raising it, or
changing its position (fig. 77, in p. 152), according to circumstances. The
patches for being covered by hand-glasses are put out in rows, about three
and a half feet or four feet apart, and about three feet patch from patch in
the row ; each patch being of the size of the bottom of the hand-glass, or
about eighteen inches square. Put three or four plants under each glass,
to allow for deaths during the winter, and for transplanting all, except two
or three, into the open ground in the following April. In the last week of
April or the first of May, the glasses may be removed, and put over the
transplanted plants till they have taken root, and afterwards used for
cucumbers, gourds, or other purposes. The soil all round the patches
should now be stirred, and, if not already very rich, manure may be added,
or the plants may be frequently watered with liquid manure. By keeping
on some of the glasses as long as the plants can be contained under them,
a part of the crop will come in earlier ; and by frequently stirring the soil
and supplying liquid manure, so as to retard the appearance of the flower
and keep the plants long in a growing state, a portion of the crop will be
later and larger. If some of the patches have been planted in sandy soil,
not very rich, the plants will be smaller and forwarder than the others, and
will admit of being covered by the glasses till the crop is fit to cut, which
will give a very early supply. The same objects will be effected to a certain
extent by giving a similar treatment to plants which have stood out through
the winter at the base of a wall, or to plants which have been sown in spring.
Thus Mr. Falla, in Northumberland, sows in January under a hand-glass,
pricks out into a bed of soil mixed with sand ; afterwards removes the
plants, with balls, to soils similarly mixed, where they are finally to remain ;
and thus he attains as early a crop as if he had sown in August, and trans-
planted in October under hand-glasses in the usual way : with this differ-
ence, however, that the heads are much smaller, the plants by the sandy
soil being brought prematurely into flower (Gard. Chron. 1842, p. 54, and
G. M. 1842, p. 327).
The second crop. — Prick out the plants as soon as they admit of it into
beds, six inches apart every way, so as to admit of their being taken up
•with balls, and planted in rows, four feet by three feet, in rich soil, in the
end of April or the beginning of May.
The third crop. — Proceed in the same manner, and transplant into rows,
three feet by two feet, about the middle of July.
626 BRASSICACEOUS ESCULENTS, OB THE CABBAGE TRIBE.
A vnnter crop may be obtained by sowing in the middle of July, in a
warm border, or on the south side of an east and west ridge, and allowing
the plants to come to heads without transplanting, but taking care to thin
them to twelve inches or fourteen inches apart every way. In the course
of November, heads will be formed from three inches to nine inches or ten
inches across, and the plants may then be removed with balls, and planted
in a bed of soil, to be covered by a frame and sashes ; or in a bed under
an open shed, and farther protected by mats and dry hay. By this latter
mode, which may be adopted where a frame cannot be had, Mr. Cockburn,
in Sussex, has been able to send three dishes of cauliflower to table every
week during the autumn and winter till February (Hort. Trans, vol. v.,
p. 281). Cauliflowers may also be preserved by burying them entirely in
dry soil, and thatching the ridge to keep out rain and frost, or by burying
in dry bog earth ; in either case wrapping up the heads with the surround-
ing leaves to keep them clean. In gathering, cut off the head with some
inches of the stalk and a circle of surrounding leaves ; after which pull
up the plant, as the stems do not produce sprouts, like almost all the other
varieties of the cabbage tribe.
1380. Broccoli, B. oleracea Botrytis cymosa Dec. (Broccoli, Fr.}, differs
from the cauliflower in being so much hardier as to produce a supply of
heads during the whiter. There are a number of excellent varieties, which
may be arranged as : —
1. Purple or green-headed, of which the best variety is the early purple
Cape, a dwarf sort, which should be sown the first and third week of May,
and second week in June. The late dwarf purple, which should be sown the
second or third week in May for a crop to stand the winter.
2. Sulphur-headed, of which the best variety is the Portsmouth, which, if
sown about the second or third week in May, and transplanted in June, will
produce a crop to come into use during March, April, and May following.
The late sulphur, sown at the same time, will come into use during April and
May.
3. White-headed, of which the best are Grange's early cauliflower broccoli,
which, sown about the first and third weeks of May, will come into use
when cauliflower begins to get scarce, from the end of September till Christ-
mas ; the early white, with smaller heads than the preceding, which, sown
at the same time as Grange's early, will come into use from November till
February, and is the kind generally grown for the London market;
Knight's protecting, which is the hardiest of this class, and when sown
about the third week in May, comes into use at the end of March fol-
lowing and lasts till May, when the cauliflower grown under hand-glasses is
ready ; and the spring white, syn. late dwarf Tartarian, approaches nearer
to the cauliflower than any other variety. The heads are quite delicate,
and very white ; and the plants seldom grow higher than a foot, and are very
hardy. The seed should be sown between the 1st and 10th of April, and
the heads will be in perfection in the May of the next year. Chappell's new
cream-coloured broccoli, is a large and excellent variety ; for use from autumn
till spring. Sow in April for the autumnal supply, and in May for the
spring crop.
General culture. — Most of the sorts may be planted in rows 2{ feet by
2 feet ; but for the dwarf varieties, such as the late dwarf purple, and the
spring white, ] 8 inches every way will be sufficient. The routine culture
TURNIP CABBAGE, CHINESE CABBAGE. 627
consists of watering when the plants are newly planted, destroying the
weeds by hoeing, stirring the soil with a fork, and earthing up the stems.
The very dwarf sorts require no protection in ordinary winters ; but the taller
growing kinds are apt to be severely injured by frost, and should either be
protected where they stand, or by removal to an open shed, as directed for
cauliflower. A mulching of hay, straw, or leaves, or a number of branches
with the leaves on, stuck in among the tall-stemmed sorts, is frequently found
effective. In gathering the heads, they should be cut while they are
compact, or as technically expressed before the curd becomes broken, with
about six inches of the stalk to each head, and the stems may be left to pro-
duce sprouts.
1381. The Turnip-cabbage, or turnip borecole, B. oleracea Caulo-rapa
comraunis Dec., (Chou-rave, Fr., Kohl Rabbi, Ger.,} is a dwarf-growing
plant, with the stem swelled out so as to resemble a turnip above ground,
but of a delicate green colour. It is much cultivated in Germany, and even
forced for the sake of the stem or turnip, which, taken in a young state, is
dressed whole and eaten with sauce, or as vegetables to meat, like turnips or
potatoes. In England it is very little used. The seed is sown in early
spring, and the plants treated like other borecoles ; the stem or turnip
part being gathered while it is quite succulent, and will boil tender. To
procure a supply throughout the summer, two or three sowings would
require to be made.
1382. The Chinese Cabbage., B. chinensis L. (Pe-tsai, Chinese ; Chou
Chinois, Fr.), is an annual, apparently intermediate between the cabbage
and the turnip, but with much thinner leaves than the former. It is of much
more rapid growth than any of the varieties of the European cabbage — so
much so, that when sown at Midsummer it will ripen seed the same season.
It has been cultivated and used as greens by M. Vilmorin and a few other
persons in the neighbourhood of Paris ; and there are specimens in the
Hort. Soc. Garden, but it does not appear likely to become a general
favourite. It requires an extremely rich, and rather moist soil.
1383. General culture and management of the cabbage tribe. In the choice
of sub -varieties, it will be borne in mind that the dwarf kinds come soonest
into use, and retain heat and moisture better, by the covering which their
leaves afford to their stems, and to the soil, than the tall-growing kinds ;
but that owing to the shorter period at which, in most cases, they arrive at
maturity, they require a richer soil ; while the ramose roots of the tall
kinds extend to a greater distance, and consequently are adapted for poorer
soil ; and in rich soils for producing larger plants. As all the varieties are
biennials, the largest crops will be produced by autumnal plantations, by
which longer time is given to the plants to lay up a stock of organisable
matter. An ounce of seed of any of the varieties is the usual quantity
ordered from seedsmen for small or middle-sized gardens, and half an ounce
will be enough wrhere several sub- varieties are sown ; as, for example, of
broccoli. The seed comes up in ten days or a fortnight, according to the
season. In early spring, when it is desirable to advance the plants as rapidly
as possible, the seed should be sown in light rich soil in a warm situation ;
but in autumn, when the great object is to produce plants of firm texture
that will resist the winter, a poor, and rather stiff or clayey soil, is prefer-
able. Where the plants are to be transplanted with the dibber, numerous
fibrous roots are of little use after the plant is taken up, because they are
628 BRASSICACEOUS ESCULENTS, OR THE CABBAGE TRIBE.
mostly withered and rendered useless before they are restored to the soil :
but where they are to be transplanted with balls the fibrous roots are pre-
served, and in order that these may be produced in abundance by the seed-
lings, the seed should be sown very thin in soil mixed with sand, or pricked
out into such soil. As pricking out greatly strengthens the plants before
their final removal, it should not be neglected where an abundant produce is
the object. All the cabbage tribe that produce sprouts may be propagated
readily by taking off these sprouts as cuttings ; and this mode is said to be
generally adopted in Brazil, and it has been tried successfully in Suffolk.
(G. M. vol. ix., p. 227.) The ends of the cuttings are exposed to the
atmosphere for 20 or 30 hours to cauterise the wounds ; and this exposure
is also found useful, on the same principle, to very vigorous seedlings, when
the points of the tap-roots are taken off, and the plants are to be planted with
the dibber. In transplanting, the great art to insure success, is to make sure
that the earth is pressed moderately close to the lower extremity of the
root, and afterwards giving a plentiful watering, which will have the effect
of washing down the finer particles, and thereby filling up interstices better
than could have been done by any other means, and without bruising the
tender fibres of the root (701), because without this closing in of the soil
the spongiole would not be renewed there ; and that being the growing point
of the root, it is of more consequence that it should be renewed there than
anywhere else, since it insures vitality and circulation to all above it. In
making every plantation, there should be a small reserve of plants retained
in the seed-bed, or pricked out in the general reserve-ground of the garden
(p. 418), to supply any losses that may occur from deaths or running to
flower ; or the plants may be placed thicker in the rows, and afterwards
thinned out. As all the kinds have the property of rooting freely from the
stems, the plants, excepting the few that are stemless, are strengthened by
being earthed up ; and to increase the depth of this earthing, they are
planted in drills two or three inches deep. All the varieties require
an open, airy situation, for no one ever found the cabbage in a wild state in
hedges or woods ; but it should be sheltered from high winds, as plants on
the sea-shore, whether among cliffs or on the beach, generally are. The
soil should be deep, well pulverised, and it can hardly be too rich ; unless
the object be to hasten maturity, when it should be comparatively poor and
sandy. It is highly probable that the plants would be benefited by a
slight sprinkling of common sea-salt given once to each crop in an early
stage of its progress. The soil should always be more or less calcareous ; not
only as the plant grows naturally on limestone or chalky cliffs and shores, but
because the finest-flavoured cabbages and broccolis in England are produced
in gardens in Kent on the south bank of the Thames, made in old chalk-
pits. As the leaves of all the kinds are naturally large and succulent, they
present a large perspiring surface, and therefore, to maintain this succulency
in long-continued droughts, the plants should be liberally supplied with water;
and as they are all gross feeders, they may all be watered with liquid manure.
In all the sprouting varieties, when the stem is to be preserved for this
purpose, the leaves should be taken off, that the sap may be thrown into the
buds ; and when these do not break freely, it will be facilitated by slitting
the stem from an inch or two below the top to within an inch or two of the
bottom, keeping the slit open with a bit of stick or a small stone ; or the
same object may be effected by cutting a notch above the buds (617). A
GENERAL CULTURE AND MANAGEMENT. 629
slit from the top downwards will also effect the same object, but it disfi-
gures the top of the stem. The hearting or heading, and consequently the
blanching of all the kinds, will be promoted by loosely tying up the leaves,
as soon as the plants show an indication of hearting, with strands of mat-
ting ; and this may be usefully practised with the earliest spring cabbages,
and with the borecoles when it is wished to have the leaves blanched. To
increase the size of the flower-heads of cauliflower and broccoli, as soon as
the flower appears, break down, or twist, the footstalks of all the large
leaves, in order to throw more of the organizable matter into the flower.
Most of the varieties, but more especially the broccolis, are subject to the
club in the root ; an unnatural protuberance produced by the puncture of an
insect, and the subsequent hatching of deposited eggs, and apparently pro-
ducing a diseased habit, so that club roots are produced afterwards in the
same plant without the intervention of an insect. When the club has once
appeared on the roots of a plant, there is no remedy for it ; but in soils and
situations subject to this disease, the insect may be deterred from laying its
eggs in the root by putting a little quicklime in the hole made by the
dibber, before inserting the plant. Incorporating burnt clay with the soil
has also been found to check clubbing, as well as to annoy worms and slugs ;
but the quantity necessary for these purposes, unless it was also required for
the improvement of the soil (174), amounts almost to a prohibition of their
use. As the leaves, more especially of the common cabbage in very dry
weather, are subject to be covered by aphides, and to be eaten by the larvae or
caterpillars of butterflies (Pontia sp.), as soon as the former or the eggs of
the latter are observed, the plants should be liberally watered with clear
lime-water, and the operation repeated till every egg and caterpillar is
destroyed. Even copious supplies of clear water, poured on the plants for
several evenings in succession, will effectually destroy the caterpillar in every
stage of its growth ; and in no variety of the cabbage tribe, excepting the
cauliflower when it is nearly mature, will water in the slightest degree
injure the flavour. Where lime-water or water alone cannot be supplied in
sufficient quantities, the eggs of the butterflies ought to be collected and
destroyed ; and indeed this may be done in connexion with watering. The
eggs are deposited in small patches on the upper side of the leaf; and in
very warm weather they will hatch in twenty or thirty hours, and soon
spread over the whole surface of the leaf. Slugs and earth-worms may be
effectually destroyed by lime-water ; or as a convenient substitute, where
quicklime is not at hand, potash and water, or a decoction of foxglove,
henbane, white hellebore, or walnut leaves. In general, the routine culture
of the cabbage tribe consists in destroying weeds as soon as they appear,
stirring the soil as deep as the roots will admit with a fork, or a pronged
hoe, and supplying water or liquid manure when the condition of the plants,
or the soil, or the state of the weather, requires it. Where the stems are
left to produce sprouts, deeply stirring the soil and manuring are of essential
service. In gathering the crop, when sprouts are not wanted, the plants,
after the head is cut off, should be pulled up by the roots and carried to the
manure-heap ; or, if the stems are to be left, they should be stripped of
their leaves, and the whole of these removed to the dung-heap and mixed
with other materials ; for nothing among vegetables is more offensive than
the decaying leaves of the cabbage tribe, and indeed of the Cruciferae gene-
rally. Coleworts are generally gathered by pulling them up by the root,
630 LEGUMINACEOUS ESCULENTS.
by which the sap is retained better than if the heads were cut off. If after
gathering any of the varieties it should be suspected by the cook that the
heads contain slugs, caterpillars, or earth-worms, by plunging them into
salt and water for a minute or two the vermin will be driven from their
hiding-places among the leaves and left in the water. All the kinds may
be preserved in a growing state through the winter under an opaque roof,
the sides being opened on the south side on fine days ; and the heading
kinds, by burying in the soil (1379). Being gathered, none of the kinds
will keep fresh above two or three days ; but chopped into small pieces,
and put in a cask in layers, each layer sprinkled with salt, a liquor is
formed, immersed in which the cabbage, turnip, and every other crucifer-
ous plant, will keep through the winter, and thus is formed the sauerkraut
of the Germans. To save seed of any variety, select the finest specimens,
and take care that no other brassicaceous plant is in flower at the same time
within a considerable distance of it (866 and 1366) ; and the more
specimens there are planted together of any one variety for the purpose of
seeding, the less liable they are to become adulterated. A solitary brassica-
ceous plant can never be depended on unless many miles indeed remote from
any other ; whereas a body of fifty or so will produce the sort generally
true, even although not far from other varieties. The seed will keep
four or five years ; but as after a year it is liable, in common with other
seeds, to the attacks of the weevil, Curculio Z/., it ought to be exposed every
whiter during severe frost in a thin layer for an hour or two, which will
completely destroy vitality both in the eggs and the insects. The place of
the cabbage tribe, in a rotation of crops, may be after or before the legu-
minous tribe, or the Alliaceae (924).
1384. Substitutes for the cabbage tribe are to be found in the Cruciferaa
generally, the tender leaves of almost all of which may be used as greens, and
the embryo heads of flowers as substitutes for broccoli. Among the best sub-
stitutes are the leaves of the turnip when running to flower, the wild cab-
bage, and the garlic cress or sauce-alone, Erysimum Alliaria L. (Alliaria
Adan.) The spinaceous and acetariaceous esculents may also, in general, be
used as greens. Nettles are a very common substitute, and an excellent one
when gathered tender.
SECT. II. — Leguminaceous Esculents.
The leguminaceous esculents of British gardens are' chiefly the pea, bean,
and kidney-bean, all of which thrive best in a deep free soil. In every gar-
den they occupy a larger space than any other rotation crop, but they do not
occupy it long ; the main crops arriving at maturity in from three to four
months.
SUBSECT. I. — The Pea.
1385. The pea, Pisum sativum L. (Pois, Fr.\ is a tendrilled climbing
annual, a native of the South of Europe, but arriving at maturity in the
course of the summer in British gardens. No vegetable is more highly
prized than green peas, and few are more nourishing when nearly ripe, or
ripe. The seeds alone are eaten in most kinds, and they are boiled with
mint to correct a slight tendency which they have to flatulency ; but the
entire pod is eaten of the sugar pea, in the manner of that of the kidney-
bean, the outside edges of the pods being stripped off previously to boiling.
THE PEA. 631
The inner tough film which lines the pods is wanting in this variety, which
renders it very distinct. Peas gathered when partially ripe, and dried, are
used in soups and stews ; but it is found that after they have been kept a
year they do not break, or fall well in the soup : it is also understood
among dealers in peas, that those which have been grown on stiff soil, or on
sandy soil, that has been limed or marled, will not fall in boiling, whether
new or old.
1386. The varieties are numerous, but the following are among the best:
The early frame, height three feet, and Charlton, four feet, for the first
crops ; and the Auvergne, a very full-podded variety, (three to four feet),
to follow ; then Knight's dwarf green marrow, the blue Prussian (three
to four feet), and Groom's superb dwarf blue, a very prolific variety, with
peas like those of the blue Prussian, and so dwarf as to require no sticks.
These will form a good selection of dwarf varieties. Among the numerous
varieties of tall peas, none is equal in point of excellence to Knight's tall
marrow (six to ten feet). The Mil ford marrow is, however, a distinct
variety with very large green seeds ; it is of medium height. For the pur-
pose of the pods being cooked in the manner of kidney-beans, the dwarf
crooked sugar pea is to be recommended.
In general only the small-sized peas, such as the frames and charltons,
should be grown for the first crop, and all the other crops should be of large-
seeded peas, such as the marrows, blue Prussians, &c. The seed is ordered by
the pint; and of the frame and charlton, one pint will sow a row of twenty
yards; and of the larger sorts, a row of thirty-three yards. The seed will
come up in a week, ten days, or a fortnight, according to the season.
1387. Culture. — The pea, being a tendrilled climber, whenever it is to be
cultivated to the greatest advantage, ought to be supported by pea sticks,
which are branches of trees or shrubs well furnished with spray, and of
lengths suited to the height to which the plants grow. These sticks are put
in in two rows with the row of peas between them, the sticks or branches in
one row being opposite the intervals of those in the other row. They are
placed upright, but somewhat wider apart at top than at bottom, to allow
room for the branching of the stems as they ascend, and for the larger space
required for the top foliage, which is larger than that below, and for the
pods. To facilitate the sticking, peas are always sown in rows. They are
also always earthed up, principally for the sake of keeping the plants up-
right, as they do not produce roots freely above the collar, like the cabbage
tribe. When sticking peas is inconvenient, or impracticable, from the extent
of the crop, the rows are earthed up on one side only, so as to throw the
haulm to the opposite side, by which means the ground between the rows
is more readily kept clean, the crop more readily gathered, and the plants
not so liable to be blown about by high winds. Rows of peas which are not
to be sticked may be closer together than such as are to be sticked ; because
the tops of the plants of one row may extend to the lower parts of the plants
of the row adjoining, without doing the plants of either row any injury.
Hence when peas are not to be sticked, nor to be gathered green, the greatest
amount of produce is obtained when they are sown broadcast ; but by this
mode the soil cannot be conveniently stirred or weeded. Peas are generally
sown in single drills, at the same distance apart as the plants grow high, with
intervening rows of spinach, or some such secondary crop (923) which is
gathered before the peas are matured ; but for all the taller growing kinds it
632 LEGUMINACEOUS ESCULENTS.
is better considerably to increase the distance, so as to allow abundance of
light and air to the peas, by which they will be much more productive, and
a crop of a more permanent kind than spinach, such as some of the cabbage
tribe, or roots or tubers, obtained between. A much larger crop, and a great
saving of ground, is by this means obtained. It is well known that the
outsides of double rows bear much more abundantly than the insides ; and if
only two rows hi one place, and two more in another, fifteen or twenty feet
distant, were sown, there would be four outsides ; whereas, if they were all
sown together, there would be but two outsides. Two rows in one place
occupy three feet six inches in width, and two rows in another the same,
making together seven feet ; but if four rows were sown together, they would
take up eleven feet or twelve feet of ground. Here, therefore, is a saving of
ground of nearly one half. (6r. M., vol. iv. p. 225.) In pea culture, there
is not a greater error than that of sowing the seeds too thick in the row.
We would recommend, in every case except in that of the crops sown to
stand the winter, to deposit the peas singly in the same manner as beans are
planted. We know some gardeners who practise this mode, and they have
always a larger produce, larger pods, and larger peas in them, than those
who sow thick, and do not thin out. Abercrombie, who is one of the safest
of guides in matters of this kind, recommends for the early frame, three peas
in the space of an inch ; dwarf marrowfat, two in an inch ; blue Prussian
and similar sorts, three in two inches ; for Knight's marrow and all similar
dwarf sorts, a full inch apart ; and for all the tall-growing sorts, an inch and
a half or two inches apart. For the early sorts, the seeds of which are small,
the drills may be an inch and a half deep ; and for the larger sorts, they
may be two inches deep. After covering the peas by putting back, with the
hoe, the earth that eame out of the drill, it should be trodden down, if the
soil is in good condition as regards dryness ; but if from situation, or the
state of the weather, it should be otherwise, it is better only to chop the
soil with the teeth of the rake, holding the handle nearly upright.
1388. The earliest crops. — In the neighbourhood of London, every
gardener is expected to gather peas in the first week in June, if not
before. To accomplish this, the early frame should be sown in a warm
border, or along the south side of an east and west ridge in the open garden,
in the first week of November. If the winter is mild the plants will appear
above ground in January, or early in February, when they must be slightly
earthed up, and during hard frosts protected by haulm, fern, litter or
dried branches with the leaves on. Early in May they will have shown
blossoms, and then every plant must be stopped at the first joint above the
blossom, so as not to have more than two pods on a plant. The whole
strength of the root being thus thrown into these pods, they will grow
rapidly. If there is any spare space close along the bottom of a south wall,
a row of peas may be planted there in December, protected by branches of
yew, or spruce fir, during severe frosts, and during every night till they
come into flower ; and instead of being sticked, the plants may be kept
close to the wall with twine or strands of matting, and stopped at the first
joint above the first flowers. Thus treated, the pods will be fit to gather a
fortnight before those in the open part of the warmest border ; but if the
wall is covered with the branches of fruit-trees to within a foot of the
ground, these will be materially injured by the shade of the peas. A second
sowing of the same variety on a warm border, or on the south side of a
THE PEA. 633
drill, may be made after the first ; and a third sowing, which may be of
me early Charlton, may be made in March. This will suffice for the early
crops. The plants of the last two sowings need not be stopped, nor will
they require protection.
A very convenient mode of obtaining an early crop is to sow the peas
in January in shallow pots, and protect them from frost by placing them
close to the glass in the front of a greenhouse, or under a frame, hand-
glasses, or hoops and mats ; and about the middle of March to turn them out
with balls into the open air in such situations as we have mentioned. Where
pots are scarce, the peas may be sown in rows on pieces of turf, or even
tiles, or pieces of boards covered with soil, brought forward on a slight hot-
bed, and afterwards deposited in the open ground ; or they may be raised
in shallow pots, and afterwards separated and transplanted singly in rows. In
short, there are numerous ways in which peas may be forwarded under cover,
or in very gentle heat, in January and February, so as to be ready to transplant
into the open ground about the middle or end of March. Peas may be
protected in the open garden by portable covers
such as fig. 377, which is thus formed : — Two
long and two short poles of larch, fir, or other
straight wood, form each side; the top piece is left
longer, to form handles at each end, and the *& 3H- Cover for Peas and
sides are attached to the top with hinges, and
kept apart by two removable stretchers. The whole is then covered with
sugar-mats, fastened on with laths. The covers are always kept on during
nights, and mostly opened or taken off during the day. — (G. M. 1842,
p. 187.)
1389. Portable walls for early crops of peas, $c. As a substitute for a
brick wall a portable wall might be formed of very thick boards, or of double
boards ; the vacuity within to be filled up with charcoal, and protected from
rain by a coping, and from dropping out by a fixed bottom. Such a wall need
not be above three feet in height, and to render it portable, it may be made
in lengths of six feet or eight feet, with stakes to serve as strengthening
piers, and for readily fixing the wall to the ground. These hurdle walls, as
they may be called, would be found useful for a variety of purposes beside
forwarding peas ; such as ripening tomatos, capsicums, melons, &c.
1890. The summer and autumn crops. The first sowing may be made
in the middle of March, and where peas are in demand, which they are in
almost every family, a sowing may be made every three weeks, till the 1st
of August. Those sown in the latter period will not produce a crop unless
the autumn is fine ; but if this should be the case, peas may be gathered
till December. In sowing during summer when the ground is very dry,
after being dug and the drills drawn, the bottom of the drill ought be
thoroughly soaked with water before the peas are sown, and firmly rolled
after they are covered ; and throughout the whole summer, whenever there
is a continuance of drought, water ought to be liberally supplied. All the
late crops ought to be sown in the driest soil which the garden affords, in an
open airy situation, and sticked ; the last operation being essential to prevent
the plants of the late crops from rotting ; and as a preventive against this
and mildew, the seeds should not be sown too thickly.
Gathering. The rows should be looked over daily and all those pods
gathered that are sufficiently advanced ; for if a single pod on a stem is
634 LKGUMINACEOUS ESCULENTS.
allowed to remain, so long as to begin to ripen, the production of young
pods will, in a great measure, cease ; whereas if they are gathered as fust as
the peas are produced of an eatahle size, the plants will continue to grow
and to produce pods much longer than they otherwise would do. The same
doctrine applies to cucumbers, (p. G14) kidney-beans, and all cases whore
fruit is gathered before it is ripe.
1301. Diseases, vermin, §c. The mildew may in general be prevented
by abundant waterings, which indeed is a preventive to both diseases and
insects. Birds attack peas when they appear above ground early in spring,
rating out the growing point ; and again when the pods are beginning to
ripen, and may be scared by some of the usual means (370.) Mice are very
apt to eat the peas when newly sown, to prevent which some sow chopped
furze along with them ; others rub the peas with powdered resin, and some
cover the drills with a layer of clean sharp sand, which it is alleged drops
into the ears of the mice, while they are burrowing underneath it; but in
our opinion the best mode is to attempt the destruction of the mice, which
is easily effected by a covered pit, or a covered vessel of water (372.) With
respect to birds, they are so useful in gardens in keeping down insects
and eating snails, worms, &c., as well as so agreeable by their song, that we
would allow them a small share of such seeds and fruits as are of easy
growth. The reader is recommended to peruse on this subject the articles
on birds in Water ton's Essays on Natural History.
To save seed, allow a row or two, according to the quantity wanted, to
ripen all their pods, previously pulling out any plants that appear to be of a
different variety, or to have degenerated. Peas will grow the second year,
but not often the third or fourth.
In a rotation of garden crops, the pea alternates well with the cabbage
tribe, with root crops, or with perennial crops.
Forcing the pea. See 1105.
SUDSECT. II. — The Sean.
1392. The garden bean, Vicia Faba L. (Feve de marais, Fr.) is an
erect annual, supposed to be a native of Egypt, and, like the pea, in cultiva-
tion from the remotest antiquity, for its seeds. These are used in soups, or
dressed by themselves, and are considered very nourishing, though not of so
delicate a flavour as the pea. The best varieties are, Marshall's early dwarf
prolific, by far the best early variety ; the early maxagan, so named from a
place in Portugal, a later growing early variety, which comes in about a
fortnight after Marshall's ; the early longpod, a very prolific variety ; the
broad Windsor, with the largest seeds, and best-flavoured of all the beans,
but not a good bearer, excepting in rich soils ; and the Dutch longpod, the
best variety for a late crop. The seed is ordered by the pint, and for the
small beans a pint is required for every eighty feet of row, and for the larger
kinds two quarts for every 240 feet of row. The bean comes up in a week,
ten days, or a fortnight, according to the season. Not less than a quart of
seed will be required to produce a single gathering occasionally. The times
of sowing, and the situation in the garden, for the earliest crops, are the
same as for the pea ; but the plants do not require sticking, nor, as the seeds
arc longer of coming to maturity, is it usual to sow later for an autumnal
crop than the beginning of June. Marshall's dwarf prolific bean may be
planted in rows two feet apart, and at six inches distant in the row, and the other
THE BEAN AND THE KIDNEY-BEAN. 635
«orts in rows two feet and a half to three feet apart ; or, which will insure
a larger crop, in rows eight feet or ten feet apart, with dwarf-growing crops
between, as recommended for the pea (1387). The seeds may be deposited-
in drills an inch and a half or two inches deep, and covered and pressed
down like the pea. Very early crops may be brought forward under cover,
or by other means used in obtaining an early crop of peas. The bean
transplants remarkably well, and many gardeners adopt this mode with
their earliest crops.
1393. In cottage gardens, not only in Britain but in the North of Europe
generally, it is customary to plant beans in the same rows with cabbages,
and also with potatoes ; a bean being planted alternately with every potato
set, or cabbage plant. The rows of potatoes or cabbages are two feet and a
half or three feet apart, according as they may be of small or large sorts ;
the distances in the rows are eighteen inches, and between each two plants a
bean (the longpod is the best variety for this purpose) is deposited. If the
beans are transplanted they get the start of the potatoes or cabbages, and as
they come in early they will be gathered before they can do any injury to
the cabbage or potato crops.
1394. All the routine culture required for a crop of beans is, destroying
weeds, slightly earthing up the stems, stirring the soil, watering in very dry
weather, and stopping the plants when the first opened blossoms are begin-
ning to set. Stopping in the case of an early crop may take place as with
the pea, at the joint above the first blossom as soon as it appears ; but this
is only when a very early crop is more desirable than an abundant one. A
very late crop of beans may be obtained by cutting over a summer crop, a
few inches above the ground, as soon as the plants have come into flower.
New stems will spring from the stools in abundance, and continue bearing
till they are destroyed by frost. Beans for the table should be gathered
before they arrive at maturity, which is known by their being black-eyed,
that is black at the hilum or point of attachment to the pod. When this
has taken place, beans are tough and strong tasted, and much inferior for
eating as a dish ; though they are excellent in the soups of the cottager.
The bean is sometimes attacked by the black aphis, which may be kept
under by abundant syringing with lime-water. Seed of any variety may
be saved by allowing a sufficient number of plants to bring their pods to
maturity ; it will keep a year, and sometimes two years.
The bean is rarely or never forced, not being held in sufficient estimation
for this purpose by the wealthy classes of society.
SUBSECT. III. — The Kidney-bean.
1395. The Kidney-bean, Phascolus L. (Haricot, Fr.\ includes two spe-
cies; the common dwarf kidney-bean, syn. French bean, P. vulgaris L.
an annual, growing twelve or eighteen inches high, a native of India ; and
the runner, syn. climbing kidney-bean, P. multiflbrus W., a twining annual,
attaining the height of ten or twelve feet, a native of South America.
Though both sorts are too tender to endure our springs and autumns in the open
air, yet so rapid is their growth during our summers, that they produce
abundant crops of green pods in the open garden, from June to October, and,
by forcing, these can be obtained all the year. The unripe pods both of the
dwarf and twining kidney-beans, form the most delicate legume in cultiva-
tion; having no tendency to flatulency like the pea and bean, and producing
63(5 LEGUMINACEOTJS ESCULENTS.
abundant crops in dry hot weather, when the pea, unless abundantly watered,
is withered up. The green pods, also, make an excellent pickle ; and the
ripe seeds are much used in cookery, especially in what are called haricots,
soups and stews. The scarlet runner, one of the twining varieties, is at once
a highly ornamental plant, and eminently prolific in pods, from July till
the plant is destroyed by frost ; and as it is of the easiest culture, it forms
one of the most valuable plants in the catalogue for the garden of the cottager.
1396. Varieties. — Those of the dwarf species (Haricot nain, or sans rames,
JFV.), are very numerous; but the kinds considered best worth cultivating
are the early negro for an early crop ; Fulmers early, a very prolific variety
for a succession ; and the cream-coloured for a main crop. The best variety
of the twining species (Haricot a rames, -Fn), for cultivating for its pods to
be used green, is the scarlet runner; though there is a large white runner, and
also a variegated-blossomed runner, which produce equally good pods, but the
blossoms are not so ornamental. The pods of the kidney -bean are smooth, and
those of the scarlet-runnersare roughoutside. The rootsof the scarlet runner, if
taken up on the approach of frost and preserved through the winter, will grow
again next spring, like the roots of the marvel of Peru, or the Dahlia; or like
them they may be protected where they stand ; but as nothing would be
gained by this practice, it is never adopted. Half a pint of seed will sow a
row eighty feet in length, the beans being placed from two inches and a half
to three inches apart in the row ; and this length of row will be required for
gathering a single dish at a time. The seed comes up in a week or less.
1397. Culture of the dwarf sorts. — The first sowing in the open garden
may be made in the beginning of April, if the situation is warm, and the
soil dry. The second about the middle of the month, and subsequently
sowings may be made every three or four weeks till the first week in August.
The rows may be two feet asunder, and the beans deposited in drills from
two inches to three inches apart, and covered to the depth of one inch, or one
inch and a half. The routine culture consists in watering abundantly in
very dry weather, and using lime-water, if, which is often the case, the
plants are attacked by snails or slugs.
1398. Culture of the twining sorts. — These being rather more tender than
the dwarfs, are not sown till towards the end of April or the beginning of
May ; a second sowing may be made about the middle of May ; and a third
and last in the first week of June. In cottage gardens, one sowing in the
beginning of May will produce plants which, if the soil is in good condition,
water judiciously applied, and the green pods gathered before the seeds
formed in them begin to swell, will continue bearing, from the middle of
June, till the plants are destroyed by the frosts. The rows, as in every
similar case, should be in the direction of north and south, for reasons al-
ready given (723) ; they should be at least four feet apart, and the beans
should be placed in shallow drills, three inches asunder, and covered about
two inches with soil. Where the plants come above ground they may be
slightly earthed up ; and in another week when they begin to form runners,
they should be sticked with branches or rods, the former being preferable,
of six or eight feet in length, a row being placed along each side of the plants,
as in sticking peas ; but instead of the stakes for runners being placed wider
apart at their upper extremity, they may be made to meet there, as, contrary
to the vegetation of the pea, the twining stems of the runner produce more
leaves below than at their summits. In many cases, the scarlet runner may
TEE KIDNEY-BEAN. 637
be planted where it will not only produce excellent crops, but afford shelter or
shade to a walk, a seat, a grassplot, a cucumber bed, or a temporary arbour.
Where sticks or rods are* scarce, wires or even twine may be substituted, and in
this way the scarlet runner may be trained against wooden walls, pales, or other
fences, or made to cover the walls of a cottage. The following mode of
arranging pack thread, or hempen lines, for the support of scarlet runners,
is practised in the neighbourhood of St. Petersburg. Take half-inch and
two-inch wide rods or laths, join them at top as in fig. 378, a, so as to
leave the ends a few inches beyond the junction; stick the lower ends
into the ground, just within the lines of the plants. Connect these
triangles by similar rods at the bottom, as at 6, about three inches above
the soil. Take a cord, fix it firmly to the lower bar ; carry it over the
upper bar, which is placed in the cross formed by the long ends left, as
shown in the figure. Make a loop a yard long, carry the cord again over the
Fig. 378. Prop for Climbing Plants. Fig. 379. Section of the P
Climbing Plants.
plank (that is, round it), and fix the other end to the lower rod on the other
side. In like manner go on through the whole length, taking care to make
the loops all of the same length. Through these loops suspend a long stick
or bar, the section of which is shown in fig. 379 ; hang to this bar bags of
sand, as many as may be wanted. Train the plants up the strings, and when
they are well grown the whole will be covered, and when in flower the ap-
pearance will be very ornamental. By this method, the cords being fixed
at the lower bars will not pull the plants out of the earth, the tension and
contraction of the cords being counteracted by the bar suspended in the loops,
which is raised or lowered by every change of atmospheric moisture ; so
much so, indeed, that it serves as an hygrometer. (G. M.9 1841, p. 211).
In some market gardens in the neighbourhood of London, very abundant
crops of the scarlet runner are obtained without staking, by merely stopping
the plants after they begin to form pods. By this treatment they also con-
tinue longer in bearing, when the pods are to be gathered green ; but when
seed is to be ripened, it is found best to stake the plants.
1399. Gathering. —Care should be taken not to let any of the pods ripen,
otherwise these will attract all the strength of the plant, and prevent in a
great measure its future growth, for the production of young pods (p. 614).
The kidney-bean is sometimes attacked by the aphides, but its greatest ene-
mies in the open garden are the snails and slugs. A few plants should be
T T
0138 KADICACEOUS ESCULENTS.
set aside for ripening seed early in the season, in order that they may be per-
fectly matured while the weather is fine. The seed cannot be depended on
above a year.
Forcing the Iddney-bean. See 1104.
1400. The Lima bean, Dolichos L., of which there are several species
and numerous varieties, is cultivated in France and the South of Europe,
but it is rather too tender for the open air in Britain. See the Son Jardinier
for 1842, p. 257.
1401. The common lentil^ Ervum Lens L. ; the winter lentil, E. Ervilia
L. ; the Spanish lentil, Lathyrus sativus L. ; and the chick pea, Cicer arie-
tinum L. ; and some other lentils, are annuals cultivated on the Continent
as peas are in England, for their ripe seeds, which are put in soups or dressed
as a dish in the same manner as haricots.
1402. The white lupin, Lupinus albus L., is cultivated in some parts of
Spain and Italy for its ripe seeds, which are put in soups, or dressed like
haricots.
1403. Substitutes for leguminaceous esculents are few, and chiefly the field
pea, which is a variety of the garden pea, and the sea pea, Pisum maritimum
L,, a perennial, a native of Britain, on the sea-shore.
SECT. III. Radicaceous Esculents.
1404. The principal esculent roots cultivated in British gardens, are the
potato, Jerusalem artichoke, turnip, carrot, parsnep, red beet, skirret, scor-
zonera, salsify, and radish. All of these plants thrive best in deep sandy
loam on a dry bottom, deeply trenched, and well manured, and with an
atmosphere moist and moderately warm. The potato, turnip, and carrot
occupy a considerable space in the garden, but not the others. In a rotation
of crops they all answer well for succeeding leguminous or alliaceous plants,
and some of them for following the cabbage tribe.
SUBSECT. I. The Potato.
1405. The potato, Solanum tuberosum L. (Pomme de Terre, -FV.), is a
solanaceous herbaceous perennial with tuber-bearing subterraneous stems, a
native of the western coast of South America, and in cultivation in Europe,
for its tubers, from the beginning of the sixteenth century. Its uses as a
culinary vegetable and as a substitute for bread are known to every one.
Potato starch, independently of its use in the laundry, when mixed with a
small proportion of wheat flour makes a most excellent light bread ; and it
is also manufactured into a substitute for sago, arrow- root, and tapioca; and
as starch is convertible into sugar by fermentation, both a wine and a spirit
can be produced from it. The tender tops are eaten as spinach in Canada
and Kamtschatka, in the same manner as those of the gourd ; and the unripe
berries have been pickled and preserved, and when ripe dressed like those of
the tomato. As potatoes, like bread, are required at table every day in the
year, if the whole supply is grown in the garden, a large breadth will be
required for this purpose ; but the winter supplies are chiefly obtained from
the field or the public market, and indeed in most gardens only the early
crops are grown. The crop is more exhausting than any other, except in
cases where seed is ripened, as when a gardener grows his own turnip or
onion seed. In the rotation it ought either to be accompanied with, or follow,
a light crop which has been grown on soil in good heart. The uses of the
THE POTATO. 639
potato in the management of live stock, and its field culture, being foreign
to this work, we shall confine ourselves to a brief notice of its culture in
gardens.
1406. Varieties. — Early sorts : stems without flowers, and generally from
one foot to eighteen inches in length. Ash-leaved kidney: very early,
prolific, and well flavoured. Fox's seedling and Early Manly : not quite so
early, but very prolific, and of excellent quality ; the last, perhaps the most
profitable early potato that can be grown. The Rufford kidney, syn.
lady's finger ; considered the earliest variety in Lancashire, and also the best
flavoured, but not quite so prolific as the preceding kinds. Shaw's early :
a large, comparatively coarse, sort, generally cultivated in fields for the
London market ; very prolific, but not very mealy or high-flavoured.
Late sorts. — Steins with flowers, those with pink, red, or purple
tubers, blue, and of the white tubers, white ; generally between two feet and
three feet in length. The bread-fruit : roundish, white, mealy, prolific. The
purple eye : large, round, and mealy. The red-nosed kidney and the white
Yorkshire kidney : both mealy fine-flavoured sorts, and the latter will keep
till June. Kemp's seedling, a very prolific variety, of excellent quality,
much grown in Lancashire. The late bright red, syn. Devonshire red :
round, mealy, and by frequent turning, and, as soon as they begin to sprout,
picking out the eyes, will keep good till July. Lancashire pink-eyed :
round, large, mealy, and an excellent keeper. Purple, syn. Scotch purple :
small, round, mealy, and keeps later than any other variety. Those who
require a greater number of kinds may consult Chatwin's Catalogue of
Potatoes, published in 1842, in which, about one hundred and fifty varieties
are described.
1407. Culture. — The potato is propagated by cuttings of the tuber,
technically sets ; and where new sorts are wanted by seed. A quarter of a
peck of tubers will produce from 120 to 150 sets, according to the size of the
tuber; and as these should be planted at from six inches to nine inches
a part in the drill, according to the kind of potato, a calculation may readily
be made of the quantity of any particular kind wanted for sets. (See 916.)
The result of many experiments in the culture of the potato by sets, made
by the late Mr. Knight, the Horticultural Society, Sir G. S. Mackenzie, and
others, is thus given by Dr. Lindley in the Gardener's Chronicle : —
" Good sets with single eyes, taken from partially ripe tubers, or small
tubers undivided, furnish the best means of multiplying the potato. Large
tubers have been recommended, but it has been proved experimentally that
no advantage is derived from employing them, while there is a great disad-
vantage, in consequence of the large quantity required. It has been found,
too, that if the tubers are over- ripe, that is to say, have acquired all the
mealiness and solidity possible, they are apt to produce the curl. It is,
therefore, the practice with some growers of potatoes to take up in the
autumn what they want for ' seed ' before the general crop is ripe, or to
select for sets the worst-ripened potatoes they can pick out.
" The period of planting should be as soon after the 1st of March as cir-
cumstances will permit. ' I have uniformly found,' says Mr. Knight, ' that
to obtain crops of potatoes of great weight and excellence, the period of
planting should never be later than the beginning of March.' This is in
order to give the potato as long a summer as possible. From experiments
made some years ago in the garden of the Horticultural Society, it appeared
T T 2
640 BADICACEOUS ESCULENTS.
that a crop planted in the first week of March exceeded that planted in the
first week of April by about a ton and a quarter per acre. It must be
obvious, however, that the propriety of planting thus early will depend upon
the nature of the soil, and that it is too early for wet, heavy land, although
it is the best season for light soils. In reality, land cannot be advantageously
cropped with potatoes until all the superfluous moisture has drained away or
evaporated.
" In all cases the plantation should be made in open places, fully exposed to
light. The quality of the potato depends upon the quantity of starchy
matter (mealiness) it contains. Now this starchy matter can only be
formed abundantly by the action of light upon the leaves, which are the natural
laboratory in which such secretions take place, and from which they are con-
ducted by sure, though hidden, channels to the tubers where they are stored
up. To plant potatoes, then, in plantations or orchards, or under the shade
of trees, is to prevent the formation of the mealiness which renders this
plant so nutritious, and to cause the tubers to be watery and worthless.
This is probably one reason why field potatoes are usually better than those
raised in gardens.
" But the potato may suffer by its own shade as much as by the shade of
other plants. When its sets are planted too close, the branches shoot up
and choke each other, the leaves of the one smothering the leaves of the
other ; so that the more sets are planted, the smaller will be the crop of
this plant. Mr. Knight was the first to point out this common error, and
to show that there is a certain distance at which the sets of each variety of
potato should be planted so as to insure the greatest produce. By planting too
close, the plants smother, and so injure each other ; by planting at too great a
distance, land is uselessly wasted. Practice and well-conducted experiments
demonstrate what theory suggested, that the true distance at which potatoes
should be set is to be determined by the average length of the haulm. One
kind of potato is dwarf, and only grows six inches high ; its rows should,
therefore, be only six inches apart. Another kind grows three feet high,
and its rows should be three feet asunder. The space from set to set in the
rows appears to be immaterial ; six or eight inches are sufficient for those
which grow two feet high. An experiment formerly conducted by the
writer of these observations showed that, when the Early Champion, a sort
whose stems are on an average two feet long, was planted in rows two feet
six inches apart, the produce was 15 tons 19cwt. 82 Ibs. net per acre; while,
by reducing the distance between the rows to two feet, the produce was
increased to 24 tons ; but by diminishing it still further to one foot six
inches, the produce was reduced to 22 tons 16 cwt. 102 Ibs. ; and where the
rows were only six inches apart, the produce fell to 16 tons 17 cwt. 110 Ibs.
Such an experiment seems conclusive.
" The depth at which the potato should be planted is not ascertained
with the same exactness, nor perhaps can it be ; for much will depend
upon the nature of the soil. In warm, dry land, we regard nine inches as
not too deep," provided the sets are large and strong; "in cold, stiff soil,
four inches would be better. Six inches is a good depth for average land,"
and, indeed, may be considered the best depth in most soils. Weak sets do
not come up well at nine inches deep; but, on the contrary, four inches is too
shallow, occasioning the tubers to be partially exposed to the light, and hence
to become green. If, however, the land is so shallow as to admit of no
THE POTATO. 641
greater depth, then more space must be allowed between the rows for
earthing up. "In one of the experiments above alluded to, different
depths were also inquired into, when the rates of produce were nearly
as follows: — Three inches deep gave 13 tons; four inches, 14 tons; six
inches, 14^ tons ; and nine inches, 13 tons. At so great a depth as nine
inches, sets are apt to perish, unless the soil is dry, light, and warm. The
deeper, however, the sets can be safely inserted, the better, for the following
reason : — Potatoes are formed on underground branches ; the deeper the
set, the more branches will be formed before the shoots emerge from the
soil, and consequently the more ample will be the means possessed by the
potato plant of forming tubers. The important practice of earthing up is
to effect the same end, by compelling the potato stem to grow as much as
possible under ground.
" The best method of increasing a crop of potatoes is to destroy all the
flowers as they appear. The flowers and fruit of plants are formed at the
expense of the secretions elaborated by the leaves ; if of those secretions a
part is consumed in the organisation of flowers and fruit, there is so much
the less to accumulate in the tubers ; but if no such consumption is per-
mitted, the tubers will become the depositories of all the nutritious matter
which the plant is capable of producing." — (G. C., 1842, p. 155.)
A very common error in the garden culture of the potato is to plant them
too thick, in consequence of which, for want of light to the foliage, the
tubers never become mealy. A better mode would be to plant the rows at
such distances as to allow room for a row of brocoli, Brussels sprouts, or
borecole, between them, the steins of which would be sufficiently tall not to
be injured by the foliage of the potato by the time it reached them in the
autumn. We have seen a long-stemmed sort of potato grown on espaliers,
and an immense crop produced.
1408. For an early crop. — The sets may be planted in the first week of
October, in a sheltered dry situation, in light sandy soil, eight inches or nine
inches deep, and the surface of the ground afterwards covered with long dry
litter in such a manner as to exclude the frost and throw off rain. To
facilitate the latter object, the sets are best planted in beds, the rain being
conducted by the litter to the alleys ; or three rows may be planted at a foot
apart, leaving every third interval of the width of twelve feet. The plants
will appear above ground in March, and with the usual routine culture, and
nightly protection till all danger from frost is over, they will produce pota-
toes fit to gather in May, or early in June. Another mode is to forward the
sets by laying them on dry straw in a warm loft, room, or cellar, or on the
floor of a greenhouse hi January, or the beginning of February ; and when
they have produced shoots of two inches or three inches in length, which
will be the case about the middle or end of March, to plant them out in dry,
warm, sheltered soil, covering them with litter at night, and exposing them
to the sun during the day. Both these modes are practised in Lancashire
and Cheshire, and by both young potatoes are brought to market by the
first week of June, and sometimes earlier. By using whole potatoes as
sets, burning out with a red-hot iron all the eyes except one, the abundant
nutriment thus supplied increases the rapidity of the growth of the young
shoots, and produces both an abundant and an early crop. Planting either
sets, or sprouted sets, at the base of a south wall, and giving nightly pro-
tection, will produce potatoes fit to gather about the end of May ; and sets
642 RADICACEOUS ESCULENTS.
planted in pots forwarded on heat, and afterwards turned out into a warm
border, will effect the same object. For ordinary early crops in the open
garden the ash-leaved kidney may be planted in rows eighteen inches apart,
and six to eight inches asunder in the row, from the middle of February to
the middle of April.
1409. The Lancashire practice, in planting for an early crop, is as fol-
lows : — In the beginning of winter lay the ground up in narrow ridges,
two feet and a-half centre from centre, fig. 380, a ; in March the surface of
the ridges will be loose from the effects of frost,
dry from its position, and warmed by its ex-
posure to the sun to the depth of two inches
01 three inches ; collect this dry mould in the
^^ * ^^ bottom of the furrows, between the ridges, as
at b ; then lay on a little dung, and plant as
at c ; cover to the depth of two inches with dry
warm mould from the top of the ridge, and
when the plants begin to appear add two inches
Fig. 380. The Lancashire mode of m0re, and again two inches when they appear
planting potatoes & ^^ ^^ ^ ^ ^ p> ^j j,^ ^
also one of the best modes of planting a main late crop, whether in
the garden or the field, as testified by W. Falla, in Gard. Chron.^ 1842,
p. 252.
1410. The fast gathering of early potatoes may be made by taking one or
two of the largest tubers from every plant by hand, previously removing a
portion of the soil with a small three-pronged fork, fig. 33, c, in p. 135, and
afterwards replacing the soil. This, especially if a good watering is given,
will throw more strength into the tubers which remain ; when the lower
leaves begin to fade the crop may be taken up as wanted, by digging up the
plants and collecting the tubers.
1411. Messrs. Chapman's new spring potatoes. — " The production of what
may be termed late young potatoes, has been achieved extensively by the
Messrs. Chapman, of Brentford. They employ principally for this purpose
a white kidney, not a late one ; but yet none of the earliest varieties. The
tubers are taken up in spring, and spread thinly on a hard dry surface, in
order to prevent their springing too far before the time they require to be
planted. The greening thus induced is to be regarded as an unavoidable
consequence of exposure to air and light rather than an essential condition ;
for forwardness could be otherwise easily promoted by a few days' earlier
planting, at the warm season, at which it takes place, that is, the middle
of July. They are then planted in the open ground in the usual way.
The crop is taken up before frost arid stored between layers of soil, whence
the tubers, being delicately skinned, are taken only as required for use,
forming, both as regards appearance and quality, a very fair substitute for
forced new potatoes till the following spring. Any of the earlier varieties,
such as the ash-leaved kidney, or early Manly, might be planted even later,
and still be in time to- produce tubers before frost ; and they would prove
equally delicate when first taken up, but would not retain the quality of
new potatoes so long after as a variety which is less disposed to attain an
early maturity." (JV. in G. M. 1842.)
1412. For a main or late crop, sets, containing each a single eye, are
preferable. In cutting sets, enter the knife a little above the eye, slanting
THE POTATO. 643
the section somewhat downwards : each eye will thus have a fair proportion
of substance till the crown only is left of similar size to the other pieces ;
but here the eyes are generally too much crowded, and therefore all the
eyes, except one or two, should be pared off. The sets should have been
previously cut and exposed to the air for two or three days, to dry up the
moisture of the wound. They should be planted in rows two feet, or two
feet and a-half wide, and from six inches to eight inches apart in the row,
according to the richness of the soil and the vigour of the sort ; and about
six inches deep. The best time in the climate of London is (1407) the first
week of March, if the soil and the weather are suitable, or a week or more
later, if they are otherwise. They may either be planted in the Lancashire
manner (1409), in drills drawn six inches deep, or in holes made by the
potato dibber (fig. 17, in p. 131). They require no further culture than
stirring the soil between the rows, keeping it clear of weeds, and drawing the
earth up to the stems to the height of three inches or four inches above the
general surface ; not, however, in a narrow ridge, as is sometimes done, but
in a broad rounded ridge, thereby providing soil for covering the tubers that
may be protruded into it from the stem ; and pinching off the blossom buds
as soon as they appear. The crop will be fit to gather when the leaves and
the points of the shoots have begun to decay. They may either be wholly
taken up and stored in a cellar, or in a ridge (1152), or left in the ground
covered with litter, and taken up through the winter as wanted (857). For
potatoes to be used before March this is an excellent mode ; but at that
season they generally begin to grow, and then recourse must be had to such
as have been covered, so as to retard vegetation. (See 1416.)
1413. Young potatoes during winter are obtained by the following modes :
In Cornwall the sets are planted in October; they spring up a few weeks
afterwards, are ready before the autumnal frost stops their growth, and the
soil being covered with litter, to exclude the frost, they are begun to be used
about the end of December, and continue in use till May, when they are
succeeded by the spring -planted crops. Of late years Covent-garden market
has received supplies of early potatoes from Cornwall, treated in the above
manner (G. M., vols. ii. v. vi.) In various parts of the country young
potatoes for the table during winter are thus produced : — Large potatoes
are picked out from the winter stock of any early variety, and buried
in dry soil to the depth of three feet. This depth, and the circum-
stance of treading the soil firmly over the potatoes, so far exclude both
heat and air as to prevent vegetation. About the middle of July following,
take the tubers out of the pit, and pick out all the buds except a good one
in the middle of the potato. Plant these potatoes in a dry border sloping to
the south, the soil being in good condition, but not manured. Place the eye
or bud of each potatoe uppermost, and as their growth will be rapid at this
season, earth them up carefully, to preserve their stems from the wind.
About the end of October the young potatoes formed by the plants will
average the size of pigeon's eggs, and all that is now required to be done is,
to cover them wrell up with long litter, to preserve them from the frost.
During winter they may be dug up as wanted, and their delicate waxy taste
will resemble that of new potatoes (G. M.> vol. viii. p. 56). Mr. Knight
procured a crop of young tubers by planting large ones in September; not a
single shoot from these tubers appeared above the soil, but a portion of the
matter of the old tuber was merely transformed into young ones, as frequently
644 KADICACEOUS ESCULENTS.
happens when potatoes are laid between layers of earth in boxes. {Ibid.
p. 315.) The same thing has been effected by II. Taplin, who selects the
largest potatoes he can find in spring, continues rubbing off the sprouts as
fast as they appear till the month of August, when he prepares a bed of light
soil, about six inches thick, in a dry, warm shed. On this bed he places
his potatoes whole, and nearly close to each other, covering them with light
soil, four inches deep, giving it a moderate watering, and letting the bed
remain in that state till it is time to cover it over, in order to protect it
from frost. On examining the bed in December, he found an abundant crop
of potatoes, without the least appearance of haulm or outward shoot from
the parent root. (Gard. Chron. 1841, p. 182). See also 1101.
1414. Selecting and preparing the sets. — As the buds at the top end of the
tuber, like those on the points of shoots of trees, always vegetate first, these
are chosen for sets for an early crop, and they are found in the case of the
Rufford kidney to produce a crop nearly a fortnight earlier than sets taken
from the root end of the tuber, where the starch being more concentrated,
requires a longer period to be converted into mucilage (552). For a main
crop the point of the tuber should be rejected whenever it contains a num-
ber of small buds, because these produce an equal number of weak stems,
which, as shown above (1306), are far inferior in productiveness to one good
stem ; and the root end ought to be rejected, because the buds there, espe-
cially when the potato is over-ripened, sometimes do not vegetate. Early
potatoes intended for being cut into sets are found to keep better and sprout
earlier when they are taken up before they are ripe, just when the outer
skin peels off, and before the stalk or stem begins to wither, and exposed to
the direct influence of the sun in any dry surface, till they become green.
This will require a month or six weeks, when they become quite green
and soft, as if frosted, and often much shrivelled. They are then put
away in a cellar or pit, where they remain dry and cool till February,
when they will be found sprouted and fit to cut into sets, and plant at
once.
1415. Greening potatoes for sets, is practised as above (1414), stated with
a view towards forwarding the crop; but u why it does so, appears to be imper-
fectly understood, even by those who practise it. It is well known that
tubers are not solely formed on the underground part of the stem ; they
are also formed upon the stem above ground in many varieties, and these
formations are of course green. Though formed at the same time as those
below, or later, yet they sprout directly, in the same manner, even in the
case of late varieties, the underground tubers of which do not vegetate till
the following spring. When, however, an underground tuber is exposed to
light, it becomes green, arid thereby is assimilated to the nature of the tuber
produced above ground, and like it disposed to sprout earlier than those not
subjected to the influence of light. It is not, however, necessary to green
the sets for a general crop, for if planted in time they come up early enough
to be safe from spring frosts without previous exposure, for the purpose of
greening ; but in the case of early plantations (1408), with protection if
necessary, greening may be of some advantage ; and in the method of
retarding the sets so as only to plant them in July for a late young crop, it
is unavoidable, for the tubers would either grow too much or rot, if they
were not spread out in a dry cool situation, and consequently one unfavour-
able for growth. Instead of greening the tubers when taken up, and
THE POTATO. 645
afterwards pitting them till spring, it would most probably answer better
not to expose them to the process till more immediately before planting,
in order that the excitement to growth might go on without an intermediate^
check. — (N. in G. M. 1842.)
1416. Taking up and preserving a crop. — The art of keeping potatoes,
whether for culinary purposes or propagation by sets, is founded on the
following principles: — "Potatoes may be viewed as tuberous stems, edible
only when in a blanched state ; for exposure to light is injurious to their
nutritive qualities, more especially if vegetation is excited. The latter may
be checked, it is true, by various means ; but nothing can prevent the tubers
from becoming green if long exposed to direct light. That this affects them
even in winter, in some degree, there is no doubt ; but as the heat of the
season advances, the influence of light becomes much more evident ; and
when some time exposed to light, instead of being wholesome, they ultimately
become, to a certain extent, poisonous. Potatoes ought, therefore, to be
kept as much as possible in the dark. They ought not to be exposed to
light a single day after they are dug up ; they are even deteriorated in qua-
lity by spreading out to dry previously to storing up. The less they are
dried the better, for drying injures the skin. If the skin, and perhaps a
portion of the substance immediately below it, is made to part with its
natural juices by drying, it is not at the same time rendered incapable of
absorbing moisture if presented to it ; but the natural juices, although
watery, are yet not water ; and, therefore, the latter substance being foreign,
must, when introduced into the tuber, prove injurious to it. Fermentation
is sometimes brought on by putting moist potatoes together in large masses
in a warm situation, and of course changes the whole substance, and anni-
hilates the vegetative principle. It should, therefore, be carefully guarded
against, by not throwing the potatoes into too large heaps, but rather laying
them up in long ridges, with divisions of earth at intervals corresponding
with the quantity of potatoes that are intended to be taken out at once. If
potatoes are dried unavoidably, they should not be again wetted till such
time as they are about to be cooked. No good judge of the nature of
potatoes would choose to purchase out of the washed heaps exposed in towns
in preference to such as are unwashed. It is not well to use straw next
potatoes, for it becomes decomposed by the moisture, and, by its decomposi-
tion, carburetted hydrogen is formed. The colour of the flesh of the white
kidney potatoe has been known to be changed from white to yellow when
boiled, in consequence of a straw covering having been placed next them in
the ridge, and at the same time a bad flavour communicated. If the above
observations are attended to, failures to any extent worth noticing in the
vegetation of the sets will not occur. Potatoes have been known to have
been taken up in a very wet state indeed, and buried in small quantities in
moderately dry soil ; but no failure in the sets resulted from such practice."
(jV. in G. M., 1842.) Potatoes intended for seed, as we have seen
(1407), should be taken up before they are ripe ; but those for keeping
should be mature. The greatest care is necessary, in both cases, not
to make the slightest wound on the rind of the tuber, which, if done,
is certain of sooner or later bringing on decay. They may be preserved in
cellars which are out of the reach of frosts, in pits hi dry sandy soil, or in
ridges above the surface, five feet wide, and of any convenient length,
first covered with turf, if it can be had, placing the grassy side uppermost,
646 RADICACEOUS ESCULENTS.
not next the potatoes; then with a coat of six inches or eight inches of
soil, and, lastly, with such a thick coating of thatch as shall as effectually
exclude both rain and heat, as if ice were to be kept instead of potatoes. If
the potatoes are covered up in this manner, when they and the soil beneath
them are of a temperature not much above the freezing point, they will
keep without sprouting, for any required period ; provided the same care be
taken in opening and covering them, when any are wanted for use, as is done
in taking ice from an ice-house. To lessen this care, as many as will serve
a week may be taken at a time. As ice may be preserved from thawing in
an underground cellar, so may potatoes be from sprouting. Whenever
potatoes are preserved in a situation that admits of such a rise of temperature
as to occasion their sprouting, they ought to be turned over as often as the
sprouts have grown to half an inch in length ; otherwise their quality will
become greatly deteriorated by the increase of fibrous matter in the tuber, in
consequence of the action of the sprouts. Indeed, the best mode is to scoop
out the eyes with the point of a knife or gouge (418), or to sear those of the
potatoes which are to be kept longest with a hot iron, or to scald or destroy
vitality, by putting them for a short time in boiling water, or in a heated
oven. Kiln-drying potatoes is a practice not uncommon in some parts of
Scotland ; but they should not be afterwards wetted till they are being
prepared for use. Every one who knows the difference in the eating of the
potato that has, and one that has not sprouted, will admit the importance of
this subject.
1417. Diseases^ insects^ S$c. — The potato is subject to the curl in the
leaves, which, when it has once taken place, cannot be remedied, but which
may, in general, be prevented by using healthy sets from the middle or top
end of the tuber, and by good culture in well pulverised soil, dry at bottom.
The heating and fermenting of sets, after they have been cut, often produces
the curl and other diseases ; and some particular soils and manures seem to
be the cause of the scab in the tuber. These diseases, however, are more
common in fields than in gardens. A change of variety, or of sets of the
same variety from a different locality, is frequently resorted to, more espe-
cially in field culture, as a general preventive of disease in the potato.
Forcing the Potato, see 1100.
The sweet potato, Convolvulus Batatas, £., has already been treated of in
the Chapter on Forcing (1102).
SUBSECT. II. — The Jerusalem Artichoke.
1418. The Jerusalem Artichoke, Helianthus tuberosusZ/. (Poire de Terre,
Fr.) is a corymbiferous tuberous-rooted perennial, a native of Brazil, but
sufficiently hardy to thrive in the open air in Britain. Before the potato
was known, the tubers of this plant were much esteemed, but they are now
comparatively neglected, though in our opinion the Jerusalem Artichoke is
as deserving of culture as the common artichoke. The tubers are whole-
some, nutritious, and in stews boiled and mashed with butter, or baked in
pies with spices, they have an excellent flavour, resembling that of the com-
mon artichoke. Two or three rows of a few yards in length are sufficient
to afford a small family an occasional dish through the autumn and winter.
Propagation is effected by division of the tuber, or by small tubers planted
in March : the soil ought to be light, sandy and rich, and the situation open.
As the steins grow from four feet to eight feet in height, the rows may be three
THE TURNIP. 647
feet or four feet apart, and the plants a foot distant in the row. The tubers
may either be taken from the plants as wanted, or the crop dug up and
housed in the manner of potatoes. No plant in the whole catalogue of~
culinary vegetables requires less care in its culture. It very seldom flowers,
but by destroying the tubers as they appear, it might doubtless be made to
produce seed, by means of which some improved varieties might possibly be
obtained.
SUBSECT. III. — The Turnip.
1419. The Turnip, Brassica Rapa Z,., is a cruciferous biennial, a native
of Britain, of no value in its wild state, but so greatly changed by culture
as to become one of our most useful culinary and agricultural vegetables.
It was cultivated by the Romans, but was little known about London till
the beginning of the 17th century. The use of the root in broths, soups,
stews, and entire or mashed, is general in all temperate climates, and also
the use of the tender radical and stem leaves, and the points of the shoots,
when the plant is coming into flower, as greens. The seedling plants,
when the rough leaf is beginning to appear, like those of all others of the
Brassica family, are used in small salading. The earliest crop of turnips
comes into use about the end of May, or beginning of June, and a succession
is kept up throughout the summer by subsequent sowings ; and turnips may
be had through the winter, partly from the open garden and partly from
roots stored up, in the manner of potatoes. Hence a large portion of the
kitchen-garden is devoted to this crop. A well-grown turnip has a large,
smooth, symmetrical bulb, a small neck, and a small root or tail, with few
fibres, except near its lower extremity. In the rotation the turnip follows
the potato, the leguminous family, or any crop not cruciferous.
1420. Varieties. — The early Dutch, white, small, and if sown towards
the end of March or the beginning of April, will be fit for use towards the
end of May ; the Stone, white, larger, and adapted for successional crops till
winter. Scotch yellow, syn. garden yellow, excellent for winter use ; the
Swedish, syn. Rutabaga, greenish- yellow, of excellent flavour, but requires
a great deal of boiling ; it will keep either in the open garden till March,
when its tops will make excellent greens, or in the root-cellar, or buried
in a thatched ridge till turnips come again. This variety differs from all
the other kinds of turnip in admitting of being transplanted, and yet bulbing
nearly as well as if sown where it is finally to remain. The other varieties
may be transplanted, provided the very extremity of the tap root is pre-
served uninjured, which is done by using a transplanter (fig. 32, in p. 135),
or by having part of a row of plants sown over a layer of compact rotten
dung. The point of the tap root stops at the dung, and branches into it,
and the plant can thus be taken up along with the dung without injury.
The Maltese, syns. yellow Maltese, golden Maltese, is a very good, small,
yellow, much flattened, winter turnip. The Teltow, syn. French turnip ;
yellow, small, long-rooted like a large radish, but of most excellent flavour,
always used with the rind on, in which the flavour resides ; neither fit to be
eaten boiled alone or raw ; but two or three of them in seasoning will give
a higher flavour than a dozen of other turnips. This variety is much
cultivated on the Continent, though neglected in England ; but in our opinion
it ought to be in every suburban garden.
1421. Culture. — The turnip, with the exception of the Rutabaga, can only
648 RADICACEOTJS ESCULENTS.
be propagated by seed, and for a bed four and a half feet by twenty -four
feet, the plants to remain being thinned to seven inches' distance every
way, the quantity required is half an ounce. The seed comes up in ten
days or a fortnight, according to the season. The soil should be in good heart,
and well pulverised. If sown in raised drills, they do better than on level
ground, more especially on soils inclined to be tenacious. Sown broadcast
on such soils, they do no good. A sowing should be made once in March, and
twice in April, for the earliest crops ; and afterwards at intervals of four or five
weeks, till the middle of August, for a winter crop or for plants to stand
through the whiter to shoot up and supply greens in February, March, and
April. The main crops of white, yellow, and French turnips, should be
sown in the latter end of June. All the sorts should be sown in drills, as
admitting of stirring the soil among the plants with less labour. The earliest
and latest crops should be of the early Dutch, as coming into use sooner in
autumn, and sending up sprouts soonest in spring. They may be in rows a
foot apart, and the plants thinned out to six inches' distance in the row, and
this width will also answer for the French turnip ; but the stone and the
yellow may be sown in rows eighteen inches apart, and the Swedish at two
feet ; the distance in the rows being proportionately increased. The routine
culture consists in weeding, thinning, stirring the soil, and supplying water
abundantly in very dry weather, to prevent the roots from becoming tough
and stringy ; taking great care, when stirring the soil, not to earth up the
roots, which will prevent their swelling.
1422. In gathering the root the entire plant is necessarily pulled up,
and the tops and tails taken at once to the rot heap. Choose the largest,
and take them from the most crowded parts of the rows, to make more
room for the growth of those which remain. In gathering the tops in
spring, the tenderest leaves only are taken, whether from the crown of
plants that have not yet run, or from the flower-stems. Some also gather
the points of the stems, which, however, are much less delicate than the
leaves, but excellent to salt beef. The leaves and tops are equally good
from all the varieties ; but most acrid from the French turnip, and least so
from the Swedish.
1423. Preserving turnips through the winter. In ordinary winters neither
the yellow nor the Swedish turnip require to be covered; but as when left
exposed they will begin to vegetate, in February a portion of the crop should
be taken up, topped (but not tailed, which would favour the escape of sap),
and preserved in sand or straw in the root-cellar, or in a ridge like potatoes
(1416) ; and like them so thickly thatched as to exclude both heat and rain,
and maintain a degree of coolness that will prevent vegetation. Or the rows
as they stand on the ground may have the leaves cut off and covered with
soil, so as to form them into ridges, and after the whole mass of the ridges
lias been cooled down to 32° by frost, it may then be thickly covered with
litter, to exclude the heating influence of the sun. A third mode of pre-
serving turnips through the winter, consists in cutting off the tops with a
slice of the roots attached, so as to prevent them from ever vegetating again,
and in this state, with or without the tails, burying them in moist sand in a
cellar, or in a ridge in the open air like potatoes. As the turnip vegetates
at a much lower temperature than the potato, much greater care is required
to keep it in a dormant state.
1424.. To save seed.-— One kind only can be sowed in one garden in the
THE CARROT. 649
same year. The best formed roots, and those which have come earliest or
latest into maturity according to the variety, should he selected and trans-
planted in autumn, or early in spring, into a spot hy themselves, and the
stems tied to stakes, if there should be any danger apprehended from high
winds. The seed will keep four or five years, but should be aerated once
every winter, during severe frost (1383).
1425. Diseases, insects, §c. — The turnip in very dry seasons is liable to
the mildew, if it has not been liberally supplied with water ; and also to
excrescences on the root, produced by a species of cy nips which deposits
its eggs there. Lime, soap-boilers' waste, putrid urine, or the urine of cows,
are said to render the soil offensive to the parent-fly ; and when its attacks
can be foreseen, this mode may be adopted, more especially as, if it fails, it
will at all events manure the soil. On coming through the ground, the
plants are liable to the attacks of a small jumping beetle, called the turnip-
flea, Haltica ne'morum, besides five or six other insects of different kinds,
the effects of which are very serious in field- culture ; but in gardens they
can generally be guarded against, or counteracted by watering, or by digging
down and re-sowing.
1426. Forcing the turnip for the root is seldom attempted in British
gardens, though in Russia and some parts of Germany it is sown on hotbeds,
as radishes are in England. The roots, more especially those of the Swedish
turnip, placed close together on heat in January, will produce an abundance
of delicate sprouts through February and March.
SUBSECT. IN.— The Carrot.
1427. The carrot, Daucus Carota L. (Carotte, Fr.\ is an umbelliferous
biennial, common in Britain and other parts of Europe, of no use in cookery
in a wild state, but by culture rendered succulent, agreeable, and when
young highly nutritive. , It is excellent in a mature state as a dish, or in
stews ; and no vegetable is so much in demand for soups. For the latter
purpose, it is required in some families throughout the year ; several crops
being forced, and the supply from May to October being furnished from the
open garden. A considerable breadth is therefore required for this crop,
which in the rotation may follow some of the cabbage tribe, or some crop
that has been manured ; for any manure, except what is in a liquid state,
applied to the carrot, causes the roots to branch and their rind to become
ulcerated.
1428. Varieties.' — Early horn ; orange, short, coming earlier to maturity
than any other variety. Early scarlet horn; larger than the preceding, and
better for a main crop. Long orange, syn. Altringham ; orange-red, long,
well-adapted for a main crop. Long red Surrey ; red, long, excellent also
for a main crop. Long white; white, very delicate flavoured, produces an
immense crop, but does not keep well through the winter. Violet, syn.
purple ; violet, large, sweet, not much cultivated.
1429. Culture. — By seed is the only mode of propagation; and as the
seeds have numerous forked hairs on their edges, by which they adhere
together in clusters, they should be rubbed between the hands and mixed
with dry sand, in order to separate them as much as possible before sowing.
For a bed four and a half feet by thirty feet, the plants to be thinned out
to six inches every way, or for 150 feet of drill, 1 oz. of seed will be requi-
site. The seed does not come up for four or five weeks in spring, and for
650 RADICACEOUS ESCULENTS.
three or four in summer and autumn. The soil should be light and sandy,
and deep and rich, in consequence of being well trenched and manured the
preceding year. The first sowing of the early horn may be made hi the
middle of February, in a warm border ; and if the family require a constant
supply of young carrots, successional sowings may be made, as recommended,
for a constant supply of turnips. From the middle of March to the first week
in April is the best time for sowing the main crop for taking up and preserving
through the winter ; and a crop of small carrots, to stand through the winter
and afford roots in February, March, and April, may be sown in the first
week in August. The early scarlet horn is by some the only carrot grown,
answering well both for an early and a main crop (G. M., 1840, p. 207,
and 1841, p. 27). All the crops that are to be drawn young may be sown
in drills, six inches apart, and the plants thinned out to three inches, but
those which are intended to produce carrots of full size should be sown in
drills eighteen inches apart, and the plants thinned out to from eight inches
to ten inches in the row. Carrots will grow in peat. Deep holes may be
made with a large dibber, and filled with prepared rich sandy soil, and
two or three seeds sown in each hole, to be afterwards thinned, so as to
leave the best in each hole. They may be produced of large size in this
way, even where the ground is too stiff to produce otherwise a good crop.
Routine culture as in the turnip (1421), with this difference that the
soil between the rows should not be stirred deeper than is necessary to kill
the weeds ; for by so doing the lateral fibres will be encouraged to grow
large and disfigure the main roots.
1430. Gathering and keeping. — Young carrots are drawn by hand, and
full-grown ones dug up with the spade or two -pronged fork, a trench being
made alongside one row after another, so as to admit of taking out the
carrots without, in the slightest degree, injuring their rind. A portion of the
main crop may be left in the ground, and covered with litter to be taken up
as wanted ; and the remainder may be preserved in cellars or in ridges by
some of the modes recommended for preserving turnips. When the top is
cut off along with a slice of the root, there is no difficulty in preserving
carrots till carrots come again ; indeed they have been so preserved for two
years (G. M. vol. vii. p. 191) ; but we should prefer keeping on the fops
and burying the carrots hi an ice-cold thatched ridge.
1431. Diseases and insects. — The root is sometimes disfigured by ulcers,
supposed to be the effect of recent manure, and they are often attacked by
the grub of some dipterous insect, which in its perfect state may be prevented
from depositing its eggs, by watering the soil after the plants have come up
with some nauseous liquid manure, such as putrid urine or spirits of tar, at
the rate of about one gallon to every sixty square yards (C. M'-Intosh, in
Gard. Chron.for 1841, p. 53). Grubs already in the soil cannot so readily
be destroyed, unless the ground is so deep that they may be trenched down
when the want of air will kill them ; but some other crop may be grown on
it which the insects will not attack.
1432. Seed saving. — Select some of the finest specimens and transplant
them in autumn, growing only the seeds of one variety in one year in the
same garden. The seed, if kept dry and adhering to the stalk, will keep
three or four years ; but if separated from the stalk, it will grow with diffi-
culty the second year.
Forcing the carrot. See 1106.
THE PARSNEP AND THE RED BEET. 651
SUBSECT. V. — The Parsnep.
1433. The parsnep, Pastinaca sativa, L. (Panais, Fr.), is an umbel-
liferous biennial, a native of Britain, on calcareous soils in open situations"
and withstanding our severest winters. Tt has been as much changed
by culture as the carrot, and like it its roots are highly valued both
in horticulture and agriculture. With respect to culinary purposes, they
are in season from October till March. They differ from the carrot in
being only used in their mature state, and chiefly during winter; form-
ing a dish to be eaten to meat or to salt fish ; and they are used in soups,
mashed, stewed, and fried. Beer and wine can be made from them, and also
a powerful spirit. The parsnep is excellent food for cows, being highly
nutritive, and giving to the milk a peculiarly rich and agreeable flavour,
resembling that from cows that are fed on the richest old pasture. Hence
it should be grown on a large scale by every cottager that has a cow. Only
a moderate space is required for them in the gentleman's garden, and they
come in in the rotation along with the carrot and the beet. The varieties
are few ; the hollow-crowned is best worth cultivating. The Siam variety
has a small yellow root of a high flavour, and the turnip-rooted has a round
root.
1434. Propagation and culture. — The seed required for a bed five feet by
twenty feet, the plants to be thinned to eight inches' distance every way, is one
ounce : and the same fora drill of one hundred and fifty feet; the seed comes up
in eight or ten days. Seldom more than one crop is required, and this is sown
in March, in rows eighteen inches apart, the plants being afterwards thinned
out to eight inches' distance in the row. Routine culture as in the carrot.
The roots are not liable to be injured by frost, and may therefore be left in
the ground to be taken up as wanted till February, when they will begin to
grow. If parsneps are required after this season, a quantity of roots must be
taken up in winter, and stored like those of the carrot, taking care either to
cut off the tops, with a slice of the root, or to bury in an ice-cold thatched
ridge. The parsnep is seldom attacked by diseases, or by insects. Seed
may be saved as in the carrot, and it generally retains its vitality only one
year.
SUBSECT. VI. The Red Beet,
1435. The Red Beet, Beta vulgaris L. (Betterave, Fr.), is a chenopodi-
aceous fusiform-rooted biennial, a native of the South of Europe on the sea-
coast, and cultivated in gardens for its root from the beginning of the seven-
teenth century, and probably long before. The roots are boiled and eaten
cold, either to meat, especially mutton, by themselves, dressed as salad, or
in mixture with other salad ingredients ; they form a beautiful garnish, and
a very desirable pickle. The thin slices dried in an oven are also used in
confectionery, and the leaves may be used as spinach or greens. The roots
must be washed and also boiled with all their lateral fibres, and, in short,
without any part cut off except the leaves ; because it is found that when
the root is wounded in any part, the colour in boiling escapes through the
wound. There are several varieties, but the best are the common red beet,
the Castelnaudari, with a nutty flavour, and White's gigantic dark, a new
variety of very great merit. The turnip -rooted is an early variety with the
roots round, and the Basano beet has the skin of the root red, and the flesh
veined with rose colour, but it is scarcely known in British gardens. The
652 RADICACEOUS ESCULENTS.
common red and gigantic dark red are the best for a cottage garden. There are
various kinds of white-rooted and yellow- rooted beet, but these, being grown
chiefly for their leaves as spinach, will be noticed in the section on spina-
ceous plants. Seldom more than one crop of beet is required, and this is
sown in the last week of March or the beginning of April. For a bed four
feet and a half by twelve feet, or one hundred and fifty feet of drill, one ounce
of seed is sufficient. The ground should be prepared as for the carrot, and
the seed may be sown in drills at the same distances, and the same routine
culture given, with this difference, that blanks when they occur may be
filled up by transplanting when the plants are quite small. The plants come
up in a month. The crop will be ready for use in September, and may be
treated in all respects like a crop of carrots, and like them, if desirable, kept
in pits from December till the September following. Seed may be saved as
in the carrot, and it will keep nine or ten years.
SUBSECT. VII. The Skirret, Scorzonera, Salsify, and CEnothera.
Though these plants are at present but little cultivated in British gar-
dens, yet we think a small portion of each deserves a place for the sake of
variety.
1436. The sldrret, Slum Sisarum, L. (Chervis, Fr.) is an umbelliferous
tuberous-rooted perennial, a native of China, and in cultivation in British
gardens from the beginning of the sixteenth century. The part used is the
root, which is composed of fleshy tubers, about the size of the little finger,
and joined together at the collar of the plant in the manner of the tubers of
the ranunculus. The tubers were formerly esteemed as "the sweetest,
whitest, and most pleasant of roots," either boiled and served up with sauce,
or fried in various ways. The root is in season during the same period as the
parsnep. There are no varieties ; but when the plant is cultivated, it is
generally propagated by dividing the roots. Seed, however, may be obtained,
and its culture and management is in all respects the same as that of the beet.
The seed keeps four years.
1437. The scorzonera, or Viper's grass, Scorzonera hispanica, L.
(Scorzonere, or Salsifis d'Espagne, jFV.), is a chicoraceous fusiform-rooted
biennial, a native of the South of Europe, in culture in British gardens since
the middle of the sixteenth century. The root is straight, conical, and
about the thickness of a middle-sized carrot, with a black rind. It is used
boiled or stewed, in the manner of carrots or parsneps ; it comes into use in
August, and may be taken up in November, and preserved as long as may be
thought desirable. Though a perennial, it is always propagated by seed, of
which an ounce will be sufficient for one hundred and fifty feet of drill.
The seed comes up in three or four weeks. The routine culture is the same
as for the carrot and parsnep, and seed may be saved in the same manner ; it
keeps good two years.
1438. The salsify, or purple Goat's beard, Tragopogon porrifblius, L.
(Salsifis, Fr.), is a chicoraceous fusiform-drooted biennial, not unlike the
scorzonera, to which, however, it is much to be preferred, but with much
narrower leaves, at a distance resembling those of leeks, a native of England,
formerly cultivated for its roots, which were used like carrots and parsneps.
The seeds may be sown in March or April, and treated in all respects like
those of the scorzonera. The seed keeps two years.
1439. The Spanish salsify, Scolymus hispanicus, L. (Cardouille, Fr.\
THE HAMBURGH PARSLEY AND THE RADISH. 653
is a carcluaceous biennial, a native of the south of France, where the roots of
the wild plant are collected and dressed like those of salsify or scorzoiiera,
which they closely resemble when dressed. (Bon Jard., 1842.)
1440. The tree-primrose, (Enothera biennis, I/., an onagrarious fusiform-
rooted biennial, a native of North America, is cultivated in some parts or
Germany for the same purpose as the scorzoiiera, and the points of the
shoots are used in salads. The roots of the other biennial species may
doubtless be similarly applied. Seeds are readily procured from the seed-
shops, and the plant grows freely in sandy soil.
SUBSECT. VIII. — The Hamburgh Parsley.
1441. The Hamburgh parsley, Apium Petroselinum tuberosum Bon
Jard.., is a biennial, resembling the common parsley, but with much larger,
less curled leaves, and with large fusiform roots of the same colour and tex-
ture as those of the parsnep. It is occasionally cultivated in Germany, to
put in soups and stews, and also as a separate dish, like the parsnep or
Teltow turnip. Its culture is in all respects the same as that of the parsnep.
SUBSECT. IX. — The Radish.
1442. The radish^ Raphanus sativus L. (Radis and Rave, Fr.\ is a
fusiform-rooted cruciferous annual, said to be a native of China, in cultiva-
tion in Britain from the earliest period of garden history, for the roots which
are eaten raw as salad, or in mixture with other ingredients. The roots are
also excellent when boiled and sent to table in the manner of asparagus.
The young seedling leaves are sometimes used as small salading, and the
seed-pods are frequently pickled, and used as a substitute for capers.
1443. Varieties. — These are arranged as spring and summer radishes,
turnip radishes, autumn radishes, and winter radishes. The first class are
delicately acrid, the second more powerfully so, and the last strong and
coarsely pungent.
Spring and summer radishes. — Scarlet, syn. salmon-coloured: in most
general cultivation. Short-topped scarlet : the earliest and best variety.
Semi-long scarlet : a new sort, said to remain longer crisp than other spring
and summer radishes ; and the semi-long rose coloured^ also of excellent
quality. The short-topped scarlet is the best for a cottage garden.
Turnip radishes. — White turnip: root globular. Rose-coloured turnip.
Yellow short-topped turnip: form cylindrical.
Autumn radishes. — White Russian: root large and long, white, tapering
lilce a carrot, flavour nutty, like that of the rampion. Yellow turnip : root
large, ovate, rough, yellow or dusky brown without, but white within.
Round brown : root large, greenish brown ; the first is the best for a cottage
garden.
Winter radishes. — White Spanish : root large, outside greenish white, flesh
hot, firm, solid, and white. Black Spanish: root large, rough, black,
flesh white, hot, firm, solid ; the hardiest of the winter radishes ; the best
for a cottage garden.
1444. The soil for all the kinds should be light, rich, and well pulverized
to at least eighteen inches in depth, and the situation for an early crop shel-
tered and exposed to the sun. The seed should be sown in January and
February for a crop to be drawn in March and April, and covered with
u u
654 RADICACEOrS ESCULENTS.
mats, straw or fern, nightly and during great part of the day in snowy or
very cold windy weather. The seeds should be scattered so thin as not to
come up thicker than one and a half inches or two inches apart. For a bed
four feet six inches by twelve feet, two ounces of seed will be required. It
will come up ha eight or ten days. Successional sowings may be made every
ten days or a fortnight, till the end of May ; afterwards the autumn radishes
may be sown till the end of July ; and the winter radishes may be sown
from the beginning of July till the end of August. The autumn and winter
radishes are most conveniently cultivated in rows, and as they are allowed
to attain a considerable size before being used, the distance between the
rows may be nine inches or a foot, and the distance in the row six inches.
The winter radishes come into use in October, and being very hardy, may
either be left in the open ground through the whiter, which is the practice
in Russia where the ground is covered with snow, and taken up as wanted ;
or stored up in ridges or cellars in the manner of turnips or carrots. The
tender green seed -pods used in pickling are taken from plants of the early
sorts that have been allowed to run to seed for that purpose in July and
August. The early radishes are so short a time on the ground that they
are seldom troubled with insects ; but in the case of seed-bearing plants, the
sparrows are very fond of the newly-formed seeds. In saving seed only one
kind ought to be grown in the same garden at the same time. The seed
will keep two years.
For forcing the radish, the details have already been given at length (1108).
SUBSECT. X. — Oxalis Deppei, O. crenata, and Tropaolum tuberosum.
1445. Deppe's oxalis, O. Deppei B. C., is an oxalideous bulbous-rooted per-
ennial, a native of Mexico, introduced in 1827, and strongly recommended for
cultivation for its fusiform roots, which form a delicate vegetable dish ; and for
its stems, flowers, and leaves, for putting into salads. The roots, when the
plant is properly cultivated, become nearly four inches in length, and above
an inch in thickness, consisting of cellular matter without woody tissue or
sap vessels, not unlike, in texture and nutritious properties, the tubers of the
salep orchis, O. morio, L. " The roots are gently boiled with salt and
water, after being washed and slightly peeled ; they are eaten like aspa-
ragus, in the Flemish fashion, with melted butter and the yolk of eggs.
They are also served up like scorzonera and endive, with white sauce. They
form, in whatever way they are dressed, a tender succulent dish, easy to
digest, agreeing with the most delicate stomach. The analogy of the root
with salep indicates that its effect should be excellent upon all constitutions.
The young leaves are dressed like sorrel, put in soup, or used as greens ;
they have a fresh and agreeable acid, especially in spring. The flowers are
excellent in salad, alone, or mixed with corn salad, endive of both kinds, red
cabbage, beet-root, and even with the petals of the dahlia, which are deli-
cious when thus employed. When served at table, the flowers with their
pink corolla, green calyx, yellow stripes, and little stamens, produce a very
pretty effect." — (Professor Morren in Gard. Chron. 1841, p. 68.) Propa-
gation may be effected by the little scaly bulbs, which are found in abundance
round the collar of the plant. They require a light sandy soil, enriched
with decayed vegetable matter, and frequent watering in very dry weather ;
and Prof. Morren waters with liquid cow-dung in May. The bulbs may
"dXALIS DEPPEI, 0. CRENlTA, TROP^OLUM TUBEROSUM 655
be planted about the middle or latter end of April, when all danger from frost
is over, in drills seven inches asunder, the bulbs five inches apart in the row,
and covered with an inch-deep of soil. The bulbs being exceedingly small,
three or four of them are put down together, so as to form a group of plants.
Vegetation continues till October, when the plants may be taken up, and the
roots preserved through the winter in sand in a dry cellar, protected from
frost. The bulbs are previously taken off the sides of the crown of the root,
and preserved till the planting season, in the same manner. Prof. Morren
has seen a single plant produce from forty-five to fifty bulbs. — (Ibid., and An-
naks des Sciences Physiques fyc.^ de Lyon, tome viii., 1838.)
1446. Oxalis crendta Jacq., a tuberous-rooted oxalis from Lima, where it
is used as an esculent, has been cultivated in this country since 1 832, for the
same purposes as Oxalis De'ppei ; but it is said to be inferior to that species
in the flavour of the tubers. The stalks and leaves, however, are used in
tarts, alone or with other vegetables or fruits. The plant was much culti-
vated ten years ago, but is now out of repute, while O. Deppei is coming
into favour. There are several other bulbous or tuberous rooted species of
Oxalis from South America, which might in all probability be used in the
same manner as the species mentioned.
1447. Tropcbolum tuberosum Maund., is a tropseolaceous tuberous-rooted
climbing perennial, growing five feet or six feet high, introduced from Peru
in 1837, which has also been added to the list of our esculent roots. The
tubers, when well grown, are about the size of hens' eggs, and have the flavour
of sea-kale or asparagus, joined to somewhat of the hot taste of garden cress.
The plant is propagated either by cuttings taken from tubers placed in heat
early in the season, and treated like cuttings of dahlias so obtained, or by
cuttings of the tubers, leaving one good eye in each set. These may be
brought forward on heat in separate pots, and when all danger from frost is
over, turned out into a light, rich, sandy soil, three feet or four feet apart
every way, and either left to cover the ground with their trailing stems, by
which the soil will be kept moist, or sticked like peas. The latter is the
best mode in a moist season or damp soil. In October, when the leaves are
beginning to decay, the plants may be taken up, and the tubers placed in a
dry cellar, or in a pit or ridge, out of the reach of frost and damp, in the
manner of the tubers of oxalis, or those of the potato. This tropaeolum was
first successfully cultivated by Mr. Cameron, of the Birmingham Botanic
Garden, who, from about a dozen tubers, raised twenty-five plants in April,
turned them out in July, and dug up half a bushel of tubers from them in
November. (G. M., 1838, p. 254.) T. edule, of which there are plants
in the Hort. Soc. Garden, and other species with tuberous roots, might
doubtless be used as substitutes for the TropaBolum tuberosum L.
1448. Substitutes for esculent roots are to be found in the roots or tubers
of Psoralea esculenta Dec., a leguminous perennial, a native of Missouri,
cultivated in North America ; Lathyrus tuberbsus /,., Orobus tuberbsus L.,
Apios tuberbsus Boer., Arachis hypogaea L., all well-known leguminous
perennials ; Potentilla Anserma L. ; Trapa natans L. ; the common cara-
way, Carum Carui Z,., a well-known umbelliferous biennial, a native of
Britain in meadows, the roots of which were formerly eaten as parsneps are,
the leaves used in garnishing, and the seeds, as they still are, in confectionery
and distillation ; Campanula, any of the fleshy rooted species ; Allium, any
species ; Lilium pompbnium ; Echinophora spinbsa L., the prickly samphire,
uu2
656 SPINACEOUS • ESCULENTS.
the roots of which are eatable, with the flavour of parsneps, and the young
leaves make a very wholesome and excellent pickle; Cyperus £., tho
rush nut, and some others.
SECT. IV. — Spinaceous Esculents.
1449. The only spinaceous esculents generally cultivated in British gardens
are the common spinach, and the sorrel ; but we have also French
spinach, beet-spinach, perennial-spinach, New Zealand- spinach, and herb-
patience. They are all very mild- in quality, and may be used as greens by
persons with whom the cabbage-tribe would disagree. In the rotation of
crops, some of them, as the common spinach, are secondary ; others, as tho
white beet, are annual ; and some, as the sorrel, are stationary.
SUBSECT. I. — The Common Spinach.
1450. The common spinach, Spinacia oleracea L., (Epinard jF>.) is a
chenopodiaceous, dioecious annual, a native of the north of Asia, in cultiva-
tion from the middle of the sixteenth century, or earlier, for its succulent
leaves. It is a very hardy plant, the Flanders variety particularly, with-
standing the severest frost. The leaves are used boiled and mashed up as a
separate dish, and in soups or stews, with or without the addition of sorrel.
The leaves may be obtained from the open ground from April to Novem-
ber, and also to a moderate extent through the winter, and spring. There
are three varieties, the round-seeded, for sowing during summer; the
Flanders spinach, which has also smooth seeds but larger, and very large
leaves, for sowing in autumn for use in winter and spring ; and the prickly-
seeded, or common winter spinach. The quantity of seed required for a bed 4£
feet by 30 feet is two ounces, or for 150 feet of drill, one ounce. The
seed comes up in a fortnight or three weeks, according to the season. The
best mode of sowing is in drills 8 inches apart for summer spinach, and
10 inches or 1 foot for Flanders-spinach ; the plants in the former case to be
thinned to 6 inches apart, and in the latter to 8 inches, as soon as they
have shown a proper leaf. In order that the leaves may be succulent, and pro-
perly flavoured, the soil should be rich and the situation open and airy, more
especially for the main crops. The summer crops are frequently sown alter-
nately with rows of peas or beans ; but, as the spinach is generally more or less
shaded by these crops before it is fit to be gathered, it is never of so good a qua-
. lity as that which is grown in the open garden. For summer spinach, the first
sowing may be made in open weather in January, and sowings in succession
every three or four weeks may be made till the end of July. For winter
and spring use, a large sowing of the Flanders variety, and also some of
the prickly-seeded, which some prefer, should be made in the first
or second week of August, and a secondary one towards the end of that
month. These sowings will come into use in November, and will continue
to afford gatherings occasionally through the winter, and frequently in
spring, till May or June. The routine culture of all the sowings consists in
thinning, stirring the soil between the rows, and watering, in very dry
weather. In gathering, the largest leaf only, or at most a few of the largest
leaves, should be taken off one plant at a time : they may either be
cut or pinched off. A portion of the winter crop may be protected by
hoops and mats, when a heavy fall of snow is anticipated, to admit of its
being more readily gathered. Seed may be saved by leaving a portion of
THE FRENCH, NEW ZEALAND, AND PERENNIAL SPINACH. 65?
a row, containing both male and female plants. When the female blossoms
are set, the male plants should be pulled up. The seed will keep four
years.
SUBSECT. II. — Orache, or French Spinach.
1451. The orache, or French spinach, A triplex hortensis L., is a cheno-
podiaceous polygamous annual, growing to the height of three feet or four
feet, a native of Tartary, and in cultivation as a spinach plant from the be-
ginning of the sixteenth century. The leaves are used as in the common
spinach, to mix with those of sorrel, and sometimes also the tender points of
the shoots. There are three varieties, the white, syn. pale green-leaved, the
green-leaved, and the dark red-leaved. An ounce of seed will sow a drill of
one hundred feet in length ; and it comes up in ten days or a fortnight. A
dozen or twro of plants placed two feet apart every way, in rich soil, in an
open situation, kept moderately moist, will afford gatherings two or three
times a week during the whole summer. The leaves ought to be taken
while they are tender, and the blossoms pinched off as fast as they appear.
The earliest crop may be sown in February, and for succession another sow-
ing may be made in June. One plant will afford abundance of seed, which
will keep two years.
SUBSECT. III. — New Zealand Spinach.
1452. The New Zealand spinach, 'Tetragonia expansa H. K., is a ficoi-
daceous trailing annual, a native of New Zealand, growing freely in the open
garden during our summers, and suffering much less from drought than the
common spinach. It has been more or less in culture as a spinach plant
since the beginning of the present century ; but it is of inferior quality to
the common spinach, and even to the orache, or French spinach. The seed,
of which J oz. will be sufficient, may be sown on a gentle heat in March ;
it will come up in ten days, and the plants may be transplanted into small
pots and kept in a cold frame till the middle of May, when they may be
turned "out into the open garden, allowing each plant at least a square yard
for the extension of its trailing branches. Half a dozen plants are enough
for an ordinary- sized garden. The rest is routine. Seed may be saved in
fine seasons from plants in the open garden ; and in cold wet summers by
planting on dry rubbish, keeping a plant in a pot, or training one up a wall.
It will keep two years.
SUBSECT. IV. — Perennial Spinach.
1453. The perennial spinach, Chenopodium Bonus Henricus JL. (An-
serine, jpr.) is a chenopodiaceous perennial, a native of Britain, in loamy
soils, and formerly cultivated in gardens for its leaves, which, when grown
in a rich soil on vigorous young plants, make a very succulent spinach. The
plant is easily propagated by division, and it also ripens seeds. In Lincoln-
shire it is said to be cultivated in preference to the common spinach.
1454. The leaves of many of the annual indigenous chenopodiums may, doubt-
less, be used as spinach, when nothing better can be got ; as may those of the
Quin6a, Chenopodium Quinoa W., an annual, a native of Peru, and exten-
sively -cultivated there for its small white seeds. There are two varieties,
the green and the red-leaved ; they grow about the height of the orache, to
which they bear a very close general resemblance.
SPINACEOUS ESCULENTS.
SUBSECT. V. — The Spinach Beet, and the Chard Beet.
1455. The spinach leet, leaf beet, or white beet, Beta cicla L. (Bette,
or Poiree, Fr.) is a chenopodiaceous biennial, a native of the sea-shores of
Spain and Portugal, and in cultivation in British gardens from the middle
of the sixteenth century, for the leaves, which are boiled as spinach, or put
into soups, and used as greens.
1456. The chard beet, syn. Swiss chard, (Poiree a cardes, Fr.,) belongs
to this species ; it has leaves with strong white footstalks and ribs, and
these, separated from the disk of the leaf and dressed like asparagus, are
thought to be nearly as good as that vegetable. There are varieties with
white, yellow, and red midribs.
The advantage of using the white beet as a spinach plant is, that it
affords a succession of leaves during the whole summer ; and hence it is
recommended for the gardens of cottages. The same advantage also attends
the use of the sea-beet, Beta maritima L., a biennial, or imperfect perennial,
a native of our shores. Culture of both the leaf beet and the chard beet
as in the red beet (1435) ; and a single plant will produce abundance of
seed, which will keep five or six years.
SUBSECT. VI — Patience Spinach.
1457. Patience spinach, Herb Patience, or Patience dock, Rumex Pa-
tientia L. (Rhubarbe des Moines, Oseille-epinards, and Epinards immortels,
.FV.), is a polygonaceous perennial, a native of Italy, formerly common in
gardens as a spinach plant, but now much neglected. The leaves rise early
in spring, and continue to be produced during great part of the summer ;
they should be gathered when quite tender, and boiled with about a fourth
part of common sorrel. It may be raised from seeds, or increased by
division like the perennial spinach (1453).
SUBSECT. VII — The Sorrel.
1458. The sorrel, Rumex L. (Oseille, Fr.), is a polygonaceous genus,
of which two species have been long in cultivation for their leaves as sorrel.
The French sorrel, syn. Roman sorrel, or round- leaved sorrel, R. scutatus
L., is a perennial, a native of France and Italy ; and the common garden
sorrel, R. Acetosa L., is an indigenous perennial, common in moist meadows.
The leaves of both species are used in soups, sauces, and salads ; and very
generally by the French and Dutch as a spinach ; in the latter way it is
often used along with herb-patience, to which it gives an excellent flavour,
as well as to orache, turnip-tops, nettle-tops, and those of Jack-by-the-
hedge. There are several varieties of the common sorrel, but that most
esteemed is the large-leaved, 1'oseille de Belleville, Fr. The mild-leaved,
R. montanus H. P. (1'oseille vierge Fr.\ is a dioecious species, of which the
leaves are smaller and less acid than those of R. Acetosa. The male plant
of this species is recommended in the Bon Jardinier for being planted as
edgings in the kitchen-garden. All the kinds are propagated by division or
by seeds, and they may be grown in rows eighteen inches apart, and a foot
distant in the row ; lifting a portion of the plantation every year after the
flowering season, when the plants are in a comparatively dormant state, and
dividing them, and replanting. If this is neglected for two or three years,
the plants will become large and crowded, produce only small leaves, rot in
THE ONION. 659
the centre, and ultimately die off. Wherever French cookery is in demand,
a considerable breadth of sorrel will be required, and to produce the leaves
in a succulent state the soil ought to be rich, loamy, and kept moist.
1459. Substitutes for spinaceous esculents are to be found in chenopodia^
ceous plants generally : in ficoidese, portulacese, amarantacese, polygonacese,
crassulacese, and oxalidaceae ; to which we may add, Symphytum officinale
Z,., in Boragmaceae. See these orders in pp. 017, 618.
SECT. V. — Alliaceous Esculents.
14GO. The alliaceous esculents in cultivation in British gardens are chiefly
the onion, leek, shallot, and garlic ; but there are also the chive and the
rocambole. They are all asphodelaceous perennials belonging to the genus
Allium L. They all require a rich, loamy soil and an open situation ; the
onion, shallot, and leek crops occupy a considerable proportion of every
garden, and they may follow either the cabbage tribe or some of the legu-
minosse ; they are all more or less subject to the onion-fly, which is described
under the subsection on the onion (1470).
SUBSECT. I. — The Onion.
1461. The common onion, Allium Cepa L. (Oignon, Fr.\ is an asphode-
laceous bulbous perennial, the native country of which is unknown, but its
culture is as old as the history of the human race, and as extensive as
civilization. The common onion, though treated as an annual when grown
for its bulb, and as a biennial when grown for seed, is yet as much a peren-
nial as the garlic, and, like it, produces offsets the second year, though not
in such abundance. The Welch onion, potato onion, and bulb-bearing
onion, are different species, or very distinct varieties, also cultivated in
British gardens, but not of such antiquity as the common onion. The onion
is in universal use, when young, in salads; and when more advanced, or when
mature, in soups, stews, or alone boiled or roasted.
14G2. Varieties and species. — The silver-skinned ; middle-sized, or small,
chiefly used for pickling. Nocera ; very small, roundish or oblate, with
one or two small leaves, in colour resembling the silver-skinned ; good
for pickling. Strasburgh, syn. globe, Dutch, Deptford, Essex, and
other names ; large, oval, light-red tinged with green, strong flavour,
perhaps the most generally cultivated. James's Keeping ; large, pyramidal,
and in other respects like the preceding. Blood-red, syn. Thomas's onion ;
middle-sized, flat, strong flavour, and very hardy ; esteemed in the London
market for its diuretic properties. White Spanish, syn. Reading, White
Portugal ; large, mild, good for a general crop, but not a long keeper.
Brown Portugal ; resembles the preceding, excepting in colour. Tripoli ;
the largest onion grown ; oval, light-red, mild, but does not keep long after
it is taken up. The Welch onion, or ciboule, A. fistulosum L., a native of
Siberia, strongly flavoured, but does not bulb ; very hardy, sown in autumn
for drawing in spring. The underground, or potato onion, A. Cepa, var.
aggregatum, G. Don, multiplies by young bulbs on the parent root, which
have all the properties of the common onion, and are equally productive, but
do not keep longer than February. The tree, or bulb-bearing onion, syn.
Egyptian onion, A. Cepa, var. viviparum ; the stem produces bulbs instead
of flowers, and when these bulbs are planted they produce underground
G60 ALLIACEOUS ESCULENTS.
onions of considerable si/e, and being much stronger flavoured than those of
any other variety, they go farther in cookery.
1-163. Propagation and Culture. — All the kinds, except the last two, are
propagated by seeds, of which two ounces will be requisite for a bed 4 feet
by 24 feet, to be drawn young ; or one ounce for a bed 5 feet by 24 feet, to
remain till they are full grown. The seed will come up in about a fort-
night. The soil in which the onion succeeds best is a strong loam well
enriched with manure, which maybe of the strongest kind, such as bullocks'
blood, night soil, powdered bones, &c. previously rotted. It should be well
pulverised to a considerable depth. Where the soil is not apt to produce
annual weeds, the best mode is to sow broadcast, because less labour is
required in thinning ; but in the case of soils abounding with the seeds of
weeds, it is better to sow in drills, 9 inches apart for the smaller kinds, and
a foot for such as are larger : the plants to be thinned out when 3 inches
high to 4 inches, 6 inches or 8 inches, according to the kind, or whether
onions of large or moderate size are wished for. To produce small onions
for pickling, the silver-skinned variety, or the
Nocera, should be sown thick, or very thick,
according to the size wanted ; and to produce
very large onions, the Tripoli ought to be sown
thin, and the soil stirred once or twice during
Fig. 38i. The v\s. VM.The small- the summer, care being taken, in this and in
sickie-hoe. drill hoe. every other case of stirring the soil among
onions, not to earth up the incipient bulb, that being found to impede its
swelling. Liquid manure may be freely applied. The time for sowing a
main crop, to produce bulbs for keeping through the winter, is the beginning
or middle of March ; and great care is requisite not to cover the seed more
than an inch, and to press the soil on it firmly by treading or rolling. Thin-
ning and hoeing-up weeds should be performed with a 2 inch hoe (394), and
ihe soil may be stirred with the Spanish hoe, fig. 21, in p. 132 ; or, if the
plants are very close, with the sickle hoe, fig. 881. When the seeds arc to
be sown in drills, these may be made either singly with the drill-hoe, fig.
382, or in three or four at a time, by the drill-rake, fig. 383. The teeth of
this rake, like the head, are of wood ; tho
latter being pierced with holes an inch
apart, so that the teeth, which are to form
the drills, may be fixed at any convenient
distance. Market-gardeners sometimes,
instead of distributing the seed along the
drill, drop four or five seeds together at
Fig. 333. The driii-rake. every six or eight inches distant, giving no
thinning afterwards, but leaving the plants to press against and push aside
one another. This saves the labour of thinning ; and if the soil is kept
well stirred between the rows, a considerable bulk of crop will be produced,
though the onions will be very irregular in point of size.
1464. An autumn and winter crop of onions^ for being drawn as wanted
for salads and soups, is procured by sowing about the middle of August the
Strasburgh, or globe. These will be fit for use by Michaelmas, and will
afford supplies through the winter, and in early spring till the March-sown
crop for drawing comes into use ; or till thinnings can be obtained from the
main crop. Formerly the Welch onion was sown to stand through the win-
CULTURE OF THE ONION. 661
ter for a spring crop, but as it does not bulb, and is rather stronger than the
common onion, it is now but little cultivated : being much hardier, however,
it answers well for cold late situations.
] 465. A transplanted crop is, by many gardeners, preferred to a sown one.
The seed is sown quite thick in the last week of August, or first week of
September, and transplanted into rows, the ordinary kinds 0 inches wide,
and 6 inches or 8 inches apart in the row, and the larger kinds at double
these distances, in the following March ; the greatest care being taken to
keep the whole of the bulb above ground, and only to fix the fibres in the
soil. Onions thus treated attain a large size, and produce a uniform crop,
without the trouble of thinning, some weeks before a crop sown in March ;
the only drawback is that the plants sometimes run to flower. Some per-
sons, instead of leaving the onions in the seed-bed through the winter, sow
in June, or even in April, if the soil is very poor, quite thick, take up the
bulbs in September, and dry them and hang them in bags till the April
following ; when they are transplanted, by pressing them down with the
finger and thumb, at regular distances, in rows. As the object is to prevent
the bulb from being earthed up, the ground should be previously trodden
or rolled, at least along the line where the plants are to be placed. The
shorter the time these onions have been in the ground the preceding year
the less likely will they be to run to flower. Another mode of obtaining
. a transplanted crop, is by sowing in February on a slight hotbed, or merely
under glass, and transplanting into rows in April.
1466. The potato-onion may be planted in February, in shallow drills 1
foot apart and 6 inches distant in the row, leaving the point of every bulb
exposed, and pressing its lower end firmly to the soil. In Devonshire, where
this onion is grown extensively, it is slightly earthed up during summer
in the manner of potatoes. It is a common saying there, that it should be
planted in the shortest day, and taken up in the longest ; which being fully
two months before the common onion is taken up, it is evident that the
potato-onion cannot keep so long as that variety. It is an excellent onion
for the cottager, as it produces both an early and a certain crop.
14GJ. The bulb-bearing onion. — The small bulbs are collected from the
heads of the stems, and planted in shallow drills in September ; or the stems,
with the heads and bulbs attached, are hung up in a dry airy shed from
October till February, and the bulbs are then planted rather closer together
than those of the potato-onion. The crop will be fit to take up in July, or
the beginning of August.
1468. Treatment common to all the kinds. When the leaves begin to
decay at the points, or when any indication of running to flower appears,
bend down the stem an inch or two above the bulb, in order to check the
supply of sap thrown into the leaves, and thereby promote its accumulation
in the bulb. This is commonly done by one person with the back of the
rake, or by two, with the handle of a rake or hoe between them. If one
bending has not the desired effect, repeat the operation, or bend the stem
back again, or give it a twist and turn down at the same time. In very warm
dry seasons, the bulbs come to maturity and the stems decay naturally with
perhaps a few exceptions ; but in cold wet seasons, the operation is useful,
and is generally performed about the middle of August.
1469. Diseases, insects, $c. The onion in good soil is little subject to
disease, but there are some insects which live on it in their grub or maggot
GG2 ALLIACEOUS ESCULENTS.
state. When a crop has been attacked by insects, but little can be done ;
but when an attack is anticipated, it may be prevented by watering the
ground with some fetid liquid, such as putrid urine, or thin putrid liquid
manure, which by its offensive smell will deter the parent insect from depo-
siting its eggs in the plant, and at the same time invigorate the plant, and
prepare it to resist their attacks.
1470. The onion fly, Anthomyia ceparum Meigen, a dipterous insect, not
unlike the common house-fly, is the most common insect which attacks the
onion, the leek, and the shallot, and as it frequently occasions very serious
losses, the following details respecting it by Mr. Westwood may be useful.
During the summer months, and especially in June and July, the
cultivator of onions is annoyed by perceiving that, here and there, in
various parts of his crops, the plants appear to be in a dying state, and the
leaves fallen on the ground. At first, this is observed in plants which are
only just above the surface of the soil, and which are not above the thick-
ness of a straw. These soon die, and then others, of a larger size, are
observed to decay in a similar manner ; this continues until the middle of
July, and even until the onions are full-grown ; at which time they have
occasionally sufficient strength to survive the injury, with the decay of a
portion only of their outer layer or root, the centre part remaining sound.
In this manner whole beds are destroyed ; and it seems to be of little use to
sow again, as the fresh-sown plants fare no better. In light soils especially,
the attacks of this insect are occasionally very annoying to the gardener.
On stripping off the coats of the young onions which show evident signs of
decay, it is at once perceived that it is owing to the attack of a small grub,
destitute of legs, upon the vital parts of the bulb or stem of the plants, that
its destruction is occasioned. On pulling up a very young onion, its interior
is found to be completely devoured by a single grub at its very heart ; but,
in plants of larger growth, at least half a dozen of these grubs have been
counted, varying considerably in size. In the summer season, these grubs
are about a fortnight in arriving at their full growth. They generally con-
sume the entire of the interior of the onion, the outside skin of which is
alone left dry and entire, serving as a place in which they undergo their
transformations, without forming any cocoon. In about another fortnight
the perfect fly makes its appearance, the time varying according to the season,
from ten to twenty days. (G, M. 1837, p. 242.) To prevent the attacks
of this insect, it has been recommended to sow after strawberries that have
occupied the soil for four or five years, or to strew the surface of the soil
with charcoal cinders, such as may be obtained from a wood where charcoal
has been made ; or to transplant hi preference to sowing, dipping the roots
or the bulbs in a puddle consisting of three parts of earth, and one of soot.
The most effective mode with a sown crop, we believe to be that first men-
tioned, viz., to water with any fetid liquid, such as stale soap-suds mixed
with a little stale tobacco- water, from the middle of May till the beginning
of July. (G. M. 1841, p. 88.)
1471. Gathering the crop. When the necks shrink and the leaves decay,
pull or dig up the. bulbs ; spread them on dry ground, in the full sun, to dry
and harden completely, turning them every two or three days, and in a
week or fortnight they will be ready to house. Clear off the grossest part
of the leaves, stalks, and fibres ; then spread out the bulbs in an airy loft or
cool dry cellar, in which they should be turned over occasionally, and those
THE LEEK. 663
that begin to decay picked out. Thus treated, onions will keep sound and
good, all winter and spring, till May following, except the potato-onion,
which with difficulty keeps beyond February. Onions are not injured by
frost, unless they are moved when frozen, which, by bruising them, ruptures
the tissue, and when a thaw takes place, the bruised part becomes a wound,
and the bulbs begin to decay. Onions intended for market are tied by the
neck round sticks, by strands of matting, or plaited into straw, and thus form
what are called ropes of onions. Hanging up these ropes in an open airy
shed is the best way of keeping them ; but if they are spread out, or hung
up in a close cellar, room, or loft, somewhat above 40° they will grow.
1472. To save seed, select some of the finest specimens and plant them in
rich soil early in spring. The seed will ripen in August, when the heads
should be cut off and laid in cloths exposed to the sun till they are perfectly
dry, when the seed may be thrashed out, and again exposed to the sun for
a few hours, previously to being put up in bags. It will keep two years,
and sometimes three. It varies considerably in price, according to the crop
in this country, and also in Holland, whence much onion seed is imported.
SUBSECT. II.— The, Leek.
1473. The Leek, Allium Porrum L. (Poireau, Fr.)9 is a perennial, a
native of Switzerland, in cultivation in British gardens, from an unknown
period. Its blanched stem is used in soups and stews, and in a dish by itself,
served up on toasted bread with white sauce. The best variety is the broad-
leaved or London leek, which is always raised from seed, though suckers may
be obtained from old plants. For a seed-bed four feet wide by eight feet in
length, one ounce of seed is sufficient, which may be sown about the middle
of March, and will come up in a fortnight. The plants should be trans-
planted when three or four inches high, in May or June, if possible in
showery weather ; previously shortening a little the roots, and taking off
the tips of the leaves. They require a very rich soil, and may either be
planted along the bottom of drills, or on the surface in rows, ten or twelve
inches apart, by six or eight inches in the row ; inserting the sheathed stems
nearly up to the leaves, or, in default of this mode of planting, earthing them
up as they grow, in order that a greater portion of the plant may be blanched.
In planting, press the soil to the fibres with the dibber, but leave the stem
quite loose and free, and as it were standing in the centre of a hollow cylinder,
two inches in diameter, and at least six inches deep. This cylinder will
afterwards be filled up by the swelling of the stem, and as the leaves are so
close together, it is a much better mode than attempting to earth the plants up.
Some plant in hollow drills, and earth up as in celery culture, which pro-
duces very large stems. Some form holes with a large dibble, drop the
plant in, followed by as much loose earth as will just cover its fibrous roots,
and afterwards water once a day, till it has taken sufficient hold of the
soil. If the soil is very rich to a considerable depth, and on a dry bottom,
the size of the stem, by this mode of culture, becomes enormous. The
leeks will be fit for use in September, and will continue in perfection
till the following April or May, when they may be taken up and placed in a
cool cellar to retard vegetation, which will admit of their being used till the
middle or end of May ; or much later, if growth is prevented by cutting off
the plate from which the roots proceed. When severe frost is anticipated,
a portion of the crop may be taken up in the beginning of winter, and
664 ALLIACEOUS ESCULENTS.
planted in sand, in an open shed ; or it may be protected where it stands. A
few plants left will produce abundance of seed, which will ripen in Septem-
ber, and may be treated like that of the onion. The seed will keep two or
three years.
^SUBSECT. III.— The Shallot.
1474. The Shallot, Allium ascalonicum L. (Echalotte, Fr.}, is a bulbous-
rooted perennial, a native of Palestine, and long in cultivation for its bulbs,
which separate into cloves. These are used like the bulbs of onions, in
soups and stews, and in a raw state cut small, as sauce to steaks and chops ;
and sometimes a clove or two is put into winter salads, more especially
potato salad. The best variety is the long -keeping, which will remain good
two years. Propagation is effected by dividing the bulb into its separate
cloves, and planting and managing these in all respects like the potato onion
(1466). The soil should be rich, and particular care taken to guard against
the onion fly, by the means already indicated (1470). Mr. Knight planted
on the surface of the ground, earthed up a little at first, and as soon as the
roots had taken hold, removed the soil with the hoe, and by abundant watering,
which he found a check to the ravages of the maggot. The bulbs, if planted
in March, or, as is sometimes done, in the preceding November, will be ready
for use towards the end of July, and the crop may be taken up in September,
and spread in an airy loft, or tied up in ropes, like onions. A sufficient
quantity of the smallest cloves ought to be selected for sets for the following
year.
SUBSECT. IV. — The Garlic.
1475. The Garlic, Allium sativum L. (Ail, Fr.\ is a bulbous-rooted
perennial, a native of the South of Europe, long in cultivation for flavouring
meats, and for various sauces and ragouts. In many parts of Europe, par-
ticularly in France and Spain, the peasantry rub garlic over the slices of
their black bread as a seasoning, and find the bread so prepared delicious.
The bulb divides into cloves like the shallot, and is cultivated exactly in the
same manner. The leaves begin to wither in August, and the bulbs may
be taken up in September, dried, and laid in an airy loft, or tied up in ropes.
SUBSECT. V. — The Chive.
1476. The Chive, Allium Schoenoprasum L. (Civette or Ciboulette, Fr.},
is a bulbous perennial, a native of Britain, in meadows and pastures, but
rare. It has been long in cultivation for its leaves, which are used in spring
salads, in soups, omelets, and generally as a substitute for young onions.
The bulbs are very small, and seldom applied to any culinary purpose. The
plant flowers in May, and after the leaves have begun to decay in June, it
may be taken up and divided, and replanted in rows, one foot by six inches ;
but as the chive is little used except in cottage gardens, a very few plants
are sufficient, and these may be planted in the herb-ground in the slip. If
kept cut so as to prevent its flowering, it will succeed for several years in the
same spot. No cottage garden ought to be without the chive, which may
be planted as an edging to walks not much frequented.
SUBSECT. VI. — The Rocambole.
1477. The Rocambole, Allium Scorodoprasum L. (Ail d'Espagne, Fr.)9
h a bulbous perennial, a native of Denmark, formerly cultivated for the
THE ASPARAGUS. 665
same purposes as garlic, hut now comparatively neglected. It differs from
garlic in having the bulbs smaller, milder to the taste, and in producing
bulbs on the joints of the stem, as well as at its base.
f 1478. Substitutes for alliaceous plants are to be found in the genus
Allium, of which there are several indigenous species, and a number in gar-
dens which are natives of other countries. Three cruciferous plants, by no
means rare, also taste and smell of garlic, viz., Peltaria alliacea £., a per-
ennial from Austria ; Thlaspi alliaceum £., a biennial from the South of
Europe ; and Alliaria officinalis Andrz. ( Jack-by-the-hedge), a perennial,
a native of Britain. The latter is used as greens or spinach in many parts of
the country.
SECT. VI. — Asparagaccous Esculents.
1470. The asparagaceous esculents belong to various natural orders, but
the principal are the asparagus, the sea-kale, and the artichoke ; there are
a few others of less note. They are all comparatively plants of luxury,
though the asparagus and the sea-kale may with propriety be cultivated in
the garden of the cottager, who if he does not use the produce, may sell it.
SUBSECT. I. — The Asparagus.
1480. The asparagus, Asparagus officinalis L. ; (Asperge Fr.) is an
asphodelaceous perennial, found in light sandy soils on the sea-shore in
Britain and other parts of Europe ; often where it is covered by drifting
sand, and watered by salt-water during spring-tides. It is also found in
abundance in sandy steppes in the interior of Russia. It has been in culti-
vation, for its stalks when they are just emerging from the ground, as a
culinary esculent, from the time of the Greeks ; coming into use in the open
ground in May, and lasting till the middle of June, and procured by forcing
during the winter and spring months. The shoots or buds, more or less
blanched according to taste, are boiled and served on toasted bread with white
sauce, and the smaller shoots, which are allowed to become green, are cut
into pieces about the size of peas, and used as a substitute for that legume.
There scarcely can be said to be any particular variety, though the pre-
ference is generally given to seed saved at Battersea, Gravesend, or Mortlake,
places famous for the large size to which asparagus has been grown for the
London market.
1481. Soil, and sowing or planting the asparagus. — Asparagus can only be
grown large, and succulent, on a soil sandy, deep, light, more especially on
the surface, from vegetable matter, and well enriched with animal manure.
The toughness and stringyness of the London asparagus are owing to the sur-
face soil through which it sprouts being too deep, and not sufficiently light.
In consequence of this the woody fibre of the sprouts has time to strengthen
and harden; whereas, were no other covering than leaves or even leaf-
mould used, the sprouts would be quite tender throughout the greatest
part of their length. From the asparagus being a sea-side plant, it may
be inferred that salt water might be occasionally beneficial, and hence
fresh stable- dung mixed with sea- weed has long been found the best
manure for asparagus in Scotland ; and night-soil the best at St. Sebastian,
where the surface o£ the beds is only about three feet above high-water
mark. (G. C. 1842, p. 187.) From this last circumstance, and from the
nature of the asparagus grounds at Ulm and Augsburg on the Danube, and
ASPARAGACEOUS ESCULENTS.
iii a small sandy island in the Oise in France, at which places the soil is a
coarse sand, saturated with water at three feet heneath the surface, we are
led to conclude, that if the subsoil at the depth of three feet is porous and
kept moist in the growing season by the water of an adjoining river or lake,
as the hyacinth gardens are in Holland, and the surface strewed over
every spring with salt, there will be a union of the most favourable cir-
cumstances for growing asparagus to a large size. The soil ought to be
trenched at least three feet deep, and a layer of animal manure of some
kind, such as good stable-dung, or night-soil, put in the bottom of the trench,
and mixed with the soil throughout in trenching ; and if the ground is
re-trenched immediately before planting, so much the better. For the conve-
nience of management the plants may be grown in beds four feet wide, with
alleys between them two feet wide. There may be three rows of plants in each
bed, the outer rows nine inches from the edge of the bed, and the centre row
fifteen inches from the outer rows. To afford the means of keeping the beds
of a regular width, a strong oak stake may be driven down in each corner,
which will be a guide in stretching the line, when the alleys are to be dug
out in autumn, and filled in from the bed in spring. The seed may be sown
in drills an inch deep in March, and the plants thinned out to the distance
of one foot in the July following. A slight crop of radishes and onions may
be sown broadcast over the beds the first year, but nothing the second, or in
any future year. The fourth year the plants will afford stalks fit to cut.
To save time, two year-old plants are sometimes used instead of seeds ; these
are either purchased from a nursery, or raised in a seed-bed, and for a
bed four and a half feet wide, by six feet long, one quart of seed will be
sufficient. If sown to remain, then for three rows in a bed fifty feet in
length, half a pint of seed will be necessary. The seed will come up in
three weeks. The quantity of plants required is easily calculated. They
are planted in the trench manner (728), or in drills (726), in February or
March, keeping the crowns of the roots two inches below the surface. The
quantity of ground sown or planted, even in the smallest garden, should not
be less than a rod, as it requires that extent of plantation to produce a single
good dish. For a large family one-eighth of an acre will be requisite ; but
five poles, planted with 1000 plants, will yield from six to eight score heads
daily for a month. A crop from seed will allow of one stalk from each
plant being gathered the third spring ; two stalks the fourth spring, and
three or more the fifth ; while a plantation of two-year-old plants trans-
planted, will allow of one stalk being cut from each plant the second spring,
two the third, and so on.
1482. Routine culture. — About the middle of October, every year, cut
down the decayed stalks of the plants close to the ground, and chop them to
pieces in the alleys with the spade, after which stretch the line along the
alleys from the stakes placed at the corners, and dig out as much soil, and
chopped stalks, as will cover the bed to the depth of three or four inches ;
previously laying on a layer of stable dung. This is called the winter dress-
ing. About the end of March, just before vegetation commences in the
roots, the spring dressing is given, which consists in forking over the surface
as deep as the crowns of the plants over the rows, and twice as deep between
the rows. Then rake the surface of the beds even, drawing off nearly as
much soil into the alleys as had been dug out of them for the winter's dress-
ing; stretching the line as before, and finishing off the edges in a neat and
THE ASPARAGUS. 667
regular manner. If sea-weed has not been laid on along with the dung at
the winter dressing, a sprinkling of salt, or of wood ashes, or of both, may
be scattered on the surface of the beds ; and over this a layer of tree
leaves of the last year, half decomposed, or of dry litter, may be placed, in
order to blanch the sprouts. In dry weather, water should be supplied
abundantly, either by means of liquid manure in the alleys, or clear
water poured over the beds. Nothing more is required till the asparagus
is fit to gather, which in the climate of London is about the end of April,
and it lasts till midsummer, when its place at the table is taken by green peas.
In the neighbourhood of London, soil from the alleys is laid over the beds to
a considerable thickness in spring ; so that the shoots are obtained blanched
to a great length ; but there is very little tender at the top, in consequence
of the shoots having to grow so long before they get through so great a thick-
ness of soil, much woody fibre being, as before observed (1481), formed
during its progress.
1483. Gathering. — To suit the taste of some persons, asparagus should be
so far grown as to become green, but in general it is preferred more or less
blanched, that is, when the shoot is three or four inches above the surface
of the soil, with the terminal bud close and plump. In some parts of the
Continent each particular stalk is blanched by putting a wooden or earthen-
ware tube, eighteen inches long, and one inch in diameter within, over it ;
and at St. Sebastian the beds are covered, before cutting commences, to the
depth of eight inches with dead leaves, which effects the same object, and
keeps the soil moist. The last mode well deserves to be adopted in this
country, as well as that of watering abundantly during the gathering season.
In young plantations, gather only the largest stalks for two or three weeks,
and then permit the whole of the others that may be produced to run to
flower ; but in plantations in full vigour, gather all the stems that appear,
whether large or pmall, for a month or six weeks, or till the time fixed on
for leaving off gathering. If, instead of gathering all the stems, some are
allowed to run to flower while the gathering is going on, but few more stems
will be sent up from the root, and these weak on account of the main force
of the sap being spent in the flowering stem. To ensure large stalks, gather-
ing should not be continued longer than the middle of June ; or if continued
till the end of the month, no cutting should take place the following year.
It must be constantly borne in mind that the stalks of the coming year,
culture and other circumstances alike, depend on the number of matured
stalks with healthy leaves of the present year. In gathering, first scrape
away a little earth from the shoot ; then cut it off within the ground, with
a narrow sharp-pointed knife, or small saw, nine inches long (fig. 41 in
p. 138) ; thrusting the knife or saw down straight, close to the shoot, cutting
it off slantingly, about three inches below the surface, and taking care not to
wound the younger buds advancing below. The shoots are next sorted and
tied in bundles of between two and three inches in diameter, and in that
state sent to the kitchen, or to market.
1484. Culture after gathering. — The alleys, being no longer required for
walking in to gather the asparagus, are now richly manured and planted
with cauliflower, which, under ordinary circumstances, will be all gathered
by the time the whiter dressing commences. The beds require only to be
kept clear of weeds, and the plants to be stripped of their blossoms, as these
expand ; excepting such as may be required for producing seed. Where the
668 ASPAHAGACEOUS ESCULENTS.
plants are weak, they may be strengthened by two or three waterings with
liquid manure.
1485. The duration of an asparagus plantation is never less than ten or
twelve years; but in deep sandy soils, well enriched with manure, it will last
twenty or thirty years. The plants are seldom attacked by insects, though
the asparagus beetle (Cridceris asparagi, Z.) sometimes makes its appearance
in spring, and ought to be deterred from laying its eggs by watering with
some fetid liquid in April, or gathering the insects, which are easily known
from their bright lively colours, by hand. (G. M. 1837, p. 337).
1486. To save seed, allow the blossoms of some of the strongest stems to
remain on ; the fruit will ripen in October, and may either be thrashed out
and kept in bags, in which state it wrill retain its vitality for four or fivo
years; or it may be retained on the stems, and these being hung up in a dry
place, the seed will grow at the end of fifteen or twenty years.
Forcing the asparagus in the open garden and under glass has been already
treated of (1096).
SUBSECT. II The Sea-Kale.
1487. The sea-kale, Crambe maritima, L. (Chou xnarin, Fr.), is a cruci-
ferous perennial, with long strong deeply penetrating roots, a native of
Britain, on the sea-coast in many places, and always most vigorous in a
sandy soil, or a loamy subsoil, overflown by spring tides. The young
shoots and leaf-stalks, just as they come through the sand, and are blanched
and tender, have been boiled and eaten by the inhabitants of the western
shores of England from time immemorial ; but the plant was not cultivated
as a garden esculent till after the middle of the last century. It is now
reckoned second in excellence to the asparagus, and to be found in every good
garden, sometimes even in that of the cottager. It comes into use in the
open garden in the beginning of March, and continues good till May; and by
forcing it can be obtained from November throughout the whole of the winter
and spring. No plant requires less care in its cultivation, or less heat
to force.
1488. Propagation and culture. — By seed is the common mode, but it
will also grow freely by cuttings of the roots. If sown to transplant, a seed-
bed four feet by ten feet will require two ounces ; if sown in drills to remain,
the same quantity will sow one hundred and fifty feet of drill. The seed
will come up in a month. It is generally grown in rows two feet apart, and
the plants about the same distance in the row. Seeds, plants which have
been one year in the seed-bed, or cuttings of the roots of old plants, may be
used ; in the latter case leaving two eyes to each cutting ; or cuttings
without eyes may be used, provided the upper part of the cutting be
planted upppermost ; or the cutting be laid on its side in a shallow
drill. (G. M., vol. ii. p. 365.) Sowing and planting may take place
about the beginning of March. The best soil is a deep sandy loam,
thoroughly enriched with manure, including sea-weed, if it can be got, or if
not, a sprinkling of salt once a year. The most efficient mode of culture
would be to follow that recommended for asparagus. The strongest plants
are produced from seeds sown where the plants are to remain. Three rows
may be marked out two feet apart, leaving an interval of three feet after
every third row, the centre of which, to the width of eighteen inches, is to
be treated as an alley for the convenience of gathering the crop. The seeds
THE SEA-KALE. 009
may be dropped in patches of three or four along the drills, and the plants
thinned out to one plant in a place, soon after they come up. The first
winter's dressing may consist of some littery stable-manure, sea-weed, and
leaves, spread over the surface, which may be forked in early in the following
spring. This may be repeated the second autumn, increasing the thickness,
and the second spring a few stalks may be gathered. The third autumn the
dressing may be repeated ; or the rows may be covered with leaves alone,
with sand, or with soil dug out of the alleys, to the depth of six inches.
The third spring several stalks may be gathered from each plant ; and the
fourth spring the plantation will be in full bearing. Excepting in the first
spring after sowing, no spring dressing is required till May, after the
crop has been gathered. The London market-gardeners plant the sea-kale
in rows from four to six feet apart, and every autumn after the leaves have
died down to the surface, they dig a trench between the rows, and cover the
plants with soil to the depth of a foot. As the crop is gathered, the ridges
so formed are levelled down, and a crop planted between. By this mode
the whole produce of the plant is gathered at once, every part of it being
completely blanched and tender. (G. M., vol. ix.)
1489. Gathering. — The points of the stems will appear above the leaves,
or other matters with which the plants have been covered the preceding au-
tumn, about the beginning or middle of March, according to the warmth of
the situation, and of the season. Remove the covering round such of the young
steins as are about three inches long, and cut them over half an inch above
the collar, taking care not to injure any of the buds which remain on the
plant, and which will immediately begin to swell. From four to six heads
or stalks, according to the size, make a dish, and they are sent to the kitchen
or the market tied together like asparagus. Three stout plants will afford
five dishes in a season ; and hence when the number of dishes required by
any family are known, one third added to their number will give the amount
of plants required for a plantation. A plantation will afford a succession of
gatherings for six weeks, after which period the plants should be uncovered,
and their leaves suffered to grow, in order to strengthen the roots for the
succeeding year. If very large and succulent sea-kale is required, gathering
should only be made every other year, and the plants should be manured
with stable dung or nightsoil.
1490. The culture after gathering. — The leaves or dung with which the
plants were covered may be partly forked in, and partly carried away ; water
supplied abundantly in very dry weather, including liquid manure if thought
necessary, and the blossoms stripped from all the plants not required to pro-
duce seed. By the end of October the leaves and stems will be decayed,
when the winter covering should be given as before directed.
1491. Diseases and insects give little trouble in cultivating the sea-kale,
because the crop is generally gathered before the insect season. The ex-
panded leaves, however, are sometimes attacked by the caterpillars of moths
and butterflies, and by the turnip-fly, both of which may be subdued by
abundant watering with lime-water.
1492. The duration of a plantation of sea-kale is in general six or eight
years ; but as the roots, when cut over below the collar, send up abundance
of buds, even when the heart of the root is decayed, by a little care in pro-
curing fresh sprouts from the roots, a plantation might be continued on the
same ground for an indefinite period.
x x
670 ASPARAGACEOTJS ESCULENTS.
1493. To save seed. Leave the blossoms on a few of the strongest plants,
the seed produced by which will ripen in August, and the stalks may be
collected and thrashed like those of the common cabbage. The seeds will
retain their vitality for four or five years.
1494. Forcing. Where a crop is to be forced in the open ground, the
ordinary mode is to cover the plants in autumn with sea-kale pots (fig. 58,
in p. 143), or with large garden pots, and to cover these and the whole
surface of the ground with hot dung, or a mixture of hot dung and leaves.
When this is done in October, kale may be gathered in November or
December; and by successive applications of heat to other parts of the
plantation, a supply may be obtained till it can be procured from the plants
covered with soil, or leaves only. Other modes of forcing have been already
noticed (1097).
SUBSECT. III.— The Artichoke.
1495. The artichoke, Cynara Scolymus L. (Artichaut, Fr.), is a cardu-
aceous perennial, a native of the South of Europe and North of Africa, in
cultivation in British gardens from the middle of the sixteenth century.
The plant is cultivated for the head of flowers, which is gathered before
their expansion ; and the common receptacle, and the base of the involucral
scales, are the parts eaten. These are boiled, sometimes fried in butter, and
they are occasionally eaten raw in salads. The receptacles, or bottoms, as
they are commonly called, after being blanched in boiling water, are some-
times dried and preserved for use during winter and spring. In the North
of Spain the lesser flower-heads are cut soon after they appear, and
the pith ( ? bottoms) is extracted, and forms a palatable ingredient in the
puchera or olla, a favourite Spanish dish. Artichoke bottoms are also com-
bined with capsicum in a sort of stew made of fowl. (Captain Churchill,
in Gard. Chron., 1842, p. 284.) The first heads are ready in July, and by
continuing to gather them before allowing any to expand their flowers, they
will continue being produced till November ; and by cutting off the heads
at that season, with a foot or more of stalk attached, and inserting the stalks in
moist sand, in an open shed secured from frost, they will keep fit for use till
January or longer. The leaves of the artichoke may also be blanched like
those of the cardoon. The varieties are, the Globe, with a globular purplish
head, which is the best variety for a main crop ; the French, with an oval
green head, considered as having more flavour than the other, and being
hardier. Both sorts are propagated by rooted suckers taken from the old
plants in March and April, and planted in rows four feet asunder, and two
feet distant in the row. The soil ought to be deep, sandy, and rich, and sea-
weed is said to be an excellent ingredient in the manure for this plant, being
the manure used in the Orkney islands, where the artichoke grows stronger
than anywhere else. The routine culture consists in keeping the plants
clear of weeds, thinning out the shoots produced by the stools, stirring the
soil, manuring once a year, in autumn or spring, and laying litter round the
plants in autumn to protect the roots from frost during the winter. The
plants will produce some heads the first year, and all that they produce may
be gathered as soon as they attain the proper size, as the strength of the
root depends on the leaves, and not on the flowers. The plantation will
continue productive for six or seven years, or longer. In gathering, the
heads are cut off within an inch or two of the stalk attached, and half-a-
dozen heads are considered as making a dish.
THE CARDOON. 671
1496. Culture for producing the chard. — This is only attempted when the
artichoke plantation is to be renewed, and the old plants to be thrown away.
After Midsummer, cut over the leaves within half a foot of the ground, and
the stems as low as possible. Then, when the new crop of leaves, which
will be produced in September or October, are about two feet high, tie them
up close, first slightly with matting, and in a few days afterwards with hay
or straw, and earth them up like celery; or lay litter round the stems. In
a month or six weeks, the interior leaves will be found completely blanched,
and fit for use. By digging up the plants before frost sets in, and planting
them in sand in an open shed, they will keep till Christmas, or later.
The artichoke is seldom attacked by insects, and though generally propa-
gated by division, slips, or suckers, yet it ripens seeds freely in September,
which, sown the following spring, will produce heads in the second summer.
The seed keeps three years.
SUBSECT. IV. — The Cardoon.
1497. The cardoon, or chardoon, Cynara Cardunculus L. (Cardon, Fr.},
is a carduaceous perennial, a native of the South of Europe and the North of
Africa, closely resembling the artichoke in appearance and properties. It
lias long been cultivated in gardens for the mid-rib of the leaf, which is ren-
dered white and tender by blanching, and is used stewed, or in soups and
salads during autumn and winter, much in the same manner as celery. The
flavour is that of the artichoke. It is much more in request on the continent
than in England. In France the corollas, both of the cardoon and the
artichoke, as well as those of several thistles, are dried and used as a substi-
tute for rennet, in curdling milk.
1498. Cookery of the cardoon. — "When a cardoon is to be cooked, its
heart, and the solid, not piped, stalks of the leaves are to be cut into pieces,
about six inches long, and boiled like any other vegetable, in pure water,
not salt and water, till they are tender. They are then to be carefully
deprived of the slime and strings which will be found to cover them ; and
having thus been thoroughly cleaned, are to be plunged in cold water, where
they must remain till they are wanted for the table ; they are then taken
out and heated with white sauce, marrow, or any other of the adjuncts recom-
mended in cookery books. The process just described is for the purpose of
rendering them white, and depriving them of a bitterness which is peculiar to
them ; if neglected, the cardoons will be black, not white, as well as dis-
agreeable."-^ Gard. Chron., p. 143.)
1499. Varieties, propagation, S$c. — There are several varieties, but the
best are the cardoon of Tours, and the Spanish cardoon. The cardoon is
always propagated by seed, which must not be sown too early, unless it is
abundantly supplied with water in the dry season, otherwise it is apt to run
to flower. In the climate of London, the end of April, or beginning of May,
is found a proper time for a crop to come into use in November ; but an
earlier crop may be obtained by sowing in March. It may be sown and
transplanted, but it is found best to raise the plants where they are finally
to remain. Sow in patches of three or four seeds. Prepare shallow trenches
a foot wide, and four feet apart centre from centre, manuring the soil in the
bottom of the trench. Sow the seed in patches in the centre of the trench
twenty inches, or two feet apart, and as soon as the plants come up, one
only should be left in each patch. Two ounces of seed will be sufficient for
x x 2
672 ASPARAGACEOUS ESCULENTS.
fifty patches. With the usual routine culture, the leaves will be three feet
or four feet long by the middle of October, when they should be first slightly
tied up with pieces of matting for a few days, and afterwards closely wrap-
ped round with hay- bands, so as completely to exclude the light from the
root to about two-thirds of the length of the leaves. In three weeks the
interior leaves will be fit for use. On the approach of winter, they may be
earthed up like celery, as high as the hay-bands, to protect them from the
frost ; or they may be covered with litter and thatched hurdles, for that
purpose ; or taken up with balls, and placed close together in an open airy
shed.
In taking the plants for use, remove the hay-bands and the outer leaves, and
shorten those which are tender and blanched to the length of eighteen inches
or two feet, cutting off the root. One or two plants will make a dish. Seed
may be saved by protecting some plants, the leaves of which have not been
blanched, through the winter, in the spot where they have grown ; they will
flower in the following July, and ripen seed in August, which will keep five
or six years.
SUBSECT. V. — The Rampion.
1500. The Rampion, Campanula Rapunculus L. (Raiponce, Fr.), is a
campanulaceous fusiform-rooted biennial, a native of England in gravelly
soil, and formerly much cultivated in gardens for its roots as well as its
leaves. The latter are excellent, eaten raw as a salad, or boiled as spinach ;
and the root, which has the flavour of walnuts, is also eaten raw like a
radish, or mixed with salads, either raw or boiled and cold. It is always
propagated by seed, which is so exceedingly small, that a sixteenth part of
an ounce is sufficient for any garden. It will come up in a fortnight.
As in the case of other biennials, if sown too soon, the plants will
run to flower the same season. The end of May, or beginning of June,
is considered the best time for a main crop; but a crop to come in
early may be sown in March. The seeds may either be sown broadcast
or in drills six inches apart, and from a quarter to half an inch in
depth; in either case covering the seed with not more than an eighth
of an inch of soil. The plants may be thinned out to three or four
inches apart, and the soil among them should not be deeply stirred, lest the
roots should be encouraged to branch, which they are very apt to do, and
are then unfit to be sent to table. The principal point in the culture of the
rampion, is to sow it in a deep sandy light rich soil, which can be penetrated
by the roots without difficulty ; and to supply water abundantly in very dry
weather. The roots may be taken up as wanted from November till April,
when the plants will begin to run; but by burying the roots out of the
reach of surface heat, hi the manner of potatoes (1416), they may be kept
through the summer. A few plants allowed to stand the second year will
produce abundance of seeds, which will keep two years.
SUBSECT. VI. — Substitutes for Asparagaceous Esculents.
1501. Substitutes for asparagaceous esculents are to be found in the follow-
ing plants : — The Hop, Humulus Lupulus L., the young shoots of which,
when they have risen three or four inches from the root, are boiled in the
hop districts, and eaten like asparagus, to which they are considered little in-
ferior. The Bladder Campion, Silene inflata H. K., a perennial common on
sea-shores, the tender shoots of which, when not above two inches long, have
THE LETTUCE. 673
a flavour which, according to Bryant, is surpassed by few garden vegetables ;
and it will continue producing these shoots for two months. In our opinion,
it well deserves cultivation. The Virginian Poke, Phytolacca decandra L., a
perennial from Virginia, where the points of the young shoots are used as
asparagus. The Willow-herb, Epilbbium angustifolium L., the young and
tender shoots are eaten as asparagus, and the leaves as greens. Solomons
seal, Polygonatum vulgare Dec., the young shoots are boiled and eaten as
asparagus, and the roots said to be dried, ground, and made into bread.
The common Comfrey, Symphytum officinale L., the blanched stalks form
an agreeable asparagus. The Slack Bryony, Tamus communis L., the
blanched tops are eaten as asparagus. The Burdock, Arctium Lappa L.,
the tender stalks are eaten as asparagus. Stachys palustris L., the under-
ground stems of which, when grown in rich moist soil, are white, crisp, and
agreeable to the taste. The Milk-thistle, Carduus Marianus L., is a bien-
nial, a native of Britain, on rich soils. The young stalks, peeled and soaked
in water to extract a part of their bitterness, and then boiled, are said to be
an excellent substitute for asparagus. When very young the leaves are
used as a spring salad ; and the large leaves, blanched in autumn like those
of the cardoon, form a good substitute for that vegetable, and they are also
used as greens. Early in the spring of the second year, the root is prepared
like skirret or salsify (I486 and 1438), and in the summer of the second
year, the receptacle of the heads of flowers gathered before they expand, is
pulpy, and eats like that of the artichoke. The Cotton-thistle, Onopdrdum
Acanthium L., is an indigenous biennial, the leaves of which were formerly
blanched and used like those of the cardoon; the tender blanched stalks, peeled
and boiled like asparagus, and the receptacle of the flower treated like that
of the artichoke. The Carline-thistle, Carlina acanthif olia All., a perennial,
a native of Carniola, and the common species C. vulgaris L., a biennial, a
native of Britain, produce large heads of flowrers, the receptacle of which may
be used like that of the artichoke ; and hi all probability the flowers and
leaves of most carduaceous plants might be used like those of the artichoke
and cardoon. The pyramidal Campanula, Campanula pyramidalis L., and
various other species of campanula, producing fusiform, or fleshy, roots, might
doubtless be used as substitutes for the rampion, as are those of the campanula-
ceous plants, Phyteuma spicatum L., in Sussex, and Canarina Campanula L.,
in the Canary Islands. Ruscus aculeatus L., for its tender young shoots in
spring; Ornithdgalum pyrenaicum L., the Bath asparagus, the flower-stems
of which are brought to market at Bath, where the flowers are in a close
head like an asparagus bud ; the mays, Zea Mays L., the sweet or sugar
variety of which, when the seed is immature, is much used in America,
roasted, fried, or boiled.
SECT. VII. — Acetariaceous Esculents.
1502. The acetariaceous esculents, or salads, in cultivation in gardens are
numerous, but those of most importance are the lettuce, endive, and
celery. They are all articles of luxury, unless we except the lettuce,
which is a useful vegetable in every cottage-garden.
SUBSECT. I. — The Lettuce.
1503. The lettuce, Lactuca sativa L. (Laitue, Fr.), is a cichoraceous
plant, annual or biennial, according to the time in which it is sown ; con-
674 ACETARIACEOUS ESCULENTS.
sidered by some as the Lactuca virbsa in a cultivated state, and by others as
a different species, of Eastern origin. It has been cultivated in British gar-
dens from the time of Elizabeth, and by suitable management may be had
all the year. Lettuce is in universal esteem in a raw state, as a cooling and
agreeable salad, and it is also used in soups and stews.
1504. Varieties. — The varieties are very numerous, and are included
under two divisions.
1. Cos lettuces, of which the best are the black-seeded green, a very hardy
kind, which does not run readily to seed ; the Bath cos, which is the best
for standing the winter in the open ground ; the brown cos, and the whit
Paris cove cos.
2. Cabbage lettuces, the best of which are : the brown Dutch, hardy and
of good quality ; the grand admirable, a very fine lettuce, which continues
a long time without running to seed ; the Hammersmith hardy green, the
best for standing through the winter ; the Marseilles, a large excellent
summer lettuce ; the Malta, excellent in the early part of summer ; and
the Dutch forcing, the best kind for growing through the winter under
glass.
1505. Propagation and culture. — All the sorts are raised from seed, which
being small and light, for a seed-bed four feet by ten feet J oz. is sufficient,
and will produce four hundred plants. It comes up in ten days or a fort-
night. To grow large succulent lettuces, it is essential that the soil be
deep, light, sandy, and rich, on a dry subsoil ; and that it be abundantly
supplied with water during the hot season. In Spain, recent night-soil is
used as a manure for the lettuce ; being buried in a trench between every
two rows of plants. To produce a supply of lettuce throughout the year,
the first sowings may be made in the beginning of February, on a warm
border, or on the south side of an east and west ridge, either broadcast or in
drills, and of the kinds preferred by the family. Some persons dislike the
cabbage lettuce from its softness, while others prefer it for that reason.
As soon as the plants have shown the third leaf, they should be thinned with a
two-inch hoe, so as not to stand nearer together than six inches ; or in the case
of the large-growing varieties, such as the Marseilles and Malta, a foot.
From this time till the beginning of August a sowing may be made every
fortnight or three weeks, choosing a north border, or screening the ground
from the sun, by wickerwork hurdles, in the hottest part of the season.
The crop sown in the first week of August will last till it is destroyed by-
frost, or till October ; from which time recourse must be had to the lettuces
grown under glass in the manner before described (1109). Independently
of the forced crop, a sowing may be made in the third week in August,
which, if the whiter should be mild, will afford some plants for use during
the winter ; and a sowing in the last fortnight of September, under the
shelter of a south wall, in poor, dry, sandy soil — or in the same soil, covered
by a frame and sashes — or by hoops and mats, to be taken off every fine day,
will produce plants for transplanting early in spring. These, if put into
light rich soil, in a warm situation, at one foot apart every way, will
produce plants fit for use about the end of April, when the forcing of lettuces
may be given up ; and this spring-transplanted crop will be in perfection
during great part of the month of May. In this way lettuces are obtained
throughout the year both in private and public gardens ; but the market-
gardeners about London, instead of sowing the crops where they are to remain,
THE ENDIVE. 675
sow in seed-beds and transplant (1368). The plants to stand through the
winter for spring-transplanting are sown in a cold frame about the middle of
September, and planted out in February or the beginning of March. The first
spring sowing for transplanting is made on heat, and the subsequent sowings in
the open garden ; always on comparatively sandy, poor soil, that the plants
may form abundance of roots and comparatively rigid foliage, so as not to
suffer so much from transplanting, as if they had been grown on rich soil, and
consequently had tender succulent leaves and roots. The routine culture
consists of little more than weeding and watering ; each crop being but a
short time on the ground. In the beginning of summer the Cos varieties
are sometimes slightly tied up with matting, to hasten their blanching. In
gathering, pull up the plant, and take the outside leaves and roots at once
to the rot- heap.
1506. Lettuces as small salad are produced by sowing the seed in drills,
and cutting over the plants when they are in the third and fourth leaf, as is
done with mustard and cress.
1507. To save seed, a few plants which have stood through the winter
and been transplanted into rich soil in spring, or some spring-sown plants,
may be allowed to run, and the seed will be ripe in August, and will keep
three years ; but as it is very precarious to save lettuce seed in wet seasons, it
is an excellent method to grow a few plants in pots in good soil, one in each
pot, and place them in front of a south wall, moving them under glass shelter
to ripen off, if the weather render it necessary. Birds are very fond of lettuce
seed ; and the lettuce-fly, Anthomyia Lactucae Bouche (see Kollar, p. 160),
lays its eggs in the flower, the larvae produced by which live on the seed.
Forcing. — See 1109.
SUBSECT. II. — The Endive.
1508. The endive, Cichorium Endivia L. (Chicoree des Jardins, Fr.), is
a cichoraceous fusiform-rooted biennial, said to be a native of China and
Japan, but long cultivated in European gardens for its leaves as salad.
These are blanched to diminish the bitter taste, and they are used chiefly
in autumn, winter, and spring. There are two principal varieties: — The
Batavian, syn. broad-leaved (Chicoree scarole, Fr.) ; and the curl-leaved
(Chicoree frisee, Fr.} ; of each of which there are a number of sub- varieties.
As the season for endive is from August til] March or April, the first sowing
is made about the middle of June ; the second about the end of that month ;
the third in July ; and the fourth in the beginning of August. The plants
are seldom raised where they are finally to remain (though in very dry
weather they succeed best by that mode), but generally in seed-beds ; and
for one four feet wide by ten feet in length, \ oz. of seed is sufficient. The
advantage of sowing in seed-beds, and afterwards transplanting, in this and
similar cases, has been already noticed (1SG8). When the plants attain three
or four leaves, they should be transplanted into rich soil, at one foot apart
every way ; and, as they are generally earthed up, to facilitate this process,
they may be planted in drills. The two latest crops for use during winter
and spring should be planted in a dry, warm border, or on the south side
of an east and west ridge.
1509. Blanching.— As the summer and autumn crops advance to maturity,
a portion should have the leaves tied up every ten days or fortnight, to cause
the hearts to blanch and become tender, crisp, and mild-tasted ; but this
676 ACETARIACEOUS ESCULENTS.
ought not to be done till the plant is almost fully grown, for blanched leaves
can no longer add any strength to the root. This operation ought only to be
performed in dry days, and when the leaves are quite dry ; and in winter,
when the weather is dry without frost. The mode of performance is as
follows : — When the plants are well filled up in the heart, and apparently
nearly fully grown, put your fingers under the leaves which rest upon the
ground, and gather the whole plant up in your hands into a conical form ;
then tie it round with strands of matting, loose during summer, but tighter
late in autumn and in winter, when the plant grows slower ; arranging the
leaves so as to terminate in a point at the top, in order to prevent rain
from falling into the heart of the plant. The curled endive, if carefully
earthed up, will blanch tolerably well without being tied ; but the broad-
leaved variety, from its looser growth, hearts and blanches much better
when bandaged. The blanching, when the weather is hot and dry, will
sometimes be completed in a week ; but late in autumn and during winter
it will require a fortnight or a month. As soon as it is properly blanched,
it should be taken up for use, as it will rot afterwards in a week or less,
more especially if much rain fall. Sometimes blanching is effected by laying
a flat tile on the plants ; setting tiles or boards on each side of them, and
bringing them together at top in the form of a ridge, so as to confine their
growth and exclude the light; or covering them with garden-pots or
blanching-pots, in the manner of sea-kale. In the north of Spain the
blanching of endive is generally effected by covering the heart of the plant
with a fragment of tile ; " over this a light covering of earth is sifted. The
fringed edges of the exterior leaves are carefully freed from earth, and
exposed to light ; having small bits of tile laid over that portion of the
soil from which they protrude, to render the blanching perfect, and produce
what the gardeners particularly pride themselves on,viz. : a plant of endive
white all over, excepting the edges of the outer leaves, which should show
about two inches of green." — (Churchill in Gard. Chron., 1842, p. 452.)
1510. A crop may be preserved through the winter, either by covering it
where it stands by thatched hurdles raised on props (fig. 329 in p. 401) ; by
hoops and mats ; by removing it with balls to an open airy shed ; by covering
it with dry litter, taking it off every fine day; or, what is best of all, covering
it where it stands with frames and sashes, taking the latter off every fine day.
During the period that the endive is covered, tying up for blanching must
go regularly on with every plant about ten days or a fortnight before it is to
be gathered.
The endive is little troubled with insects; but snails and slugs attack it, as
they do the lettuce, in every stage, and require to be kept under by frequent
waterings with lime-water.
Seed may be saved as in the lettuce, and it will keep good four or five
years.
SUBSECT. III. — The Succory.
1511. The succory, chiccory, or wild endive, Cichbrium Intybus L.
(Chicoree sauvage, Fr.\ is a cichoraceous fusiform -rooted perennial, a native
of England, in chalky soils, in open situations. It is much cultivated on
the Continent for its roots, which arc cut in slices, kiln-dried, and ground as
a substitute for coffee ; and for its leaves, which are blanched and used like
those of the endive. It is also sown thick, and when quite young cut as
small salad (1606). In Flanders the roots are scraped and boiled, and eaten
THE CELERY. 677
along with meat, or with a sauce of butter and vinegar. In British gardens
it is only cultivated as a winter salad. It is sown in the end of June or
beginning of July, and treated like the endive, except that it is not blanched.
Instead of this process, the leaves are cut off the plants, but so as not to de-
stroy their hearts, about the beginning of October ; the roots are then dug up,
shortened, and planted in pots, or portable boxes, with the dibber, very close
together in rich soil, watered, and afterwards protected from the frost by a
light covering of litter, taken off in the daytime, or by any other convenient
means. In a week or two the plants will be established, and the pots or
boxes arc then removed, as the produce is wanted, into the mushroom- house,
or into a cellar, or any other dark warm place where the light will be com-
pletely excluded ; or into any light warm place, and covered over so as to
force the production of leaves and the blanching of them at the same time.
In a few days the roots will push forth leaves which will be completely
blanched, and each leaf, when fully expanded, may be gathered separately
till the plants cease to produce any. These leaves in Belgium, and in the
North of Germany and Russia, are considered as forming the most agreeable
of all winter salads ; and by a sufficient number of roots, it may be had in
perfection from November till May. It is not even necessary to plant the
roots in pots or boxes : they may be left in the soil covered with litter, and
taken up to be forced as the salad is wanted ; or they may be taken up and
preserved in sand ; or they may be pitted in the manner of potatoes ; portions
being regularly taken up, potted, and forced as wanted. The roots being
established in the pots before forcing is a matter of very little consequence,
as the leaves are supplied, not from the soil by means of the spongioles of the
fibres, but from the nutriment laid up in the roots. The temperature of the
mushroom-house, or other place in which the chiccory is forced, should be
between 55° and 60° ; but the roots will send up leaves if the temperature is
a few degrees above the freezing point. (See 1098.) No blanched produc-
tion is more beautiful than succory, as the leaves become of a pure white
with most delicate pencillings of crimson, when grown as above recommended
in a mushroom house. Aboard ship the roots of the succory are packed into
casks of sand, with their heads protruding through numerous holes pierced
in the sides of the cask, by which means a maximum of produce is procured
from a minimum of space.
1512. An excellent substitute for the succory, both as a salad and a coffee
plant, may be found in the common dandelion, Leontodon Taraxacum £.,
which is by many persons, and by us among the number, considered not infe-
rior to it for both purposes.
SUBSECT. IV. — The Celery.
1513. The celery, Apium graveolens L. (Celeri, Fr.), is an umbelliferous
biennial, a native of Britain, by the sides of wet ditches, and in marshy
places, especially near the sea ; and though poisonous in a wild state
(when it is called smallage), yet by long cultivation it has become one of
our most agreeable salads. The part used is the blanched leafstalks, and in
the case of one variety the roots. Both stalks and roots are used raw hi
salads from August till March, and also in soups and stewed. In Italy, the
points of the unblaiiched leaves are used to flavour soups ; and in Britain,
when neither stalks, leaves, nor roots can be had, the bruised seeds form a
good substitute.
678 ACETARIACEOUS ESCULENTS.
1514. Varieties. — Those at present considered the best are, the Italian., a
dwarf-growing variety, the best for an early crop ; the red solid, syn. Man-
chester-hardy, which grows to a large size, single plants having measured
four feet six inches in height, and weighed nine pounds ; Seymours solid, very
solid, and fine-flavoured ; Seymours superb white, very solid, large size, good
flavour, and well adapted for early crops ; the turnip-rooted, syn. celeriac
(Celeri-rave, Fr., and Knoll- sellerie, Ger.}, has rough irregular shaped roots,
about the size of the fist; it is generally cultivated in Germany, but in
England is considered coarser than the kinds of which (he blanched stalks
are used. Upright or stalked celery, when well grown, has the stalks solid,
and not hollow or piped, as is frequently the case — thoroughly blanched, crisp,
tender, and of a delicate flavour. The roots of the celeriac should be solid,
tender, and delicate. To attain these qualities both sorts require to be grown
with rapidity, in very rich soil, kept very moist at the root, but dry about
the leaves.
1515. Propagation and culture. — The celery, like other culinary biennials,
is only propagated by seed, and half an ounce is sufficient for a seed-bed four
and a half feet by ten feet, of the stalked or upright sorts ; but for celeriac,
as it is a spreading plant, half the quantity of seed will suffice for the same
space. The seed is long in coming up, often a month; and this is one
reason why the first sowing is generally made on heat. As the celery
grows naturally in marshy soil, and as such soils are always rich in vegetable
matter, and when near the sea must be slightly saline, these circumstances
afford a guide for its culture in the garden ; in which it can never be brought
to a large size, without constant and abundant supplies of water during the
whole period of its growth. The flavour, however, is better when it is
grown of smaller size, and with less water. In general, three crops are
enough even for a large family : the first should be sown in the end of
February, to transplant in June, and to come into use in August ; the second
is sown in the end of March, to be transplanted in July, and to come into use
in September ; and the third is sown about the middle of April, to be trans-
planted in the first week of August, and to come into use hi October or
November, and last till March. The plants raised by every sowing, when
about two inches high, should be pricked out into rich soil two inches or
three inches apart every way, and again transplanted into a nursery planta-
tion, also in rich soil, about six inches apart every way. Those for the
earliest crop may be pricked out in a small hotbed, and transplanted into a
•warm border ; but those for the others do not necessarily require artificial
heat. As the earlier crops of celery are very apt to run to flower, and as this
tendency in herbaceous plants, and especially annuals and biennials, is known
to be checked and retarded by destroying the tap-root, and encouraging the
production of fibrous roots (699 and 1308) ; some excellent growers of
celery adopt the following process with their plants : — The seed-bed, whe-
ther for an early or a late crop, is formed of fresh, dark, loamy soil, mixed
with old rotten dung, half and half, and placed on a hotbed. The nursery
or transplanting bed is formed with old hotbed dung, very well broken, laid
six inches or seven inches thick, on a piece of ground which has lain some
time undisturbed, or which has been made hard by compression. The
situation should be sunny. The plants are set six inches apart in the dung,
without soil, and covered with hand-glasses. They are watered well when
planted, and frequently afterwards. By hardening the soil under the dung
CULTURE OF THE CELERY. 679
in which the plants are set, the root is formed into a brush of fibres ; and by
thus preventing the pushing of a tap-root, the plant never runs to seed before
the following spring. — (Caled.Hort. Mem. vol. ii.)
1516. Transplanting into trenches.-— Where the object is to have very
large celery, only one row ought to be planted in a trench ; but where a
moderate size is preferred, there may be two rows ; or the trenches may be
made four feet or six feet wide, and the celery planted in rows across the
trench, at the distance of a foot from one another, and six inches apart in
the row. Single trenches, when the object is to grow celery alone, may be
made in the direction of north and south, three feet or four feet apart, centre
from centre, and eight inches or ten inches deep ; the soil dug out being
formed into a ridge between the trenches. As every trench is opened, dig into
the bottom a coating of five or six inches in thickness of thoroughly-rotted
dung, and along the centre of the trench insert the plants with a trowel, at
six inches apart. When the plants are being removed, previously to plant-
ing, all side slips should be carefully taken off. Where celery is to be
grown with other crops, as in simultaneous rotations (921), the trenches
may be made six feet or eight feet apart centre from centre, and a row of
peas for sticking, or some other crop of short duration, should be grown
between every two rows of celery. Where celery is to be planted in rows
across broad trenches, whatever may be the width of the trench, a similar
width must be allowed between them for containing the soil dug out ; and
these trenches should be made in the direction of east and west, for the same
reason that trenches for single or double rows are made in the direction of
north and south. To save ground, the plants before they are planted in the
trenches should be kept in the nursery till they are ten inches or twelve
inches high, taken up with balls, any descending roots shortened, any suckers
that may have appeared removed, and the points of the leaves cut off, so as to
throw the whole strength of the plant into the central bud, or growing point.
1517. Blanching. — It has been already observed (1509), with respect to
blanching generally, that it weakens the plant by lessening the power of the
leaves to elaborate nourishment, and return it to the root ; and hence, celery
which is intended to grow of large size should be nearly full-grown before
it is earthed up at all. Mr. Stewart grew celery which averaged from 9 Ibs.
to 12 Ibs. weight, which had not been finally earthed up more than
three weeks before it was gathered, and which had only one slight earthing-
up previously to the final one, which was in September. On the other hand,
when celery is wished to be of small size, and tender, it ought to be earthed
up in an early stage of its growth, and the process continued as it advances in
height. If the plants have been liberally supplied with water when first put
into the trenches, and daily afterwards, excepting during rains, they will be
ready to receive the first earthing-up in three or four weeks. This is done
by paring down a little soil on each side of the trench with the spade, draw-
ing it against the plants, and taking care that none of it gets into their hearts.
To prevent this, each plant may be first slightly wrapped round with a
strand of matting ; and to do this on a large scale, a strand is procured of
great length, or is added to as it is applied ; and one end being tied round and
fastened to the first plant in the row, it is passed on to the next plant, giving
it one twist round the leaves, and so on till the other end of the row is
reached, when it is there fastened to the last plant. The moulding-up may
now proceed with rapidity, and when finished the strand should be removed,
680 ACETARIACEOUS ESCULENTS.
and applied to the row in the next trench. It is scarcely necessary to observe,
that where there are two rows in a trench, both must be tied up at the same
time ; or that when the rows are made across a broad trench, three ought to
be tied, to prevent all risk of soil getting into the heart of the third row,
while the first is being earthed up. The height of the soil applied may be
three, four, or five inches, according to the height of the plants ; and the
earthings up may take place at intervals of ten days or a fortnight, till, by
degrees, the stalks are covered to the height of twelve inches for the earliest
crop, and eighteen inches, or two feet, or more, for the later crops ; always
taking care to perform the operation when the plants are quite dry, and to
keep the heart open and free ; except in the last earthing before winter,
when the summits of the plants may be nearly closed to exclude rain. The
longer celery is allowed to grow before applying the soil, the longer time
does it require to blanch ; but, in general, three weeks or a month will
effect this, more especially in the early part of the season. Red celery re-
quires a longer time to blanch than white celery, and never entirely loses
its red colour. The latest crop of celery which is to be in use through the
winter will require to be protected by dry litter, or thatched hurdles, during
severe frosts ; or it may be taken up and preserved in sand or soil, in a shed
or cellar. When celery is frozen, it begins to rot immediately after the first
thaw ; and therefore to prolong a crop in the open garden, protection of some
sort is essential on the approach of severe frosts.
1518. Late spring celery. — As celery is in great demand for soups in
most families, especially during winter and spring, when other delicate
vegetables are scarce, a crop may be procured till the beginning of June by
the following means : Sow on a seed-bed about the middle of May ; prick
out, when the plants are six weeks old, into rows six inches apart, and allow
the plants to remain in this nursery till September or October ; then trans-
plant them into trenches -f earth them up slightly, and protect them by litter
or thatched hurdles during winter ; and in February or March earth them up
finally. The stalks thus produced will not always be fit to use in salads, but
they will be valuable for soups and stews. No celery crop that has been
blanched in autumn will keep sound longer than the end of March ; but
green celery which has been only slightly earthed up will stand through an
ordinary winter with little or no protection.
1519. Taking the crop. — The plants should be dug up without being
bruised, beginning at one end of a row ; and afterwards, the roots and green
points of the leaves being cut off, and the loose outer leaves removed, the
heart of the plant in a compact state is fit for being sent to the kitchen ; but
if intended for market, or to be sent to a distance, the outer leaves should be
kept on, and also all the root excepting the fibrous part.
1520. Celeriac is cultivated with greater ease, and at less- expense of ground
and manure, than the common celery ; and it may be used in the kitchen for
seven or eight months in succession. The times of sowing are the same as
for the other sorts, and the plants should be pricked out in a similar man-
ner. They should be divested of all side-slips, not only before transplant-
ing, but also during their after growth. Early in June they may be finally
transplanted in rows fifteen inches apart every way, into flat beds of very
rich light or sandy soil, with two-feet alleys between, to admit of watering
the plants. The routine culture here consists chiefly in liberal waterings,
and in slightly earthing up the roots after they have swelled to their full size
THE LAMB'S LETTUCE, ETC. 681
in order to blanch them. The celeriac has a continual tendency to revert
from the knob-rooted form to that which is natural to it ; and hence, like the
turnip and similar plants of culture, it will not attain any large size if much
earthed up. Still, the celeriac, to be eatable, requires to be blanched, and
therefore must be earthed up to a certain extent, but the less the better. —
( G. M. vols. ii. p. 415, and v. p. 364.) The roots of the celeriac may be taken
up on the approach of frost, and preserved in sand or soil out of the reach of
surface-heat, like potatoes (1416), for an indefinite period. The London
market used formerly to be supplied with this root from Hamburgh.
1521. Diseases, insects, §c. — The celery is liable to the canker in some
soils, and also to be eaten by the maggot of the celery-fly, Tephritis Ono-
pordinis Fab., which is hatched in the leaves, and may be destroyed as soon
as these have a blistered appearance, by cutting them off, and bruising or
burning them ; or foetid substances may be frequently sprinkled near the
plants, as a preventive.
1522. To save seed. — Select the finest specimens of the variety to be pro-
pagated, in February or March ; and either remove a part of the soil with
which they have been earthed up, and allow them to flower where they
stand, or transplant them to a more convenient situation. The seed will
ripen in September, and will keep ten years.
1523. The alisanders, or alexanders, Smyrnium Olusatrum L., and S.
perfoliatum L. (Maceron, Fr.},two umbelliferous biennials, the first a native
of Britain, and the other of Spain, were formerly cultivated, and the leaf-
stalks blanched like those of the celery ; and their leaves were also used as
pot-herbs and in salads. The flavour of the leaves being very much like
that of celery, they may be useful in spring for putting into soups.
1524. The Naples parsley, syn. celery parsley (Persil-celeri, Fr.\ appears
to be a hybrid between the common broad-leaved parsley and the celery.
We have never seen it in England ; but about Paris and in Italy it appears
to be cultivated and used in the same manner as celery.
SUBSECT. V. — The Lamb's Lettuce, Burnet, the Garden Cress, Winter Cress,
American Cress, and Water Cress.
1525. The Lamb's lettuce, or corn-salad, Valerianella olitoria Dec.
(Mache, Fr.\ is a valerianaceous indigenous annual, very hardy, and
which requires no other culture than sowing in August, September, and
February, and thinning the plants to three inches apart. The leaves should
be gathered singly, like those of spinach, when of full size ; except when the
plant is grown as small salading, when the leaves and stems may be cut
over, as hi gathering the common cress or mustard. They are considered as
forming, when used raw, a delicate salad ; and when boiled, a good spinach.
1526. The burnet, Poterium Sanguisorba L., and Sanguisorba ofncinalis
L., are rosaceous perennials, the leaves of which, especially those of the
second species, are put into salads, and sometimes into soups ; and so much
are they esteemed in Italy, that the Italians have a proverb, quoted by
Evelyn, signifying that a salad without burnet is good for nothing.
1527. The garden cress, Lepidium sativum L. (Cresson Alenois, Fr.), is
a cruciferous annual, long in cultivation for its young leaves, which have a
peculiarly warm and grateful relish, either alone, or with other salading.
There are several varieties ; the best of which are the common Curled-leaved,
the Normandy curled, and the Broad-leaved. The Normandy curled is the
ACETARIACEOUS ESCULENTS.
hardiest and most useful variety, supplying a beautiful garnish to dishes
throughout the winter. The seed, which comes up in three days, may be
sown in September and October for winter and spring supply ; and in March,
April, and May, for summer use. These five sowings will afford a constant
supply throughout the year of leaves to be gathered singly, whether for
garnishings or salads; but as the cress is also used as a small salad (1107),
and for that purpose gathered in the seed-leaf, where it is in demand in that
state, it should be sown three or four times every month — during winter and
spring under glass, and in summer and autumn in a shaded situation, the soil
being kept moist by watering, or by covering with hand-glasses or mats. The
soil should always be rich, the great object being rapid growth, so as to ensure
succulence and delicacy. A few plants allowed to run to flower will produce
abundance of seed, which will keep two years. Half a pound of seed at least
will be required where the cress is in constant demand as small salading.
1528. The winter cress, Barbarea vulgaris H. K., and the American cress,
B. prsecox Dec., are cruciferous perennials, natives of Britain in watery
places, and by careful culture in gardens they can be made to produce their
leaves throughout the year. Sow in August, or the beginning of September,
in rows a foot apart, for a crop to stand through the winter, and thin the
plants out to six inches in the row. If the leaves are gathered singly, and
the plants protected from frost by glass, or nightly coverings, they will afford
a regular supply till next June. The plants will then run to flower, and
produce seed in abundance.
1529. The water cress. Nasturtium officinale H. K. (Cresson de Fontaine,
.JFV.), is a cruciferous amphibious creeping perennial, held in general estima-
tion in this and in other countries as an antiscorbutic plant, and brought to
market in immense quantities from its natural habitation in running water,
or artificial plantations made there. The most favourable description of
water is a clear stream, not more than an inch and a half deep, running over
sand or gravel ; the least favourable, deep still water on a muddy bottom.
It is evident, therefore, that there are few private gardens in which the water
cress can be cultivated in running water ; but fortunately it will grow luxu-
riantly in rich sandy soil, if watered overhead every evening and morning
during the growing season ; and the cresses thus produced are undoubtedly
of a richer taste than those grown in clear running water. The plants may
be raised from seed, or obtained by division of old plants ; and they may be
planted early in spring, a foot apart every way. In gathering, only the points
of the shoots should be taken, as the lower leaves are not only coarser, but
apt to be infested by the larva of insects if growing in water, and by snails
and slugs if on land.
For a small garden, the Normandy cress and the water cress are the only
plants of the cress kind worth cultivating.
SUBSECT. VI — Small Salads.
1530. Small salads are understood to be very young plants of the salad
kind, sown thick, and gathered, some, as the cress, mustard, rape, radish,
and some other cruciferous plants, in the seed-leaf ; and others, as the lettuce,
endive, succory, Lamb's lettuce, and various others, when in the third or
fourth leaf. In general, all rapid- growing salad plants are fit for being used
as small salads, and are so used on the continent ; but the principal small
salads in England are the cress, mustard, rape, and radish, which are sown
SUBSTITUTES FOR ACETABIACEOUS ESCULENTS. 683
weekly all the year round on fine rich soil kept warm, moist, and shaded,
and cut in the seed-leaf, generally in about a week after they are sown. Of
the small salads which are allowed to advance beyond the seed-leaf before
they are cut, by far the best is the common cos lettuce. There are two kinds
of mustard which may be grown as small salading, Sinapis alba L., and
S. nigra L. ; but the former alone is grown as salading, the latter being the
kind grown in fields for its seeds to be ground into the flour-of-mustard of
the shops. It is, therefore, seldom seen in gardens. The rape, Brassica
Napus, var. oleifera Dec., is only grown in gardens as a small salad, and as
in the case of other small salads, when much in demand, one pound of seed
of each kind at least will be required.
1531. Substitutes for mustard are to be found in the wild radish, Ra-
phanus Raphanistrum L. ; the sea-radish, R. maritimus Sm.; in the wild
mustard, Sinapis arvensis L. ; the fine- leaved mustard, S. tenuifblia L.; in
all the species of Brassica, &c. ; and, in short, in all the annual and biennial
species of Cruciferse, not excepting the wall-flower and stock gillyflower,
though these and various others are not worth growing as salad-plants.
SUBSECT. VII. — Substitutes for Acetariaceous Esculents.
1532. — Substitutes for acetariaceous esculents are found in the following
plants. — The Brooklime, Veronica BeccabungaZ,., a scrophularinous perennial
common in rivulets and wet ditches, and used like the water-cress. The Garden
Rocket, Eruca sativa Dec., a cruciferous annual, used like the common cress
and mustard. Scurvy Grass, Cochlearia officinalis L., a cruciferous bien-
nial found on our sea-shores, the leaves of which are used like the water
cress. Wood Sorrel, Oxalis Acetosella L., an oxalidaceous perennial, the
leaves of which form a very grateful addition to salading, and communicate
an agreeable relish to dishes of mashed greens : this may also be said of the
leaves of all the other species of Oxalis. To these may be added the young
leaves of all the cruciferous plants mentioned in p. 616 ; the leaves and
flowers of Tropaeolum majus L.; the flowers of Cercis siliquastrum L. ; the
petals of the Dahlia ; the points of the shoots of (Enothera biennis L.; the
leaves of Sedum album L. ; of Crithmum maritimum L. ; of Salicdrnia
herbacea L. ; of Hypochaeris maculata L. ; of Picridium vulgare L. ; of
Spilanthes oleracea L., and of S. fiisca Hort. Par. (see Bon Jard. 1842,
p. 317) ; of Balsamita vulgaris Desf. the costmary, a leaf or two of which
is sometimes used to add to the flavour of mixed salads ; of Achillea Mil-
lefblium L. ; of Inula crithmifblia L. ; of Cochlearia Coronbpus L.; of
Plantago Coronbpus L., and various others.
SECT. VIII. — Adornaceous Esculents.
1533. Adornaceous esculents, under which term we include chiefly the
plants used as garnishes, such as the parsley, chervil, fennel, horse-radish, &c.,
include a great variety of plants belonging to different natural orders, and some
of which, such as the Indian cress, might even have been included under
acetariaceous esculents. The culture of all the plants of this section is
very simple, and with the exception of the horse-radish, a dry calcareous
soil, poor rather than rich, is to be preferred ; because such a soil is found
to be most favourable for the preservation of their aromatic properties,
With the exception of the horse-radish, they are generally grown in a com-
partment, commonly a border, in the outer garden or slip, by themselves.
684 ADORN ACEOUS ESCULENTS.
SUBSECT. J.— The Parsley.
1534. The parsley, Apium Petroselmum L. (Persil, Fr.), is an umbelli-
ferous biennial, a native of Sardinia, long in cultivation as a seasoning, and
also as a garnish. Eaten along with any dish strongly seasoned with onions,
it takes off their smell, and prevents their after- taste ; no herb is more
valuable as communicating flavour to soups and stews. There are two varieties,
the plain -leaved, and the curled-leaved, but the latter alone should be cul-
tivated, because the former is apt to be confounded with a poisonous plant,
the fool's parsley, JEthusa Cynapium L., an indigenous annual, common
as a weed in most gardens, but which can never for a moment be mistaken
for the curled-leaved parsley. Parsley-seed, of which an ounce will sow a
drill 150 feet in length, requires to be sown every year in February, either
broadcast or in rows, but not as an edging to walks as is commonly done ;
because in that situation the leaves get soiled or injured. The seed will
remain in the ground from forty to fifty days before it vegetates, being a
longer period than is required for any other garden-seed ; and, contrary to
what is general, parsley-seed that has been kept several years comes up
sooner than new seed ; unless, indeed, the new seed has been taken from the
plant before it was fully ripe, and sown immediately. The plants should
be thinned out to six inches' distance in the row ; and also all those plants
that have not the leaves beautifully curled should be pulled up, an operation
technically called roguing (864) ; because one of the principal uses of parsley
is as a garnish, and the curled leaves are incomparably more ornamental
than the plain ones. They should be gathered leaf by leaf; and when
there is a want of young tender leaves, the plant should be cut over by the
surface of the ground, when a new set of leaves will be sent up. In order
that there may be a supply in the whiter season, a sowing should be made
about May, to be covered in October with a frame and sashes, or with
hoop sand mats, or propped hurdles. The parsley leaf may be preserved in a
state fit for being used in soups and stews, by drying it in a Dutch oven, or
in a tin roasting-screen (or hastener), and when it becomes brittle, rubbing it
into a fine powder, and putting it into glass bottles till wanted for use.
Seed may be saved by selecting a few plants with the most beautifully-
curled leaves, and allowing them to run to flowers. The seed will ripen in
July, and will keep six or eight years.
1535. The Hamburgh parsley, the roots of which are eaten like those of
the parsley, has been noticed under esculent roots (1441) ; and the Naples
parsley, the footstalks of the leaves of which are used like celery, was
noticed when treating of that vegetable (1524).
SUBSECT. II. — The Chervil, the Coriander, Dill, Fennel, Tarragon, and
Purslane.
1536. The chervil, Chaerophyllum sativum Pers. (Cerfeuil Fr.), is an
umbelliferous annual, a native of the South of Europe, and cultivated for the
same purposes as the parsley ; but as it runs rapidly to seed, several sowings
require to be made in the course of the growing season. Sow in shallow
drills six inches apart, and thin out the plants ; and when gathering, take the
leaves singly. They may be dried and preserved in the same manner as
those of parsley. A few plants allowed to run will bear abundance of seed,
which will keep six or eight years.
THE CHERVIL, ETC.
685
1537. The coriander, Coriandrum sativum L., an umbelliferous annual, a
native of the south of Europe, is sometimes cultivated in gardens for the same
purposes as the chervil ; but more frequently, especially on the Continent, for
its seeds, which are sold by the confectioners encrusted in sugar.
1538. The anise, Tragium sativum Spr., is an annual, a native of Egypt,
sometimes cultivated in gardens for the same purposes as the coriander.
1539. The dill, Anethuin graveolens L. (L'Anet JFV.), is an umbelli-
ferous biennial, a native of Spain, the leaves of which are occasionally used in
soups and sauces, and to put along with pickles, especially cucumbers. Two or
three plants will be enough for any family. It is easily propagated by
division, or by seeds.
1540. The fennel, Anethum Foeniculum L., (L'Anet Fr.}, is an
umbelliferous perennial, resembling the dill, but considerably larger, a
native of the south of Europe, and very generally cultivated in gardens for
the stalks and leaves. The leaves, boiled, enter into many fish-sauces, and,
raw, form a beautiful garnish ; the tender stalks are used raw in salads ;
and the blanched stalks of the variety called finochio are eaten with oil,
vinegar, and pepper, as a cold salad ; and they are likewise put into soups.
Three or four plants of the common fennel are sufficient for any garden.
The finochio may be grown in rows in light, rich soil, and earthed up to the
height of five inches or six inches, to blanch the stalks. This blanching
will be effected in ten days or a fortnight ; and by cutting down a few plants
at a time during summer, a succession of young shoots will be produced,
which, being blanched, will afford a supply from June till December. The
soil ought to be calcareous, dry, and rich, and watered in very dry weather.
1541. The tarragon, Artemisia Dracunculus L. (L'Estragon Fr.), is an
anthemideous perennial, a native of Siberia, cultivated for its leaves and
the points of its shoots as an ingredient in salads, soups, stews, pickles, and
other compositions. By infusion, the stalks and leaves make tarragon
vinegar, which is considered one of the best condiments for fish. Tarragon
is propagated by division or by seed, and grown in rows eighteen inches
apart and six inches distant in the row. The soil in which it is grown
should be dry and calcareous ; otherwise the plants will be comparatively
without flavour, and be apt to perish in a severe winter. It is easily forced
by transferring a few plants to the hotbed or hothouse (1110); and the
stems may be gathered just before they are coming into flower, dried, com-
pressed into small packets, and put up in paper as already described (857).
1542. Substitutes for the tarragon are to be found in the Achillea serrata
E. B., and the Tagetes lucida Cav. ; in the latter plant more especially.
The former is much used in Nottinghamshire, under the name of sweet
mace. Achillea nana L., and several dwarf species of Artemisia, are used
for the same purpose in the Alps.
1543. The purslane, Portulaca oleracea L., and P. sativa Haw. (Pour-
pier Fr.), is a portulaceous annual, with succulent leaves and procumbent
stems, a native of South America, and cultivated for its young shoots and
succulent leaves as ingredients in spring and summer salads, and as pot-
herbs and pickles. There are two sorts, considered as distinct species, the
green and the golden ; the latter is more showy as a garnish, but the former
is more succulent as a salad. Where a constant supply is required, the first
sowing should be made on heat in February, and the others monthly, on a
warm border till August. The shoots are gathered for use when they are
Y Y
680 ADORNACEOUS ESCULENTS.
from two inches to five inches in height, and well furnished with leaves ;
and if they are cut off close to the collar of the plant, it will sprout out
again, and afford a second supply. A few plants will produce abundance
of seed, which will keep good two years.
SUBSECT. III. — The Indian Cress, Borage, and Marigold.
These plants are annuals, and only a very few of each are required for
any garden.
1544. The Indian cress, or nasturtium, Tropaeolum majus L. (Capucine,
JFV.), is a tropaeolaceous trailing or climbing annual, a native of Peru, but
growing vigorously in the open air in the climate of Britain. The flowers
make a beautiful garnish alone, or along with those of the borage, the mari-
gold, oxalis, dahlia, &c. ; and both the flowers and the young leaves and
tender shoots are eaten in salads, having a warm taste like the common
cress, whence the name Indian cress. The fruit is gathered green, and
pickled like capers, for which they form so excellent a substitute that they
are preferred to the true caper by many persons. The two sorts best worth
cultivating are the common large, with an orange flower, and the blood-red
flowered. The seed may either be sown on heat in March, and transplanted
in May, or sown in May where it is finally to remain ; and in order to keep
the flowers and fruit quite clean, it is advisable to stick the plants in
the manner of peas. The leaves, points of the shoots, and flowers, should
be gathered only a few hours before using ; and the fruit for pickling,
while green, plump, and tender. One or two plants will ripen abundance
of seed, which will keep two years.
1545. The borage, Borago officinalis L,. (Bourrache JFV.), is a boragina-
ceous annual, indigenous or naturalised in Britain, and generally cultivated
among other plants used in garnishing for its beautiful blue flowers. The
tender leaves and points of the shoots are used in salads and as pot-herbs,
more especially on the Continent. The flowers and upper leaves are some-
times put in a cool tankard, which is a beverage composed of wine, water,
lemon juice, and sugar. The seed keeps four years.
1546. The marigold, or pot-marigold, Calendula officinalis L. (Souci des
Jardins, Fr.\ is a helianthemideous annual, the double-flowTered varieties of
which have been long cultivated in gardens as ornamental plants, for their
flowers as garnishes, and for their petals, which are occasionally used in
broths and soups. A few plants are enough for any garden, and they may
be raised from seed sown in February or March. The petals may be
gathered, dried in the sun, and put up in paper for winter use.
SUBSECT. IV. — The Horse-radish.
1547. The horse-radish, Cochlearia Armoracea L. (Cranson, or Le Grand
Raifort, -Fr.), is a cruciferous perennial, a native of England in marshy
places, long cultivated for its roots or underground stems. These are
scraped into shreds, as a garnish and a condiment to roast-beef, and also as
an ingredient in winter salads and sauces ; and by some persons it is eaten
raw, with bread and butter. It is propagated by cuttings of the root, either
of the crown, with one or two inches of the root attached, or of the root,
without any visible buds, about the same length, and planted with the
upper end uppermost, as in sea-kale (1488). These cuttings may either
be dropped into holes, made by a dibber, fifteen or eighteen inches in
THE RHUBARB. 687
depth, and about the same distance apart every way, the upper part of the
hole being filled in with light soil or wood ashes ; or they may be planted
while the ground is being trenched, covering it to the depth of eighteen
inches. March is the season for planting, and the soil should be rich, free,
moist, and at least two feet deep. The roots, that is the part produced
between the top of the cutting and the surface of the ground, and which
may be called a blanched stem, will be fit for use at the end of the first
autumn, when the leaves have decayed ; but they will be much stronger at
the end of the second autumn. They ought never to be allowed to remain
longer than three years, nor to ripen seed, otherwise the roots become
tough and disagreeable to use. A portion ought to be planted every year,
to come in in succession. In taking the crop, begin at one end of a row, and
dig down as far as the roots have penetrated, so as to take up every particle
of root, for the least fragment left will send up leaves the following year.
For this reason many gardeners grow their horse-radish always on the same
spot of ground ; trenching up one-half every winter ; and selecting the
larger roots, and laying them up in sand, or earthing them up in a shady
border, for use, and leaving the smaller roots in the bottom of the trench
for next year's crop. In whichever way horse-radish is grown, the soil
ought to be deep, rich, and moist, in order that the growth may be rapid
and the root succulent ; the flower-stems should be cut off as soon as
they appear, because they deprive the root of nourishment which would
otherwise be sent down to it ; and the crop should not be allowed to stand
more than two years, or at most three, otherwise the roots will become
filled with woody fibre, sticky, and unfit for use.
1548. Lepidium latifolium £., a cruciferous annual, a native of Britain
on the sea-coast, has roots resembling those of the horse-radish, which may
vrey well be used as a substitute ; the leaves are excellent as greens, and
not bad in salads.
SECT. IX. — Condimentaccous Esculents.
1549. Condimentaceous esculents are such as in cookery are always used
with pastry in the form of tarts, pies, puddings, &c. ; or preserved in sugar,
or pickled in vinegar. Though fruits are chiefly employed in these prepa-
rations, yet we have as substitutes the rhubarb and the Oxalis crenata for
tarts, pies and puddings, and the angelica for preserving in sugar, and the
samphire for pickling. The principal plant belonging to this section, how-
ever, is the rhubarb, which, though scarcely known as a tart plant in the com-
mencement of the present century, is now become generally cultivated for
that purpose, even in the garden of the cottager. The other plants of this
section occupy but a very small space in the herb-ground.
SUBSECT. I. — The Rhubarb.
1550. The Rhubarb, Rheum L. (Rhubarbe /*>.), is a polygonaceous
perennial, a native of Tartary, and other countries of the East, of which
there are several species, hybrids and varieties, in culture for the petioles of
the radical leaves. These are peeled, cut into small pieces, and put into
tarts and pies, in the manner of gooseberries and apples, or, like them, baked
whole in a dish. A wine is also made from them, and they are also pickled
and preserved. There are a great many different kinds in cultivation, and
every year produces some new sort ; but those considered the best at the
688 CONDIMENTACEOUS ESCULENTS.
present time are : the Elford^ with scarlet stalks, for an early crop ; Myatfs
Victoria, for a main crop, and it is also the best for forcing ; and Rheum
australe D. Dow., syn. R. Embdi WaL, for a late crop. The latter has
an excellent flavour, somewhat resembling that of apples. To ensure the
flavour in pies and puddings, a portion of the stalks should always be put in
without being peeled.
1551. Propagation and culture. — By seed is the best mode when the soil
is rich and deep, because the tap-root penetrates at once to a great depth,
and the plant is less likely afterwards to suffer from drought ; but it will
grow quite well by division, which is the most certain mode of continuing
particular varieties. The soil being deeply trenched and richly manured, a
few seeds may be deposited in drills two feet apart for the Elford, and three feet
for the other sorts ; and nearly the same distance may be allowed in the rows.
When the plants come up, reduce the patches to single plants, and, with the
usual routine culture, one or two leaves from each plant may be gathered the
second year, three or more the third, and several every year for a number of
years afterwards ; though as the number of buds on the crowns of the roots
increase, the leaves will be smaller. The flower-stems should be cut down
as soon as they appear, unless seed is wanted. Some persons prefer the
leaves partially blanched, and for this purpose place a sea-kale pot over each
plant, but without the cover ; others have grown it in chimney-pots for the
same purpose, and find also an increased produce from the greater length of
stalk. The progress of the Elford, or any other early variety, may be greatly
accelerated in spring by covering each plant with a common hand-glass, or
with the substitute (figs. 111—113, in p. 172) invented by Mr. Forsyth. In
gathering the leaves, remove a little soil, bend them down, and slip them off,
without injuring the buds at their base, and without bruising the stalks or
knife. The stalk is fit to use when the disk of the leaf is half expanded ;
but a larger produce and a fuller flavour are obtained by waiting till the leaf
is fully grown. One plant allowed to run will produce abundance of seed,
which ripens in August, and will keep a year.
Forcing the rhubarb. See 1098.
1552. Substitutes for the tart rhubarb may be found in every other species
of the genus, not even excepting the supposed medicinal species, R. palma-
tum; in the stalks of the oxalis crenata (1446), of the sorrel (1458), and
of the different species of dock, which, according to Cobbett, are sent to
market for that purpose in America.
SUBSECT. II. — The Angelica, Elecampane, Samphire, and Caper.
1553. The Angelica, Angelica Archangelica £., is an umbelliferous bien-
nial, a native of England, in moist situations in good soil, but rare, and cul-
tivated in gardens for their leaves, and the tender flower-stalks, which were
formerly blanched like celery. They are now chiefly candied with sugar by
the confectioners ; and in Sweden and Norway, the leaves and stalks are
eaten raw, or boiled with meat and fish ; and the seeds are used to flavour
ardent spirits. The time for gathering the stalks is May, and if the plant
be then cut down. a second crop will be produced; and if the flower-stems
be cut off as fast as they appear, the plant, though a biennial, will last
several years. Seed is produced in abundance, and will keep three or four
years.
1554. Substitutes for the angelica are to be found in the alisanders (1523),
THE ANGELICA, ETC. 689
and the lovage, Ligusticum scoticum Z., an umbelliferous perennial, eaten
raw in the Highlands of Scotland.
1555. The elecampane, Inula Helenium L., is a carduaceous perennial, a
native of the South of England in moist pastures. The root is fusiform,
thick, and aromatic, and is candied like the stalks of the angelica, and much
admired in France and Germany. The plant ought to be taken up yearly,
and divided and replanted, in order that the roots may be obtained succulent
and tender, and for the same reason the plant ought never to be allowed to
come into flower.
1556. The samphire, Crithmum maritimum £., is an umbelliferous
perennial, a native of England, on rocky cliffs by the sea, and cultivated in
gardens for its seed-pods, which make a warm aromatic pickle, and its leaves,
which are used in salads. It is propagated by division, or by sowing the
seed in April ; but in either way it is rather difficult of cultivation. It suc-
ceeds best in a gravelly soil, kept moist, and sprinkled in spring with a
little powdered barilla, or common sea-salt. During winter it requires to be
protected by a little dry litter. By this treatment it has produced an ample
supply of shoots, which may be cut twice in a season. Seed may be saved,
or plants procured from their native habitats on the sea-coast, as for example
at Dover, Salcombe, and on the coast of Galloway and Haddington shires.
1557. Substitutes for the samphire are to be found in some other plants
which grow within salt-water mark ; for example, the golden samphire,
Inula crithmifblia Z,., a perennial, not uncommon in salt marshes; and
Salicdrnia herbacea Z., a chenopodiaceous annual, found on muddy sea-
shores throughout Europe ; in Echinophora spinosa Z,., an umbelliferous
plant, a native of sandy shores in Lancashire and Kent ; the young leaves of
which make a wholesome and excellent pickle»-
1558. The caper, Capparis spinosa Z., is a capparidaceous trailing shrub,
a native of the South of Europe, on rocks and dry stony or gravelly places, and
cultivated about Marseilles, and other parts of France, forits flower- buds, when
about half the size which they attain before expanding. It might be culti-
vated in the South of England in the open garden, and in other parts against
a conservative wall ; or if it were thought necessary a few plants under glass
would supply all that would suffice for an ordinary family. It would thrive
on the rocky shores of the south of Devon, more especially about Salcombe,
where the Agave stands through the winter without protection ; and it will
also succeed in Somersetshire, as Sir John Trevelyan has proved, by plant-
ing it on the sides of an old stone quarry.
1559. Excellent substitutes for the caper are found in the unripe fruit of
the Indian cress, and of the Euphorbia Lathyris L.
1560. The ginger, Zingiber officinale L., a scitamineous perennial from
the East Indies, is sometimes cultivated in our stoves for the roots, or creep-
ing underground stems, to be taken when succulent, and pickled and pre-
served. The plants are divided when in a dormant state, and planted in rich
light soil, and in a year afterwards the roots are fit to gather. (G. M.,
vol. vii., p. 578.)
1561. The flowers of Magnolia grandiflbra L., are pickled in some parts
of Devonshire, and considered exquisite in flavour ; and we have no doubt
that the flower-buds of the other species, and the leaf-buds when bursting,
of all the species, and also of the tulip tree, might be used for the same
purpose.
690 AROMACEOUS ESCULENTS.
SECT. X. — Aromaceous Esculents.
1562. The esculent aromatic plants, or sweet herbs, in common use, are
about a dozen in number, but they all grow in a very limited space in the
herb garden. The soil for all of them may be dry and calcareous, with the
single exception of the mint family. They are used to give flavour to soups,
stews, and other dishes; and in sauces and various stuffings. The leaves and
stalks of all these plants may be gathered when they are coming into flower,
dried, and compressed in a shallow box by a screw press, so as to form packets
about the size of a small octavo volume, which, being put up in paper, will
retain their fragrance for two or three years. Nothing can be worse than
the former mode of keeping herbs, by hanging them up loose, in the back
sheds, or in the seed-room, where they soon became covered with dust, and
deprived of their aroma.
1563. The common thyme, Thymus vulgaris L., is a labiaceous evergreen
undershrub, a native of Spain and Italy. The young leaves and tops are
used either green or dried in soups, stuffings, stews, and sauces. It is readily
increased by seeds, cuttings, or by division, and the plants should be renewed
by one or other of these modes every year in spring.
1564. The lemon thyme is the T. citriodbrus Pers., a trailing evergreen,
used for the same purposes as the preceding species ; but being less pungent
it is more grateful, and therefore used as a seasoning for veal, instead of
lemon peel.
1565. The sage, Salvia officinalis L., is a labiaceous evergreen undershrub,
a native of the South of Europe. The leaves and tender tops are used in
stuffings and sauces, for many kinds of luscious and strong meats ; as well as
to improve the flavour of various articles of cookery. There are several
varieties: the common, red, or purple leaved; the narrow-leaved green ; su\dthe
broad-leaved green, all-1 of equal merit. They are propagated by seeds or
cuttings, and like the thyme, the plantation ought to be renewed every two
or three years, otherwise it- is very apt to be destroyed by the winter.
15(56. The clary, S. Sclarea L., is a biennial, a native of Italy, sometimes
used as a substitute for the sage.
1567. The common mint, or spear mint, is the Mentha viridis L., a
labiaceous creeping stemmed perennial, a native of England, in marshy
places ; the young leaves and tops of which are used in spring salads, and
form an ingredient in soups ; they are also employed to give flavour to cer-
tain dishes, as peas, £c.; being boiled for a time, and then withdrawn. Mint
is much in demand about London as an ingredient in a sauce for lamb. It is
propagated by division of the roots before they begin to grow in spring, which
are buried in shallow drills ; or by the young shoots slipped off when they
are three inches or four inches in length, and planted in beds a few inches
apart. To produce tender stalks and leaves the plants require to be liberally
supplied with water. When mint is to be dried the stalks should be cut
when they are just coming into flower, dried in a shady place, compressed in
packets, and papered ; to be laid up in a drawer or herb case till wanted for
use. One packet may be sent to the kitchen at a time. No plant is easier
to force, and this ought always to be done in time for new lamb. (See 1110.)
1568. The pennyroyal mint, M. Pulegium L., is a low creeping perennial,
a native of England, in wet commons, and on the margins of brooks. It is
used in cookery like the common mint, and for distilling pennyroyal water.
FUNGACEOUS ESCULENTS. (>91
1500. The pot marjoram, Origanum Omtes L., is a labiaceous under-
shrub, a native of Sicily, but hardy enough to stand through our winters.
The leaves and tender tops, green or dried, are used in soups as a substitute
for those of the sweet or knotted marjoram. It is readily propagated by
division of the roots, or by seeds.
1570. The sweet marjoram, or knotted marjoram, O. Majorana L., is a
biennial, a native of the South of Europe, and long cultivated in British
gardens as a seasoning for soups, and for other culinary purposes. This
species being somewhat tender, is commonly sown on a slight hot-bed towards
the end of March, or on a warm border about the middle of April ; in the
former case transplanting it into rows one foot apart, and the plants six
inches distant in the row ; and in the latter case thinning them out without
transplanting. The green tops may be gathered as wanted ; but those to be
preserved in packets will have most flavour, if gathered when just coming
into blossom. The seed, of which a quarter of an ounce is sufficient for any
garden, is commonly imported, and will keep four years.
1571. The winter marjoram, O. heracleoticum L., is a perennial, a native
of the South of Europe, with leaves resembling those of the knotted marjoram,
but with the flowers in spikes instead of whorls. It is used like the other
marjorams, and propagated by division.
1572. The winter savory, Satureja montana L., is a labiaceous under-
shrub, a native of the South of Europe, and cultivated for its tender tops as
a seasoning for soups and made dishes, and for boiling with peas, beans,
&c. It is propagated by seed, cuttings, or division, like thyme, but most
frequently by the latter mode.
1573. The summer savory, S. hortensis L., is an annual, a native of Italy,
with larger leaves and a more agreeable fragrance than the winter savory, to
which it is generally preferred. It is sown in drills, one foot apart, in the
open garden, in March or April.
1574. The sweet basil, or larger basil, Ocymum Basilicum L., is a labia-
ceous annual, a native of the East Indies, cultivated for its highly aromatic
properties. The leaves and bracteae, or leafy tops, are the parts gathered ;
and, on account of their strong flavour of cloves, they are often used in
highly-seasoned dishes, as well as in soups, stews, and sauces; and a leaf
or two leaves are sometimes introduced into salads. Sow on a hot-bed
in the end of March, and plant out in a warm border when all danger from
frost is over, allowing the plants at least a square foot of space for each.
Seed is generally imported from Italy, and it keeps two years.
1575. The bush basil, or least basil, -O. minimum L., an annual, also
from the East Indies, is a much smaller plant than the former, but being
equally aromatic, and rather more hardy, is frequently substituted for it.
1576. The tansy, Tanacetum vulgare L., is an anthemideous perennial,
a native of Britain on the sandy banks of rivers, and cultivated in gardens
for the young leaves, which are shredded down, and employed to flavour
puddings, omelets, and cakes. There is a variety with the leaves doubly
curled, which is generally preferred. No plant is more easily propagated or
cultivated, and it also forces freely.
SECT. XI. — Fungaceous Esculents.
The only fungaceous vegetable cultivated in Britain is the common mush-
room, though attempts have been made to bring under subjection the truffle
and the morel.
692 FUNGACEOUS ESCULENTS.
1577. The garden mushroom, Agaricus campestris L., is a hymenomyce-
taceous fungus, a native of Britain and most parts of Europe, appearing in
pastures in August and September, and readily distinguished from other
fungi by its fine pink or flesh-coloured gills, and pleasant smell. As the
natural history of the mushroom was given when treating of the mode of
forcing it (1111), and as there are no varieties to be described, we have only
to notice a practice sometimes adopted of growing the mushroom, in imi-
tation of nature, in grass-lawrns and pastures. The attempt will not succeed
in every soil and situation, but it has done so in a great many instances.
Take mushroom spawn — the mode of procuring which has been already
given (1113) — and in the beginning of July inoculate a lawn or pasture
with it by simply raising one piece of turf, three inches thick, with the
spade, in every square yard, inserting a small fragment of spawn beneath it,
and pressing it firmly down again with the back of the spade or the foot.
This will not interfere with the mowing of the lawn, and in all probability a
crop will be produced during the latter end of August and the beginning of
September; and mushrooms will appear of themselves in the same ground
for a number of years afterwards. Mushroom spawn has also been planted
among potatoes and other crops in the open garden, and has produced mush-
rooms, but no mode yet discovered is so certain as those in which artificial
heat and a bed of stable-dung is employed (G. M., vol. ix., p. 223). The
mushroom, when cultivated in houses, is liable to the attacks of various
insects, slugs, and worms, all of which may be collected by baits, or devoured
by a toad or two kept on purpose.
1578. The truffle, Tuber cibarium Sibth., is a gasteromycetaceous fungus,
a native of Britain, and growing naturally some inches below the surface.
It is very common in the downs of Wiltshire, Hampshire, and Kent,
where dogs are trained to scent it out, and where also it is sought out and
devoured by pigs ; — which on the Continent are used to discover the localities
of this fungus, as dogs are in England. It is sent to the London market
from different parts of England in a green state, and imported from the
Continent sliced and dried ; the most celebrated truffles are those from the
oak forests of Perigord. Various attempts have been made, both in Britain
and on the Continent, to cultivate the truffle, but hitherto without success
(G. M. I., VIII., and XIII.); but it would appear that Dr. Klotzsch,
of Berlin, has ascertained that the best course is to take truffles which are no
longer good for the table, being over-ripe, and nearly in a state of decompo-
sition, diffusing a disagreeable odour ; to break them into pieces, and place
them two inches or three inches deep in the earth, in rather raised flat
places, under copse or underwood, protected from the north and east winds.
Truffles in the state in which they are eaten are never ripe, and therefore
unfit for propagation. — (Gard. Chron. 1842, p. 287.)
1579. The morel, Morchella esculenta Pers., belongs to the same division
of fungi as the truffle. It is a native of Britain in wet banks, in woods, and
in moist pastures, and is in perfection in May and June. When gathered
dry it will keep several months. It is used for the same purpose as the
truffle, but like it has not as yet been subjected to cultivation.
1580. Substitutes for these fungi may be found in a number of species of
the same genera, more especially of Agaricus, but as a great number of
fungi are considered poisonous, it would be dangerous for any one to collect
them for edible purposes from mere description without figures. We refer
therefore to Sowerbys English Fungi, in which coloured plates are given of
MEDICACEOUS liERBS.
693
all the indigenous species, and those which are edible, and those which are
poisonous, particularly pointed out. See also Descrizione del Funghi Man-
yerecci piu comuni dell' Italia e de velenosi che possono c omedesimi confon-_
dersi, del Dottor Carlo Vittadini. Milano, 1835.
SECT. XII. — Odoraceous Herbs.
1581. The odoraceous herbs, or perfumery herbs, cultivated in British
gardens in the present day, are, with the exception of lavender and pepper-
mint, applied to very little use.
1582. The lavender, Lavandula spica L., is a labiaceous under-sjirub, a
native of the South of Europe, a few plants of which are cultivated in every
garden for their powerfully aromatic flowers. These are gathered with a
portion of the stalk attached, and tied up in little bundles, dried, and
placed among linen to perfume them and to deter the moth. They are also
used for scenting rooms, wardrobes, and for a variety of similar purposes,
and for affording by distillation lavender-water. It is propagated by seeds
or cuttings, and thrives best on dry calcareous soils, in which it will last five
or six years. L. latifblia Ehrh., and L. viridis Herit., are cultivated in
some gardens instead of the common sort, or along with it.
1583. The rosemary, Rosmarinus officinalis L., is a labiaceous evergreen
under-shrub, a native of the south of Europe^and like the lavender highly
aromatic. The flowers are used like those of the lavender, and for distilling
Hungary- water; and the sprigs are sometimes used as a garnish. It is
readily propagated by seeds or cuttings in dry calcareous soil, and a plant
will last six or seven years.
1584. The peppermint. — Mentha piperita L., is a labiaceous creeping-
stemmed perennial, a native of England in watery places. Its only use is
for distilling peppermint- water, for which purpose it may be propagated like
the mint (1567), and planted in a soft, rich soil, moist either naturally or by
art. The stalks are gathered when they are in full flower, and taken at
once to distil. The plantation, from its travelling-roots, requires to be
renewed every four or five years.
SECT. XIII. — Medicaceous Herbs.
1585. The medicinal herbs enumerated in this section, are still found in
a number of gardens, though very little use is made of them.
1586. The medicinal rhubarb, Rheum palmatum L., may be cultivated
like the tart rhubarb, and after standing three or four years, the plants
may be taken up and their larger roots dried for use. After taking up
and cleaning the roots and cutting off the lateral fibres, cut them into sec-
tions an inch or more in thickness, make holes in them, and string them,
and hang them up to dry in an airy loft, laundry, or kitchen, gradually, till
the}' are fit for being bruised into a powder, or cut into pieces about the size
of peas, to be taken as pills. Till about the commencement of the present
century, it was customary for almost every gardener in Scotland to grow
enough of rhubarb, and of chamomile, for his own family ; and also, if he
had children, a certain quantity of wormwood and rue as anthelmintics.
1587. The chamomile, Anthemis nobilis L., is an anthemideous creeping
perennial, a native of England in gravelly pastures, and cultivated for its
flowers, which are bitter and stomachic, and much used as chamomile tea.
1588. The wormwood, Artemisia Absinthium L., is an anthemideous
694 TOXICACEOUS HERBS.
perennial, a native of Britain in calcareous pastures, and formerly cultivated
as a vermifuge, and for other purposes in domestic medicine. It is found
beneficial to poultry, and should be planted in poultry grounds ; and it is
also used as a substitute for hops in beer. It is easily propagated by
cuttings or division.
1589. The rue, Ruta' graveolens L., is a rutaceous evergreen under-shrub,
a native of the south of Europe, the leaves of which are sometimes eaten
with bread and butter, and frequently given to poultry for the croup. They
also make a beautiful garnish.
1590. The horeliound, Marrubium vulgare /,., is a labiaceous perennial,
a native of Britain on dry chalky or gravelly soil, and was formerly in
demand as a cure for coughs and asthmas, for which candied horehound is
still a popular remedy.
1591. The hyssop, Hyssbpus officinalis L., is a labiaceous evergreen
under-shrub, a native of the South of Europe, the leafy tops and flowers of
which are gathered and dried for making hyssop tea and other purposes.
1592. The balm, Melissa officinalis L., is a labiaceous perennial, a native
of Switzerland, of which balm tea and balm wine used to be made.
1593. The blessed thistle, Centaurea benedicta L., is a carduaceous annual,
a native of the South of Europe, an infusion of the leaves of which is con-
sidered as stomachic. *
1594. The liquorice. Glycyrrhiza glabra L., is a leguminous deep-rooting
perennial, cultivated in fields more frequently than in gardens for its saccha-
rine juice, which is used as an emollient in colds, fevers, &c.
1595. The blue melilot, Melilbtus crarulea L. (Baume du Perou, JFr.),
is a leguminous annual, a native of Switzerland, Bohemia, &c., remarkable
for its powerful fragrance, which is used in Switzerland to aromatise the
Schabziguer cheese, and there and in other countries to perfume clothes,
and afford, by distillation, a fragrant water. In a dried state, the perfume
is more powerful, and it is retained for upwards of half a century. — (Bon
Jard. 1842.)
SECT. XIV. — Toxicaceous Herbs.
1596. The poisonous plants cultivated in gardens for the purpose of
destroying insects or vermin are few, and indeed the tobacco is almost the
only one.
1597. The tobacco, Nicotiana Tahacum L., is a solanaceous annual, a
native of South America, and cultivated to a limited extent in gardens for
horticultural purposes. u It is used to fumigate hot-houses ; large infusions
of it are put into most washes that are prepared for extirpating insects ; and
by drying and grinding it into the form of snuff, it is found very efficacious
in destroying the green-fly on peach and rose trees out of doors." The best
variety is the large-leaved Virginian.
1598. Propagation and culture. — The practice in. the Hort. Soc. gardens is
as follows : — " The seeds were sown about the middle of March, covered very
lightly with fine loam, and 'placed upon a moderate hot-bed. When the plants
were come up, and had acquired sufficient strength, they were pricked into shal-
low pans, about two inches apart ; they were then gradually inured to the open
air on good days, and finally planted out in the middle of May, at three feet
apart, in rich ground. They were shaded with flower-pots, and occasionally
watered, till they had taken root and begun to grow. No more attention
TOXICACEOUS HERBS. 695
was bestowed, except keeping the ground clean, until their lateral shoots
began to show themselves, which were constantly kept pinched off as they
appeared : these, if suffered to remain, would have had the effect of very
much reducing the supply of sap from the useful leaves of the plants. They
were topped at sixteen or eighteen leaves, according to their strength. The
tobacco was ripe in the beginning of September, as was indicated by the
leaves becoming mottled with yellow spots, those at the bottom more so
than at the top of the plant ; they were also more glossy and shining than
before."
1599. After management.—" In most gardens the leaves are stripped off
the plants in a green state, and thrown together in a heap to ferment ; while,
little or no attention being paid to the degree of temperature which such
fermentation should reach, the usual consequence is burning or rotting the
leaves. Tobacco so treated has neither the taste, the smell, nor the efficacy
of tobacco, and when burnt in hothouses is by no means effective in killing
insects, without a great proportion of regularly cured and manufactured
tobacco being burnt along with it. Hothouses also smell very disagreeably
for eight or ten days after being fumigated with it."
1600. Curing. — " The mushroom-house being at this time disengaged, was
thought an eligible place for the curing process. The plants were taken up
quite dry, with a few of their roots ; but no particular attention was paid to
saving many of the latter, as the object was only to avoid breaking the bottom
leaves (which might have been the case by cutting the stems). The plants
were carried immediately to the house, and hung on nails in the walls, and
on ropes in the middle of it. When all had been brought into the house, it
was shut up quite close, the fire lighted, and the temperature kept 'to 70°,
until the leaves got completely yellow, which they did in four or five days.
The heat was then raised to 75°; and in. about a week the leaves, with the
exception of the midribs, were cured, and of a fine brown colour. The heat
was then increased to between 80° and 90° ; and in five days the midribs
were so completely killed, that the thick ends of them would have broken
immediately on attempting to bend them. The leaves were now very much
curled, and dry as fire could make them, and if subjected to any pressure
would have crumbled to snuff. Fire was discontinued, and the floor of the
house well watered. This was repeated as it evaporated, and in twenty-
four hours the leaves were as soft and pliable as could be desired : they
could now be handled without breaking or wasting them. When stripped
off the stalks, they were stretched out singly, and laid above one another,
smoothing them gently with the hands. When all were laid out neatly,
they were well pressed, to give them form and keep them smooth ; they
were then tied in hands, of about half a dozen leaves in each, and packed into a
tub, being well pressed as they were put in. In this way they remained
a fortnight, when they began to mould slightly at the midribs, in conse-
quence of the weather being moist and warm. They were then rehung in
the house, and very gradually dried by fire-heat ; were afterwards brought
to a moist state in the manner above described, and finally were repacked in
the tub, where they now remain, well pressed, and in a good keeping state.
The tobacco continues to improve in smell and appearance with its age.
" The important points in the above mode of curing are, to carry the
plants to the house whenever they are taken up ; for if the sun be bright,
the leaves would sunburn in a short time. The leaves require to be yellow
696 TOXICACEOUS HERBS.
before the heat is increased, otherwise the tobacco would cure too light-
coloured ; and the midribs must be completely killed before the leaves are
taken off the stalks ; for if not once made very dry, they would never keep.
" The power which the leaves possess of absorbing moisture in a damp
atmosphere is immense, and very curious : a person unacquainted with it
would not believe, on seeing a leaf in its driest state, that it could ever be
brought back so as to be again pliable.
u The number of leaves that each plant ought to be allowed to produce
should be determined by the quality of the ground, the earliness or lateness
of the season, &c. : when these combine to the advantage of the plants, they
are able to perfect proportionally more leaves. By a timely and careful
attention to such circumstances, and by pinching off the lateral shoots, the
climate of England, or that of Ireland, is in every respect sufficient to the
full perfection of tobacco. Four months are not fully required to bring it
to maturity.
" In the case of large plantations being made, shading with flower -pots
would be attended with considerable expense : it is not, however, of absolute
necessity ; for, when tobacco plants are pricked out some time previous to
planting, they make good roots, which are of greater benefit to them, after
they are planted, than shading is. Shading with pots, however, is certainly
useful ; but it is by no means an essentially necessary part of the manage-
ment of tobacco. The leaves flag under a hot sun ; but, if the ground is
moist, quickly recover." — (Gard. Mag. vol. x. p. 503.)
1001. The white hellebore, Veratrum album L., is a melanthaceous tuber-
culous-rooted perennial, a native of Denmark, and formerly in much repute
as a powerful medicine. The part employed is the root dried and powdered;
and as it has lately been found more efficacious than tobacco powder (1223)
in destroying the caterpillar on the gooseberry, it might be worth while to
cultivate it in gardens for that purpose. The plant is not rare, and is easily
propagated by seeds or by division. At two years from the seed the roots
may be fit for use, and may be taken up, dried on a hothouse flue, and beat
into powder, first on a stone with the cast-iron rammer (fig. 37 c, in p. 136),
and afterwards, if thought necessary, to a finer powder, in a mortar. A
decoction of the leaves and stems might probably also be effective ; or they
might be treated like those of the tobacco, and afterwards used in fumigation
or as snuff.
1G02. The foxglove, Digitalis purpurea Z/., is a scrophularinaceous
biennial, a native of Britain, and common in copse-Woods and hedge-wastes.
The whole plant is poisonous, and may be used for the same purpose, and in
the same manner, as the tobacco.
1603. The henbane, Hyoscyamus mger L., and the thorn-apple, Datura
Stramonium L., are well known indigenous annuals, of highly narcotic
properties, which, if treated like the tobacco, would probably be equally
efficacious in the destruction of insects.
1604. Walnut leaves, in strong decoction, are found to destroy worms ; and
the leaves of the sweet bay, Laurus nobilis L., which are used in very small
quantities to flavour tarts, have been also put into frames and pine-stoves to
destroy the red spider, by the evaporation of the prussic acid with which
they abound.
APPENDIX.
9, in p. 4. — In comparing plants with animals, the leaves can only be compared
to lungs ; and, similarly to lungs, it is true, they aerate the sap, and imbibe oxygen,
as the lungs do to the blood : but, when we carry the comparison further, we find
that not only do the leaves imbibe oxygen, but they also, by imbibing the chemical
power of the light, decompose carbonic acid, absorbing the carbon, and setting the
oxygen free. This is a power which has never been ascribed to lungs ; and, as the
chemical power absorbed probably acts in other ways on the sap presented (see
124), though it is difficult to discriminate between organic secretion of particular
organs and the chemical power of light, it has been by many eminent physiologists
called digestion. Comparative physiology is valuable as assisting us to understand
more readily what we are ignorant of, by comparing ^t with what we are already
acquainted with. It is necessary to know the functions which the different organs
perform before we can estimate their value, or know the necessity of supplying
them with proper food ; and the more we can simplify the subject, by classifying
one organ in one organised being with one destined to a similar purpose in another,
we the more readily arrive at a general knowledge of the whole. There are many
difficulties, however, in comparative physiology ; and the proper class of organs to
which leaves may belong seems one of the principal stumbling-blocks.
103, in p. 26. — It may be questioned whether the roots of Rosaceae, &c., abound
in adventitious buds. It is more likely these buds are called into existence by an
effort of the vitality of the plant. In such as the Rims, Papuver, &c., which
abound in a thick viscid sap, the very smallest pieces, in which it is scarcely possible
buds could be formed, are found to produce them, if they have only fibres to collect
nourishment. The buds are generally formed at the edges of the cut, where the
leaf is extravasated, showing they are formed from the extra vasated sap, and did not
previously exist in the state of buds. The edge of the cut is sometimes so crowded
with buds, that they cannot be supposed to have had pre-existence in such large
quantities. The buds noticed at 121 may be more properly called axillary than
adventitious.
128, in p. 34. — It has been customary to call the cause of fruiting an accumula-
tion of nutritive matter. Were this the case, we would add to the fruitfulness of a
tree by augmenting the quantity of its food or nutritive matter. The reverse of
this, however, more often takes place, as in ringing and taking away roots, impo-
verishing the soil, &c., all which diminish the quantity of nutritive matter, and yet
generally add to fruitfulness. It is not that impoverishing is itself the cause : were
we able to increase the light and heat as we can increase food, there would be less
cause for impoverishing. The supply of food, however, is most at our command ;
the others, especially the light (the most needful), we have but little power over,
and must, therefore, curtail the food to suit our limited- means. A certain highly
698 APPENDIX.
elaborated state of the food is necessary before fruit-buds can be formed : experi-
ence teaches us this, as we see that fruit-buds are always most plentifully formed
in seasons when the accumulation of the chemical power of the light from an un-
clouded sky has added most to the power of the leaves. Chemistry has not yet
been able to unravel the changes required to bring the sap into a proper condition
for producing fruit-buds ; but that it is the quality, more than the quantity, experi-
ence abundantly points out.
128, in p. 34. — It has been pointed out that a large quantity of crude sap is
not conducive to fruitfulness, but the contrary ; and that, therefore, a smaller
quantity duly elaborated is to be preferred. It may, however, be observed, that
in order that the fruit may be large and abundant, an abundant supply of nourish-
ment is absolutely necessary ; and therefore efforts should be made, by the employ-
ment of every means in our power, towards the elaboration of the largest possible
quantity of sap, rather than adopt the prompt system of partial starvation, by
means of which the fruit, if produced in abundance, must necessarily be small. A
full crop of fruit cannot be obtained, unless from buds and branches previously
well nourished. If a vigorous branch is ringed so as to throw it into a bearing
state, the fruit will be larger than from a weak bi-anch either so treated or left
untouched. 2V.
157, in p. 48. — Magnesia, in its caustic state, is much longer in returning to the
mild state, by regaining its carbonic acid from the air, than lime, especially if lime
is present, as it generally is with magnesia. In this caustic state, it may be dan-
gerous in excess ; but, being more sparingly soluble than caustic lime, excess is
not so apt to occur.
158, in p. 48. — 'The sulphate of iron being the most soluble of any of the salts of
iron, is most hurtful. Turning up the soil, and exposure to the air, change the
sulphate into an insoluble peroxide ; and quicklime decomposes the sulphate, so
will also mild lime or chalk, but not so powerfully, the sulphuric acid of the iron
replacing the carbonic of the lime.
188, in p. 59.— There is a good deal of loss in mixing quicklime with substances
putrefying rapidly. The lime seizes on the carbonic acid of the substances, form-
ing an insoluble carbonate of lime ; and the extraction of the carbonic acid hastens
decomposition. Ammonia, being expelled in greater quantity, is always the result
of the application of quicklime, as may be detected by the smell. It may be useful,
in a commercial way, to sustain a great loss for the purpose of making the article
negotiable ; but, where convenience will admit, rapidly putrefying substances are
most economically prepared by mixing with earth or compost, and keeping cool by
turning. Where they have to be carried far, sulphuric acid (vitriol), where cheap,
will disinfect most economically ; or, if cheaper, sulphate of lime (gypsum) ; or
sulphate of iron (copperas), if very cheap. Quicklime is most useful with substances
that decay slowly ; its avidity for carbonic acid causes it to be extracted from the
slowly decomposing substances it is mixed with, as couch-grass, roots, weeds, &c,,
and hastens their decomposition. (See 1.95).
188, in p. 59. — Earth is undoubtedly the best substance for mixing with nauseous
manures. In many cases the extra expense of carriage, occasioned by greater bulk
in consequence of admixture with soil, will be fully compensated by the benefit
arising from the addition of soil of a different nature to that on which the compost
is laid ; thus a quantity of maiden loam would improve permanently a piece of
worn-out ground to an extent that would more than pay for carriage from a con-
APPENDIX.
699
siderable distance ; and therefore the intrinsic value of the soil, as a dressing, ought
to be allowed for as a deduction from expense of carriage in the case of using it
in the way of compost. It is very doubtful whether night soil, disinfected
sulphuric acid, or sulphate of iron, &c., would form a manure half as good as if it
had been mixed with a sufficient quantity of earth in compost. N.
189, in p. 59. — When there are not sufficient of the phosphates in the soil for
bones, their application will have a more powerful effect at first, than after long
continuance has caused the soil to abound in these.
193, in p. 60. — Inorganic substances, though not found in great quantity in vege-
tables (from 1 to 1 0 per cent, only), are yet essential. Though great part of their
action is as solvents, to introduce other substances, yet the plant will not thrive
without them. It is found, for instance, in peaty soils, that there is a great defi-
ciency of silicates and phosphates ; and that wheat and oats thrive much better on
these soils, when bones, containing phosphates, and when wood ashes, decomposed
straw, &c., containing silica, are added. The structure of the plant cannot be built
up without all the requisites ; and, though not needed in such quantities as the
organic substances, and more generally found mixed in the soil, they (the inorganic)
are yet essential, as the straw will not stand without its proportion of flint or silica ;
and the lime, phosphorus, soda, and potash found in all parts of the plant are indis-
pensable. (See 208). Soda is a constituent to a small extent in beans, clover, &c.,
and even in wheat.
214, in p. 66. — A great many mineral manures may be most cheaply sown
with the hand, dry, in the sto^ of powder ; but are more safely distributed well
re divided, will do more good, but may be more
nures can be applied in the bulk, they will always
;s, which are useful only as a saving of expense.
poses in the soil, improves its mechanical texture,
To such as peat soils, silicate of potash and phos-
earth can be added cheaply, it may give these also
lured before, as both of these are found in manure),
nd permanently improved in its texture. Farm-
the inorganic substances needed, improves the
, and is most permanently beneficial ; but where
this cannot be got sufficiently cheap, or where peculiar deficiencies or excesses
occur in the soil, recourse may be had, with a great degree of profit, to inorganic
manures in small compass.
268, in p. 85. — The motion of airor wind is caused by colder air replacing warmer;
this may cause the cooling effect of breezes in summer. Why the effects of still cold
air are not so great as those of air in motion is, because, when in motion, the cold
air is constantly replacing that partially heated by the human body. Why motion
of heated air should, when uniformly heated, give relief, is not so plain. Why
moisture gives relief is connected with electricity. In dry air the electricity of the
body accumulates, because dry air is a bad conductor. Moist air, being a good
conductor, draws off the excess of electricity, which, when present, was causing a
pricking, uneasy sensation ; and, when removed, the body gets more elastic and
exhilarated. Motion is undoubtedly of benefit to leaves and stems of plants.
281, in p. 90 — Plants suffer most at a distance from light, when the light is
only from the top, or one-sided. This has been called the attraction of light, but
is no explanation. In the one-sided light it may be the greater solidifying of the
700 APPENDIX.
side next the light which draws. In the top-light of frames, the want of direct
light at the sides may cause partly the greater elongation of the top ; but plants
elongate below glass, even though surrounded by light. The want of motion is
a great cause of this : plants uniformly elongate more in a sheltered than an
exposed field. If there is any such thing as attraction between light and plants, as
roots follow their food (which is partly hygroscopical in the latter case), it will be,
like the attraction of gravitation, more easily perceivable in its effects than capable
of explanation. Refraction will disperse the light : it is difficult to understand
how it should weaken what does pass through. The chemical power of light, how-
ever, is so much connected with electricity, that it may be weakened in a way we
cannot account for. The chemical power of light is greatest in the least luminous
part of the rays ; and yet, as the quantity of light is equal, that of the equator
must have most power. There is a connexion between heat, light, and electricity,
not yet explained ; the optical qualities of light have been much more attended
to than the chemical. The red rays have more momentum than the blue ; thus
causing the red of the rising and setting sun, and the azure blue of the sky. Per-
haps more of the blue or chemical portion of the sun's rays may thus be lost
in refraction.
454, in p. 167. — I have found the leather wallet much improved by having the
two sides nailed to two pieces of wood about an inch and a half wide ; and also one
piece down the middle, so as to form a parting ; one of which does for nails and
the other for shreds. — H. O.
463, in p. 173. — I should think any protection from frost would be much more
effectual if drawn up or removed during a mild day ; the plant would be hardier
also and healthier, and the extremes between heat and cold not so great. In
Scotland, woollen nets are most used ; from the coldness of the climate they
are most beneficial ; and those who keep them constantly standing find they do
harm ; the foliage is not so healthy, and insects collect. There is seldom so
much heat there as to require shading for the blossom. Dry, cold east winds do
most harm.
474, in p. 181. — White walls will heat the air around the leaves most through
the day from reflection, as these are seldom close to the wall ; and the extreme of
cold will not be so great at night, which is most dangerous. Black-coloured walls,
though they absorb heat during the day, will not retain it to give off at night, as it
will be conducted through the wall in great part during the day, and any little
retained be speedily radiated off in the early part of the night.
501, in p. 205.— The temperature of the blood is 94° to 98", and the heated air
is not likely to be much below the temperature of the skin ; to that extent, how-
ever, it will undoubtedly increase the effect ; and, in motion, will give motion to
the leaves and stems of plants, and will not stagnate and corrupt.
504, in p. 208. — Subsequent improvements have been made on Rogers's conical
boiler by Mr. Shewen, and modifications of it have been adopted by Mr. Stephen-
son and various persons. Messrs. Garton and Jarvis, of Exeter, have invented
and put up at various places a boiler on the same general principle as that of Mr.
Rogers's, viz.. having the fire in the centre of the water — but totally different in
mechanical construction. This boiler will be figured in the Gardeners' Magazine.
•The boiler most generally in -use for heating horticultural structures at present,
is unquestionably that of Mr. Rogers as improved by Mr. Shewen. Two of
these are now (Oct. 1842) putting up in the Hort. Soc. Garden.
524, in p. 225. — A small building on the north side of a larger one is in a lower
APPENDIX. 701
temperature throughout the year than if it stood in the open sun ; consequently it
will always act as a condenser of moisture in the atmosphere that is in contact with
it. Thus, if a portion of wall is of the same temperature as the air, supposing
the latter to be within say 1° of saturation, the wall, with regard to the moisture it
may contain, will remain in nearly the same state ; increase the heat of the wall,
and it will give out moisture, and will ultimately become dry ; but render the wall
several degrees colder than the surrounding atmosphere, or lower than its dew
point, and, like the dew on the cooled bulb of Daniell's hygrometer, previously
explained, a deposition of moisture will immediately take place. This fact ought
to be borne in mind where dwelling-houses are to be erected in the proximity of
thick and lofty trees, or where trees of such description of growth are planted near
houses ; for if a row of trees are growing on the north sides of houses, the latter
are not in consequence affected by damp ; but if the houses are at the north side
of the tr\;es, nothing but strong fires, equal to the discrepancy of temperature occa-
sioned by a northern exposure, will render the houses equally dry ; and even in
this case, as the fire-heat cannot be made to pervade every part of the building, it
is probable a habitation in a northern exposure will not prove so healthy under
any circumstances as one otherwise situated. — N.
564, in p. 245. — Substances yielding oxygen should be of most use in germination
to oily seeds, which have a deficiency of oxygen in themselves.
571, in p. 248. — According to Liebig, ammonia hastens and strengthens germi-
nation ; and, according to the same authority, charcoal and snow absorb ammonia
from the atmosphere ; this may be great part of the benefit.
575, in p. 251. — The plexus of vessels at the heel of the shoot or insertion of the
branch in the stem, causes a peculiar activity of life there ; and both buds and
roots are much more easily formed and in greater quantity there than in any other
place of the shoot. The insertion of the branch resembles in this respect the collar
of the stem (577). If the heel of the gooseberry or currant- cutting is taken out
completely by breaking off, not cutting, it is better than taking off a piece of the
old wood.
578, in p. 252. — Cuttings of growing succulent wood have vitality most active,
and strike root most quickly ; but, from the unripened state of the wood, are most
apt to die, and require to be kept more close and moist. There is danger in both
extremes, and both must be guarded against in such as are difficult to strike.
580, in p. 253.— When the season is hot and warm, and little time to attend to
keeping moist, succulent cuttings, such as pinks, are most certain to strike, by
paring close below the uppermost joint, and cutting off above close to the joint,
leaving none of the leaves uncut, except those beginning to develop. Such a cut-
ting is a mere joint in a vital, active, not ripened state, and will stand a great deal
of heat ; if covered with a hand-glass in sunny weather, or in a hotbed frame in
cold weather, they seldom or never fail. Excitement of heat, not preservation, is
all that is wanted.
581, in p. 254. — When cuttings are tardy to strike, and have callosities formed,
heat has a powerful effect in causing them to root. Those that have stood months,
without appearance of rooting, will strike in a few days in a strong heat
601 in p. 262. — The best mark for such as strike most readily by pieces of the
root is an abundance of thick viscid juice, as in the genera /Zhus, Papaver, Aildn-
tus, Gymndcladus, &c., which strike more freely than Cydonia, roses, thorns, &c.j
which have less.
702 APPENDIX.
614, in p. 269. — Mr. Barnes, gardener to Lady Rolle, at Bicton, mixes char-
coal with the soil in which he grows every kind of plant, from the cabbage and
the onion to heaths, pine- apples, and orchideae, and with extraordinary success.
The charcoal is generally broken into small pieces, say an inch or more in length,
and seldom thicker than a quill ; but he also uses it of a larger size, along with
drainage materials, and, when sown along with seeds, in a state of powder. See
the history and details of this practice in Card. Mag. for 1842. We were not
aware of Mr. Barnes's discovery till after the last sheet of this work was printed,
otherwise we should have introduced a notice of it in its proper place. See p. 706.
650 in p. 287.— It is of great consequence that the graft and stock should be
pressed closely together, in order that the first emission of cambium from the
stock should come in contact immediately with the inner bark and albumen of the
graft. When grafts are taken off, and tied on in a growing state, the wood of the
graft clings and dries ; having no roots to feed it, it shrinks from the stock, leaving
an empty space, and before it is filled up, unless the stock is very vigorous, the
graft dies. This might be obviated by grafting before the sap rises, but grafts will
not succeed till the flow of sap has begun to rise briskly ; late grafting always suc-
ceeds best ; and, hence, the grafts when taken off before growth commences, and
kept moist till the stock begins to grow, always succeed best, as they experience no
checks. Much of the success of grafting, however, depends on the state of the
weather ; if the heat prevails so as to keep the sap flowing, every healthy graft,
well fitted, will succeed ; if not, they may perish before the sap rises.
669 in p. 297. — A species of grafting I think you have not noticed may be dano-
minated bud-grafting, and is the best for most evergreens, as daphnes, &c. When
the stock has begun to grow vigorously cut the head off, and, making an incision in
the bark a few inches down, open it on both sides, the same as for budding ; prepare
the graft without a tongue, and insert the lower part as you would a bud, leaving
the herbaceous growing top green above. Soft succulent evergreens in which the
bark opens freely will do better in this way than any other.
696 in p. 308. — Much of the success of budding depends on the stock and bud
growing vigorously, to supply the juices or cambium causing the union to take
place ; and allowing the bark to separate easily from the wood, so as to prevent
laceration and bruising of the vessels in separating them. If the bark does not fly
up freely from the stock, when the handle of the knife is inserted, it is not likely
the bud will succeed ; and the same if the shield of the bud does not part freely
from its wood ; if either of them has commenced ripening, or if the sap has not
begun to run or flow, the labour will be in vain. In order to insure the cut being
smooth, and no laceration of the bark of the shield taking place, the best of all
methods (especially for such barks as the cherry and plum, which will not bear
handling, and are very apt to spoil) is to mark the size of the shield intended, all
round the bud with the point of the knife, cutting into the wood, and then intro-
ducing the thumb at the side of the bud, and raising it off with a gentle squeeze.
If the shoot is growing vigorously, it will spring out, without any difficulty, so clean
and smooth on the edges, as greatly to facilitate the success of the operation. By
the common method, if the bark is much handled, the shield of the bud is apt to be
spoiled at the edges before insertion.
703 in p. 311.— In transplanting deciduous trees before the leaves are fallen, it
is found in practice that the shoots are not ripened, and die back often to a consi-
derable distance, in the same manner as if the leaves had been destroyed by early
frost. The young fibres, also, will protrude spongioles more quickly in the spring
APPENDIX. 703
from the fibre that has been well ripened, than from that lifted before ripened. It
can only be when the distance of removal is very short, and the plants very small,
and lifted with the earth adhering to the roots, that the transplanting of deciduous
^plants in autumn, before ripe, can be attended with any advantage. In the
nurseries, we have great experience of lifting and shoughing immense quantities of
deciduous plants, and experience must say on this head, that any process of growth
which may be going on in the interior of the plant during whiter has very little if any
outward appearance. Unless the winter is more than ordinarily mild, the spongioles
are never seen to protrude, nor the buds to swell, till the spring begins to advance.
Such as gooseberries, cherries, thorns, birch, larch, &c., may begin in February
or March ; beech, oaks, apples, &c., are later, and seldom begin to show much
before April or May. Even the mezereon, which often flowers in February, is
seldom found to protrude new roots before that period. Of course the period will
vary as to localities ; some soils and situations are more than a month earlier than
others, within very short distances. Autumn planting is preferable where the soil
is dry, as it washes the soil closer to the root ; where the soil is clayey, and the
weather soft at planting time, it gets into a state of puddle and rots the roots in
winter ; and, unless the weather is dry at planting time in autumn, such soils had
better be deferred till spring. Quarters of young trees planted in autumn will
stand all winter without the appearance of failure ; and yet, when the spring
drought sets in, will fail nearly as much as spring-planted ones, showing that very
little has been done by the plant towards establishing itself in the ground during
winter. (Autumn is considered decidedly best in the climate of London.)
717, in p. 321. — According to a table made out by Mr. Robert Thompson, and
published in Lindley's Theory of Horticulture, the atmospheric moisture for the
different months of the year 1831, is as under: —
a a
WIND.
o i
1 1
4
A
II
H
o
N. East.
East.
S. East.
I
S. West.
N.West.
January
31-6
882
893
989
1000
982
1000
983
1000
966
February
39-0
815
657
992
1000
963
874
804
1000
888
March
39-0
815
688
752
1000
913
846
846
1000
857
April
53-2
747
778
870
775
711
846
752
902
797
May .
60-0
718
687
574
767
798
1000
752
651
743
June
57-5
721
572
574
767
798
664
707
673
684
July.
57-5
721
703
662
767
798
750
684
599
710
August
64-8
773
836
690
767
776
724
666
826
757
September
56-6
907
1000
723
767
813
853
761
905
841
October
56-6
907
1000
1000
904
885
862
939
905
925
November
56-6
907
1000
1000
1000
980
938
940
938
962
December
39-0
971
920
1000
1000
980
939
986
1000
974
N.
724 in p. 325. — In order to make sure that the lowest extremity, or root, of the
plant should be most pressed, as you very judiciously request, (technically, it is
called in the nurseries fastened,) it is necessary that the point of the dibber should
be so introduced into the ground, as that it will be nearer the plant at the root than
at the surface, the line of its direction inclining at a slight angle towards the plant.
When the line of direction of the dibber points from the plant, they are fastened
only at the surface, and the roots are not at all fixed in the soil. This is a very
material matter to attend to, where much dibbing is practised. It is easier for the
operators to push the dibber from the plant, and they require to be watched. The
z z 2
704 APPENDIX.
plants dibbed in the wrong way may be easily detected by giving them a slight pull,
when they will be found to draw up easily, while those properly fastened at the
roots retain their hold. If dry weather succeed the operation, almost all of those
fastened at the surface only will die. Trees planted with the dibber are best for
planting out again, as the roots are found spread out equally on both sides, while
those trench-planted with the spade are found to have the roots all on one side,
from the manner they are laid in, and the ground being beat back with the spade
in the act of cutting the trench ; they are generally also bent in the root, when the
trench is sloped to make the plants lie, which facilitates the work but hurts the
plant.
730, in p. 326. — Shaking a tree up at the time of being planted, to settle the
soil about the roots, is a very bad practice ; it draws the roots from their proper
position, and, when the tree is again let down in its proper place, they are bent iu
an unnatural manner, and the throwing up of suckers is the consequence. — H. C. O.
735, in p. 328. — In watering box edgings, &c., newly planted in dry weather, it
is of great moment when the earth is trod firmly to the roots, and before levelling
on the remainder of the earth, to saturate the soil completely, all round the roots.
with water, with an unsparing hand, and then finish by spreading the dry soil
above. When water is poured on the surface of the soil in dry weather, the deluge
of water runs the surface of the soil into a paste, which again hardens by the sun
into a cake, obstructing thus the free entrance of the atmosphere into the soil,
without which no plant will thrive. When straw or moss, or any of the other
articles you mention, is spread on the surface, it obviates this fault. Where this
cannot be done, it is better to open holes in the soil, or pare up a portion of the
surface, saturating the soil below, and then adding the dry soil when the moisture
begins to subside. One such watering will be better than ten surface waterings,
which often do more harm than good. Where none of these plans can be adopted,
the direct beams of the sun should be kept from the surface, by a covering open at
the ends for shade.
740, in p. 330. — Such bare-rooted plants as white-broom, double-flowering whins,
some pines and oaks, &c., which are very difficult to transplant and remove, are
found to succeed better by being nursed in pots ; but the roots have acquired such
a tendency of matting together, and twining round one another, that it is a long
time after planting before they shoot away freely again into the soil ; and till this
is done the growth will not be vigorous. The fibres may be parted again, but the
roots have got a tendency to matting they do not recover for some time ; and part-
ing the ball destroys in some measure the capability of being easily transplanted.
It should only be resorted to with scarce and valuable plants or shrubs, not trees.
752 in p. 336. — One of the specific principles of pruning is also the stimulus
given to vitality. When the leading branch of a small tree, which, perhaps, has
not been growing well, but has got the roots fully established, is cut back to one
bud, not only is the rush of sap which should have supplied the whole buds diverted
into the one, and the shoot made thus more vigorous, but the vitality of the tree
has acquired an impetus that it did not formerly possess. From a lazy slow-
growing plant it has been converted into one of a quick, healthy, vigorous growth,
a stimulus is given to the roots also to increase, and the tree is entirely reno-
vated. The benefit is lasting, not temporary, and will continue, if circumstances
are favourable, and no check of bad soil or bad weather ensues to counteract its
vigour. It is thus that the forester cuts back his oak plants in the forest, after
APPENDIX. 705
being a few years planted, and trains a single shoot from the bottom, knowing well
that the vigour of this one shoot will be lasting ; that the impetus given to the
growth of the tree will continue ; and that, in a few years, the cut over tree will
be many times larger than those allowed to stand uncut. It is thus that nursery-
men increase the vigour of their young plants by pruning ; and that gardeners,
when pruning for wood, cut farther back than when pruning for fruit.
758 hi p. 338 & 768 in p. 341. — If the tops of the shoots of forest trees are
pinched off in time, and proper attention paid to the plantation from its commence-
ment, the contending large arms being converted into small side shoots, there will
be little need for pruning at all, and skill will be of more consequence than labour.
It is shortening-in, or fore-shortening, done in a much better and much easier way.
761, in p. 339. — The laying-in of small shoots, in place of cutting back to naked
branches and spurs, should be more encouraged. More distance than usual should
be left between the leading branches, and plenty of young wood nailed in after the
manner of peach trees. It diminishes the quantity of breast- wood, which is an
evident practical anomaly, and serves no good purpose, being annually renewed and
annually cut out. The growth should be much better spent in producing young
wood and fruit, which will not require so much slashing of wood.
767, in p. 341. — The thin layer of alburnum is the consequence of stunting rather
than the cause. A tree may be renovated though not cut back to the collar, and
part of the old stem with its thin alburnum left. The vigour of the new growth
will give a thicker coating of alburnum ; though old hardened bark will not swell
up so quickly as the new bark on a young shoot.
769, in p. 342. — I have seen very fruitful trees covered every year with blossoms
so thickly that the greater part had to be brushed off, and the trees very vigorous,
where the outer bark had been renewed a few years before. The situations, how-
ever were sheltered ; the practice has not been much adopted yet, and it is
doubtful if it would suit exposed situations ; but for sheltered places it appears
to be very effectual in renovating the vigour of old trees. It should be more
often tried than it is.
770, in p. 342. — It has been generally said that ringing of trees contributes to
fruitfulness by accumulating sap ; but it is not explained how this is done. The
wood being of more specific gravity above the ring is no proof of this, because it
is denser from not having swelled out so much in bulk, rather than from accumula-
tion of sap. The ring prevents, to a certain extent, the ascent as well as descent
of the sap ; and it more probably acts by furnishing a smaller quantity of sap, which
is more easily brought into a highly elaborated or organised condition than the
ordinary larger quantity would have been. The ring does not in the first instance
prevent the ascent of the sap, the alburnum, its principal channel, not being
interfered with.
771, in p. 343. — Extent should be given to the wall- tree to exhaust itself by
growth, and so bring on maturity. If the border is not too rich, this should be
better than tearing off a great mass of breast-wood. More young shoots should be
laid in, and they should be left longer at pruning-time in the strongest-growing
sorts. In weak-growing sorts, apt to fruit, they should be encouraged with manure,
or we may have dry mealy, in place of large succulent fruit.
772, in p. 343. — It is not clear how disleafing will assist a tree to throw off super
abundant sap. Disleafing should rather prevent elaboration of the sap, and keep
the tree fuller of crude juices. It will, however, by lessening evaporation, stop the
706 APPENDIX.
rapidity of ascent, and cause less food to be absorbed by the roots, not more to be
thrown off by the tree. In luxuriant trees it may be apt to occasion disease,
from too much crude sap. The safest plan, I should think, to overcome super-
abundant growth, would be to give little food, by making the border poor and dry,
giving plenty of room to extend, and leaving the young wood long. If all these
will not do, the next best thing would be to curtail the roots.
774, in p. 344. — The summer pruning of pear-trees has lately been the subject
of discussion in Card. Chron. between Mr. Ayres and others. I do not approve of
the breaking-down system if it could be avoided. I have seen it practised more than
twenty years ago ; but it is unsightly, and greatly tends to obstruct the light from
benefiting the buds at the base of the shoot, and on spurs, &c. At the same time,
I admit there is something in it which renders it not entirely objectionable ; for
below the breakage, fruit-buds form more readily than if the shoots were at once
cut off. Instead, therefore, of breaking down the summer shoots of pear-trees, and
leaving them hanging in front during a great part of summer, it would certainly
be better to nail them between the branches — at least, all that could be bent to that
position ; one nail would be sufficient for each shoot. After being thus secured,
where they will occasion least shade in regard to the more permanent portions,
the shoots could be cut half-way through with a knife about two or three inches
from their bases. Those shoots that cannot be so trained from their being right
in front may be treated agreeably to the principles (1363 in p. 613) and the ample
directions for the management of the apple-tree in 1 150, p. 537 to p. 543. JV.
776, in p. 345. — Root-pruning, by curtailing a few of the largest roots, lessens
the quantity of spongioles for a few years, and so curtails the quantity of absorbed
and ascending sap. This being more easily elaborated and brought into the highly
organised condition required for fruitfulness, causes the production of blossoms
and fruit. It is the tendency, however, of cutting roots to increase roots ; and in
a few years the greater number of small roots and the increased quantity of spon-
gioles should, especially if heavy dressings of rotted manure are added, as recom-
mended by some, and which should make up for the want of extension of the roots
in quest of food, aggravate in place of remedying the luxuriance of growth.
Pruning back all the roots of a fruit-tree may bring the plant to something of the
nature of a paradise stock, which abounds in roots, yet these being matted close
round the stem, and not extending in quest of food, die off, and stint the growth
from the spongioles not falling in with nutriment. If the root-pruning is renewed
at short periods, it may render this state more permanent ; but if great doses of
manure are given, it will lessen the effect ; and if the trees are neglected to be cut
back periodically, they will ultimately get much more luxuriant than under the
ordinary process of management. To keep the borders poor but healthy, sweet, and
well pulverised, and dry, by draining and elevating the plants on hillocks where
necessary, is best. A moderate degree of extension will suffice for the plants com-
ing to a fruitful condition, and there will be less need to resort to root-pruning.
794, in p. 334 ,• and 1363 in p. 613 to p. 616. — "All fruit-bearing plants (and
indeed all others) grown in pots, ought to be potted in soil which has not been
sifted, and which, if not sufficiently coarse to keep it so open as to receive water
freely, should be mixed with fragments of wood, bones, and stones, for that pur-
pose, for supplying manure, and for retaining moisture." (P. 616.) Since the
above was printed and published, we have been in Devonshire, and seen at Bicton,
the seat of Lady Rolle, coarse, rooty, unsifted soil, mixed with fragments of stone,
pebbles, and also with fragments of charcoal, used in every description of pot cul-
APPENDIX. 707
ture, by Mr. James Barnes, and with a degree of success which, if equalled, has
never been surpassed. Mr. Barnes has been in the habit of using rough, rooty,
unsifted soil for upwards of twenty years, and of introducing a portion of charcoal
among such soil for more than twelve years. He was led to use charcoal from
observing, in a wood where charcoal had been burned, the great luxuriance of the
weeds around the margins of the places where the charcoal heaps had been, and
where a thin sprinkling of charcoal dust had got amongst the weeds. He got a
basketful of this dust, and tried it first among cucumber soil. He found it
improved the plants in strength and colour, and then began trying it with other
soft-growing plants ; and he has continued trying it ever since with thousands of
plants under pot culture, and with most kitchen-garden crops. Mr. Barnes finds
the following a good plan to make a rough sort of charcoal for use in the kitchen -
garden : — When made, it must be kept dry ; and when seed is sown in the open
garden, the charcoal must be put into the drills along with it, at the rate of three
or four pints of powdered charcoal to a drill of 100 feet in length. Collect a
quantity of rubbish together, such as trimmings of bushes, cabbage and broccoli
stalks, old pine-apple stems, and such other parts of plants as will not readily rot ;
put these together, laying some straw beneath them, and set the straw on fire.
The straw must be so laid, as that the fire can run into the middle of the heap.
When the heap is completed, cover it over with short, close, moist rubbish, such
as short grass, weeds, and earth, from the rubbish-heap, in order to keep the flame
from flaring through at any one place for any length of time. As soon as the fire
breaks through in a blaze, throw on more short rubbish, so as to check the flames.
It is necessary to thrust a stake or broom-handle into the heap in different places,
in order to encourage the fire to burn regularly through it ; but as soon as the
flames burst through these holes, stop them up, and make others where you think
the heap is not burning. When it is all burned, collect the whole of the charred
rubbish, ashes, &c., sift it through different-sized sieves, and put the sizes separately
into old casks or boxes, keeping these boxes constantly in a dry place. In Mr.
Barnes's potting-shed, we observed four different sizes of charcoal (considering
charcoal dust as one size) sods of heath-soil ; different kinds of loam ; leaf-mould ;
pots filled with four different sizes of pebbles, from the size of a grain of wheat to
that of the palm of the hand ; four different sizes of broken freestone ; four differ-
ent sorts of sand ; two sizes of bone — one of half-inch pieces, and the other of bone-
dust ; four different sizes of broken pots for draining ; different sizes of shards for
putting over the holes of pots, previously to laying on the drainage ; a basket of
live moss, a box of soot, and one of rotten cow-dung. — See Mr. Barnes in Card.
Mag. for November, 1842.
832, in p. 388. — Much of the benefit of stirring ground depends on its being
stirred in proper weather. Dry weather, when the soil is between the wet and
dry, and this weather likely to continue a day or two, is the best time ; and the
mechanical texture of the soil should be such as to allow it to break pretty freely
into small pieces, and retain that form when dried, so as not to fall down too easily
into a powdery mass.
833, in p. 389. — Liquid manures and top-dressings should be applied in showery
weather. It is a loss to have them on the surface, but they do most good, espe-
cially the volatile kinds, to growing crops ; when they are applied before the crop
is put in, they should be pointed in with the spade or rake, or harrowed in to the
soil in the fields.
859, in p. 402. — The eggs of insects which are deposited on seeds may be
708 APPENDIX.
destroyed by exposing the seeds in thin layers in the open air during severe frosts ;
a practice common among seedsmen with all seeds which are above a year old.
863, in p. 405. — When it is wished to see the fruit of young seedlings, without
waiting till the plant comes to maturity, it may be effected by inserting a bud
near the extremity of one of the branches of a wall-tree of the same species,
in full bearing, and clearing away most of the other blossoms around to give it a
fair trial.
868 in p. 407.— The common single daisy, when brought from the fields, and
planted in a rich soil in the garden, becomes double. I have seen even the dimi-
nutive Sagina procumbens become double by cultivation. The improvement on
single dahlias from cultivation in rich soil is of recent date. When any of these
is neglected, as when the double-daisy edging is allowed to stand long and exhaust
the soil, it gets single ; and the want of cultivation causing double dahlias and
other flowers to assume the single state may be seen every season. An old root
of a dahlia allowed to stand on the same piece of ground, without manuring, and
to accumulate a number of stems, seldom produces full flowers. Mr. Munro's is
an instance in point ; but it is not two kinds of sap, but a more highly organised
state, and a crude unelaborated state, of the same sap. When the quantity of sap
is great, as in young and vigorous plants, flowers are seldom at all produced, till
the process of growing, by extending the system of leaves and branches, has pro-
duced the proper balance. The plant, which formerly had more sap than its
chemical and vital powers could elaborate into the highly organised state required
for producing fruit, having now acquired more strength, becomes fruitful ; and,
exhausted by its fruit-bearing, generally continues fertile, unless deluged again with
too much food, in the shape of manure. Such plants as fruit-trees in which the
fruiting state, or state of maturity, is brought about with difficulty, at a lengthened
period of years, are seldom found to produce double flowers. In those plants,
however, in which the flowering state is produced annually, double flowers are
more frequent. The different parts of the flower also differ as to the state of
organisation in the food required to feed them. Calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistils,
are only more highly organised states of leaves, or what would have been leaves ;
and each, in the order they are mentioned, continues to be more highly organised
than the preceding. In the ordinary mature state of the plant, with a sufficiency
of properly organised food, the germs of these parts of the flower will be produced
in the normal manner ; but if an over-supply of food, or of water to carry the food
to the absorbent vessels of the root, should ensue, the condition of the food may be
altered ; from a highly organised condition it may be lowered nearer to the compa-
ratively crude state required for leaves. In this state it is obvious that the germs
which would have started in the form of pistils and stamens may be lowered, for
want of proper food, to the inferior condition of petals, or even of leaves. When
the branch is highly gorged with unelaborated sap, the pistil may even again
assume the state of a terminal bud, and lead away a young shoot from the centre
of the flower, as is often seen to be the case in roses and other flowers. The above
appears to be the theory of double flowers most consonant to experience, it matters
not whose it may be ; and it agrees with all observation, that a luxuriant supply of
food is the cause of this monstrosity. It is also apparent, that, the farther we
reduce the supply of food, it will be the more easy again to gorge the plant which
has been starved, and produce monstrosity. If the seed has an extra vigour of
itself, it may produce so large an absorbent system of roots as may enable it, in a
rich state of the soil, to gorge the flower and produce monstrosity, from an ordi-
APPENDIX. 709
nary state of the plant. It will be found, however, more easy in practice to gorge
a stinted plant than to luxuriate the ordinary state of one ; and hence the most
successful cultivators of double stocks are those who grow them first in a starved
condition, and then luxuriate them in a very rich soil ; or stint the plant by keep-
ing the seed for some years, provided it is only strong enough to grow. I^have
seen seed kept till it was thought to be too old for growing, produce almost every
plant with double flowers ; while the very same seed, a few years before, had
rarely a double flower among the lot. This will be found a more easy method
than to produce the same effect by extra-vigorous seeds, and is that most adopted
in practice.
869, in p. 408. — In beds of ranunculus flowers, it is easy to pick out the varie-
ties recently raised from seed, from the older varieties, by the greater vigour of the
plant. The older varieties of the dahlia, whether from neglect or decay, are not
so vigorous as they were at coming out. It is the case with newly raised seedling
carnations, and flowers in general. The Lancashire gooseberries are never found
to maintain the weights they had originally, when a few years from seed and the
plant at maturity. Seedling potatoes have the leaves much more pulpy and vigorous
than the old varieties. It is evident that circumstances will affect these, and
that sometimes, from better soil, shelter, manure, &c., the case may be changed,
and the older varieties may sometimes be most vigorous ; but in general it will
be found the rule holds good, that the newest raised seedlings possess most
vigour.
911, in p. 433. — Whatever mode of stirring the surface be adopted, every
facility should be given to the admission of atmospheric air, heat, and moisture,
and the bottom made as dry as possible by draining. The great quantities of
manure given to border crops of vegetables furnish perhaps the most fruitful source
of sponginess in the wood.
914, in p. 434. — The land in gardens is generally too rich for potatoes to be well
ripened and dry ; more tubers are produced of a large size, than the leaves and
light are able to ripen and fill with starch.
954, in p. 452. — I believe the assumption is correct that the vine when forced is
not calculated to sustain uninjured a temperature much below 40°. I have had
vines under my care greatly injured by being exposed to the rigours of winter, and
I have known several instances of its happening to others. — H. C. O.
958, in p. 454. — It is most vexatious to find a fruit tree has been planted untrue to
name, but in the case of the vine it is easily remedied, by grafting the sort re-
quired upon it ; this will save several years, as a vine, if grafted on a good strong
stock, should be in full bearing the third year. — H. C. O.
959, in p. 454, and 1283, in p. 585. — I cannot subscribe to the practice of de-
priving a vine of a portion of its leaves when the fruit is ripening ; if the roots are
not at fault a deficiency of colour hi the grape more frequently arises from a
deficiency of air, or by the plant being too heavily cropped, than by being shaded.
I have seen grapes attain the darkest colour densely shaded by leaves ; and, on
the contrary, I have seen them attain only a grisly red colour when light and the
sun's rays were admitted to the utmost extent possible. — H. C. O.
990, in p. 473.— It is there said—" The roots should be well supplied with water
before the fruit begins to ripen off." I think both the peach and cherry tree
oftentimes lose their fruit by injudicious watering ; both at the time of the setting
and stoning of the fruit, water should be administered very sparingly ; this I con-
sider a very material point to be attended to. — H. C. O.
710 APPENDIX.
1032, in p. 486. — The principal point to be attended to, in order to keep the old
branches furnished with young shoots, is, occasionally ringing or notching them ;
and keeping the whole of the young shoots which the shoots so treated throw
out stopped at every third or fourth joint throughout the summer. — H. C. O.
1115, in p. 525. — In Russia and the North of Germany mushrooms are fre-
quently grown in shelves in a cowhouse or stable, in which also other articles are
forced.— (G. M. vol. vii. p. 653).
1153, in p. 544. — Canker in fruit trees, like the cancer in the human body, appears
to be owing to a diseased state of the sap or blood, producing morbid concretions,
of an inferior degree of organisation to the tissue by which they are surrounded,
which they live on, and destroy, like parasites, till vitality is arrested. Plants
being a congeries of separate distinct beings, which have each an independent exist-
ence of themselves, may be more easily renovated by amputation and removal of
the exciting causes ; but in these, also, the sap is affected, as it breaks out in
ulcerous morbid sores often, when to all appearance removed. Willdenow
characterises it as produced by an acrid corroding gum, caused by the acid fer-
mentation of excess of sap from low-lying damp gardens. Others have thought it
to be of a fungoid nature, propagating itself as above stated, and living on the
healthy tissue, which it disorders and destroys. It is evidently aggravated, if
not produced, by a bad climate, and removed by a good one ; as trees that are very
apt to canker in the open ground are generally free of it on good walls. It is also
produced by a too rich damp state of the soil, as it is often removed by remedying
this, and laying the ground dry and sweet about the roots. It is also constitutional ;
as some sorts are liable to be hurt, while others, in the same circumstances, appear
not susceptible. Climate, and food, and constitution will, therefore, all require to
be attended to in guarding against this pernicious evil. Amputation, and cutting
away all the diseased portion, should be resorted to on its first appearance ; a neg-
lected wound may even bring on this morbid condition of the tissue. Vitality
requires to be kept continually in action, especially during the active period of
growth ; if a stagnation is brought about by cold weather, it may form a favourable
state for the development and growth of the parasitical morbid cancerous state of
the tissue. If food is in excess, or any particular portion of the food, it may thus
become deleterious (most minerals found in the soil are needed in smaller or larger
quantities, it is only excess that renders them deleterious), and the vitality of the
tree may not be able to correct it, till, by accumulation, it forms a diseased can,
cerous state of the tissue : the more weak and languid the constitution, the more
apt it will be to succumb, and the more necessary will be the stimulus of heat to
enable it to overcome. The exudation of gum in stone fruit is unattended, to the
same extent, with the cancerous morbid state of parts exhibited by the apple and
pear ; but the disease appears to exist also in the sap, and to be ramified through
the branches, in the same way as canker, as may be often seen on cutting in to
arrive at its source. The small unripened shoots appear most liable, as being most
tender. The bark and alburnum appear first to be infected in these young shoots,
especially in the peach ; the young wood of which, being delicate from want of
ripening, appears unable to stand the severity of spring, gets discoloured in blotches,
and gum begins to exude. It would appear here that the disease arises from im-
perfectly-ripened tissue getting injured by severity of the weather, and affording a
nidus for it. In other cases, however, the gum begins to exude from parts to all
appearance sound and perfect, as if caused by a plethoric diseased state of the sap.
It is probable that, as in the cancer in the human body, which may be brought on
APPENDIX. 71 1
from a wound neglected or a diseased state of the blood or constitution, so likewise,
in plants, the same disease may be brought about by different causes ; as in the
analogous fungoid disease of mildew on the leaves, which, it appears, may be brought
on by excess of moisture or excess of drought, producing a diseased state of the
stomata of the leaf, and a nidus for the fungus.
1168, in p. 549. — If the system of training noticed in this section, or something
like it, were more generally practised, there would be less need to complain of
breast- wood. On standard trees there is no occasion to go through forms of pruning
to produce spurs ; and, if the side branches were more encouraged in wall- trees,
we should have shorter shoots and natural spurs, and the tree would be kept full
of young wood to the centre, from the abundance of young shoots to renew any
that were getting naked. There should be greater distance between the leading
shoots, and abundance of side shoots laid in to fill the wall ; though they might not
nil be got mathematically arranged, the system of leaves and roots would be better
balanced, the continual excitement to produce which causes the great abundance of
breast- wood. If the greater part of this were nailed in, the tendency to produce
fresh breast-wood next year would be checked, and the tree become fruitful on the
small branches ; better fruit would be produced ; and the tree being fnll of young
wood, any part of it could be renovated at pleasure.
1214, in p. 561. — The Glenton Green, Manchester Red, Hedgehog, and Honey
varieties, are worth adding to this section.
1217, in p. 562. — Lancashire Lad is the best bearer and best flavoured here —
better with us than the most of them you name, and deserves a star. Shakspeare,
Sir Francis Burdett, Triumphant, Foxhunter, Grand Turk, and Tarragon, among
the reds ; Rattlesnake, Sally Gunner, Scorpion, Prince of Orange, China Orange,
and Yellow Lion, among the yellows ; Favourite, Bang Europe, Lord Crewe,
and Troubler, among the greens ; Lily of the Valley, Bonny Lass, White Lion,
Sheba Queen, and Sally Miller, among the whites, and not in your lists, have
been all proven here of great value both for bearing and eating. Some with
higher pretensions, which have come out later, are not proven yet.
1223, in p. 565. — Having been much troubled with caterpillars on our goose-
berry stools in the nursery, we have tried lime, soda, potash, salt, soap-suds, and
tobacco. The tobacco infusion will kill them, but is very apt to injure the foliage ;
the salt has the same fault, but we could not perceive that it or any of the
others had much effect ; when the lime was put on, however, they crowded away,
twisted together like a cable-rope, down the stem, as fast as they could, and took
the direction for the nearest bush, at an angle, as they were planted in the quin-
cunx form, and as straight as if they had been guided by a line. The hellebore
powder we found the most deadly of any, and it does no injury to the leaves. When
it is long kept, or has got damp, it is apt to lose its pungency, and will do no good ;
but if in the pungent, acrid state of fresh-ground powder, which may be known
by its effect on the nostrils, it will not fail to kill all the caterpillars it reaches.
They are on the under side of the leaf, and the applications tell best when thrown
upwards. We prefer to throw it upwards in the state of dry powder, by the finger
and thumb : a small quantity, like a pinch of snuff, if dry, flies off like vapour
from the fingers, and may thus be directed where any are seen, the shoots being
held up to expose the back of the leaf ; there is least waste of powder in this way
when the caterpillars are not very plenty. Others throw it up with a puff-bellows,
the mouth round, like a dredge-box ; and others dust it on from above with a
712 APPENDIX.
dredge-box. This takes less trouble, though it requires more of the powder ; and
the leaves should be damped, to retain what does not fall on the insects till they
reach it. If some are in the state of eggs and others of larvae, the application
may require to be repeated ; but will not fail if the hellebore is fresh ground and
pungent, and reaches the insects. The powder insinuates itself between the hairs
of the insect, and reaches the tender skin more readily than water ; it should be
well toasted, if damp weather, to allow of its dividing well.
1234, in p. 569.— The raspberry is well adapted for forcing, and is worthy of
more general cultivation in forcing-houses ; a few old stools taken up and planted
against the back wall of a peach-house, at the time of commencing to force, will,
with moderate care, furnish many dishes of fruit. — H. C. O.
1267, in p. 581, and 1342 in p. 606 — In the neighbourhood of New York the
cherry tomato is cultivated and preserved as a sweetmeat. At first this sweet-
meat was supposed to be made of the winter cherry, as stated in 1267 ; but it has
since been found to be a small round tomato.
1379, in p. 624.— Mr. Barnes informs us that there is a late variety of cauliflower
in cultivation by some market-gardeners quite distinct from the early variety,
though it is seldom to be met with in the seed-shops. Mr. Barnes was formerly
in practice in some of the principal market-gardens about London ; an immense
advantage with reference to the management of the kitchen -garden of a private
gentleman.
1462, in p. 659.— Some here are in the habit of planting Strasburgh and other
common onions, early in spring, in the same way as they do potato onions. When
any flower-stem appears, they pinch out the centre, and find the roots of the common
onion, treated in this way, to offset and produce an aggregation of bulbs nearly, if
not equally, as well as the potato variety, which resembles the globe, but appears
to have acquired the habit of not running to seed.
1463, in p. 660. — In deep alluvial loam, the onion plants grow most luxuriantly,
but are more apt, especially in wet seasons, to produce what are called scullions ;
the foliage being strong and thick at the neck, but the root made soft and ill-
ripened, and will not keep. It has been found advantageous sometimes to roll or
tread well such land ; but in the general run of seasons here, when the climate is
moist, soil of a rather clayey nature is found to suit best, and to produce the foliage
small at the neck, and the bulb round, protuberated, and well ripened. A thin
crop also is more apt to produce most scullions, and it is safer to have the crop
rather to the thick side, as they are found to increase less in foliage and more in
root, and though the onions are not so large, the weight of the crop is more, and
keeps better. Much of the tendency to produce thick necks flows, as in turnips,
from not picking the roots well in saving the seed. The plants that have small
foliage, and handsome well swelled-out roots, are most likely to produce their like
again from seed, and much depends on the carefulness of the person who saves the
seed. Here, where great breadths of onions are annually sown, the seed imported
from Holland from careful agents there is allowed to give the best crops. Soil
that can be broken small to a fine surface requires less seed. %. Clayey ground in-
tended for onions should be thrown up rough in January or February to get the
frost, which allows of its forming a fine covering for the seed, and thus ensures a
better braird. On light dry soils, near the coast, the practice of sowing in autumn
is found to succeed best, as the onions fail in the drought of summer when spring-
sown. The autumn-sown ones did but live also last season, being too dry for small
APPENDIX. 713
crops. The broadcast is the most prevalent practice here, though some who have
drilled them in light land approve most of that way. Nitrate of soda has been very
beneficial to the onions here this dry season, partly, perhaps, from its deliquescent
nature. We have often seen soot produce a powerful effect on onion crops.
1463, in p. 660. — Mr. Barnes (see note to par. 749) thins and hoes all his seed-
ling crops with short-handed goose-necked hoes, with square-edged blades of
different sizes, but chiefly of two inches in width. He uses two hoes at a time,
one in each hand. He never has weeds pulled up among seedling crops, but
always attacks them in the seed-leaf state with these hoes.
1470, in p. 662. — The maggot has been more than usually destructive among
onions this season. Perhaps the drought, producing a sickly state of the roots,
attracts the fly to lay its eggs, as other maggots do on substances commencing to
putrify. Their instinct is strong, and may lead them to detect this state of the
root before perceptible above ground. Some carrots we observed this year, at
the tune they commenced to droop, we found that in those much hurt in the roots
the maggots abounded ; in those less hurt, fewer maggots ; some of them sticking
to the outside, and commencing to enter ; while in the roots, on which a few brown
spots here and there were all the symptoms of disease, we find many destitute of
maggots altogether, and in whole sound roots found none. The thinning of carrots
very often induces maggots, if done in dry weather. We observed this season beds
dressed with nitrate of soda, and growing healthy, alongside of others not dressed
and unhealthy; and the fly, if not guided by instinct, might have spoiled the healthy
as well as unhealthy roots, which it did not. That the fibres first fail in the onion,
and that the maggot enters from the bottom of the onion at the fibres, and eats
upwards, is the opinion of all here ; no trace of entering from the neck of the stem
can be perceived, and its course upwards appears visible in the eaten-away decayed
appearance of the root there. The maggots are perhaps more the effect than the
cause of bad growth.
1481, in p. 665. — As corroborative of your ideas on asparagus, I have often seen
it produced strongest where pieces of the garden were imperfectly drained, and
rather marshy. Mr. Cuthill says, " I believe it has been proved that asparagus likes
as much moisture as can well be given it. The best asparagus I have ever seen
was at Mr. Bird's, a market-gardener at Ipswich, where the beds were under
water nearly all the winter, and he always cut asparagus sooner than his neigh-
bours." (G. M. vol. xii. p. 597.)
1363, in p. 613. — If the theory that ten buds give rise to a hundred, and these last
to one thousand, and so on as long as sap towards new formations is undiminished?
be taken in connexion with the sentence before, that the more a young tree grows
the more it is capable of growing, it would seem to give the idea that the growth of
trees, if properly fed, is unlimited, which, I think, is not intended. If a tree is
disleafed and disbudded when young, it will undoubtedly disable and retard growth,
and precocity may thus be induced, and perhaps disease also. If the young shoots
are allowed to ripen, and are cut back, the tree will push again more strongly next
season, the vital force being stimulated by the effort of the tree to re-place ; an
activity is communicated to growth, which continues for some time, which if annually
renewed and properly fed at the roots is apt to produce immense quantities of young
wood without fruit. The pruning of the young roots has a tendency to increase
them also. The production of one hundred buds from ten, and of one hundred from
one thousand, will only continue, however, so long as the force of sap to new forma-
714 APPENDIX.
tions isundiminished. There is a period in all trees when this force is so diminished,
that small short shoots only are produced, and this is the period of maturity or
fruitfulness. This period may no doubt be hastened by disbudding and disleafing,
but is apt to engender disease ; it is like taking away a part of the stomach and
lungs, to hinder the development of absorbent lacteals, and is dangerous. A safer
way is to cramp the development of the whole, by limiting the food, by making
the soil poor. The allowing the border to lie unstirred has partly the same effect.
The action between the heat, moisture, and gases of the atmosphere on the roots is
diminished, and in vigorous growing varieties, and rich borders, is beneficial by
impoverishing. The best way of all, however, is to allow the tree to come to
maturity, by laying in as much young wood, and giving as much extent as requisite ;
and the period will arrive sooner or later, according to the inherent vigour of the
variety, the richness of the soil, and warmth and light of the climate, when short
shoots only will be produced, and these fruitful. That giving extent will moderate
vigour cannot certainly be doubted, otherwise there would be no limit to the size
of trees. Though, perhaps, not a mere evolution of parts already formed, which is
an obscure subject, and one which will perhaps never be in our power to resolve,
yet there is certainly a limit to expansive power. It may be, and undoubtedly is,
greater in favourable than unfavourable situations, but has always yet been limited,
as a certain extent can be named which trees have not yet been found to exceed ;
whether from an inherent limit in the power itself, or the circumstances in which it
is placed, is likely to be for ever incapable of determination.
1384, in p. 630. — In dry sandy poor soils, the cabbage-plants are found to club
at the roots, fully as readily as in good loamy soils. Where there is not a suffi-
ciency of plants without club at the roots, it has been found beneficial to cut out
the protuberance, and destroy the insect. A sifting of soot and coal ashes on the
surface has been generally found to aid in preventing the attacks of these insects,
and also of the turnip beetle.
1406, in p. 639. — In this quarter of the country great failures in the crop of
potatoes have occurred, to guard against which the best method is to plant the
ground as moist as possible, and use well-rotted manure and vigorous unripe sets ;
drought in planting-time long continued in spring having been found most prejudi-
cial. See R. /ymburn, "On the Culture and Preservation of Potatoes," in
Card. Mag. vol. xvi. p. 20.
1411, in p. 642. — The old everlasting potato (a small round sort) introduced by
the Messrs. Falla, of Newcastle, and the later introduced small white kidney,
called Fairy, have both the same properties as the above, of Messrs. Chapmans,
producing great swarms of small thin-skinned waxy potatoes which, being covered
with haulm, afford a dish of young potatoes through the whole winter.
1415, in p. 644. — Potatoes that are greened possess more inherent vigour in the
sets ; the potato is a bud, or collection of buds, on an under-ground stem ; and a
greened one has as much more vigour as the stem of an unblanched plant would
possess over that of a blanched one. The young shoot will rise stronger, and the
greened skin will not be so easily affected by weather.
A MONTHLY CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS.
The paragraphs are referred to ; not the pages.
THE nature of this work precludes the necessity of giving a very copious calen-
dar of operations ; still it would be incomplete without one : we shall therefore
briefly state what should be done in each month, and in most cases refer to the
paragraphs in the body of the work for the practical details.
JANUARY.
VEGETABLE DEPARTMENT.
Artichokes: secure from frost, if not yet done (1495). Asparagus : plant on a
hotbed twice in the month, to keep up a succession (1096). Carrot: sow on a
slight hotbed (1106). Cauliflower: sow in a box, and place in a forcing-house, if
the autumn-sowing failed (1379). Celery : protect during severe weather (1518).
Cucumbers : prepare a seed-bed for sowing next month ; renew the linings of the
fruiting-beds ; keep them made up above the surface of the soil in the frame
(1061). French Beans: sow in pots for forcing (1 104). Mint and other herbs:
take up and plant in pots or boxes, and place in a forcing-house (1110). Potatoes:
plant on a slight hotbed (1100). Radishes: sow on a slight hotbed, or in the same
frame with potatoes (1108). Rhubarb: take up old roots, and plant in boxes or
pots ; place them in a forcing or mushroom house (1098).
FRUIT DEPARTMENT.
Pinery : maintain a temperature in the fruiting-house of from 75° to 85° by day,
and from 68° to 72° by night (946) ; succession-house, from 5° to 8° lower; nursing
pits about b'Oo. Vinery : commence forcing for fruit in June ; begin with a
temperature of 50° (969) ; gradually increase it the first month to 60° min. (971).
Peach-house : commence forcing for fruit in May ; begin with a temperature of
50° (998). Cherry-house : commence forcing with a temperature of 45° min. by
night (1021). Figs : plants in pots may now be placed in a vinery (1034). Straw-
berries : take plants in pots into a forcing-house or pit twice in the month (1090).
Prune the Apple (1149), Pear (1168), Plum (1207), Cherry (1192), Gooseberry
(1220), Currant (1228), and Raspberry (1232), if the weather is not severe. Nail
and tie wall and espalier trees (786).
FEBRUARY. ,
VEGETABLE DEPARTMENT.
Beans : plant in boxes for turning out next month, also sow in the open ground
(1392). Cabbage : sow on a warm border (1372). Carrots : sow on a warm
border (1429). Cauliflowers : prick out those sown in boxes last month on a
slight hotbed (1379); sow on a sheltered border (1379). Celery: sow in boxes,
and place in a forcing-house for first crop (1515). Cucumbers: plant from the
seed-bed, and afterwards keep the heat by night 70° to 75°, and by day 75° to 85°.
French Beans: earth up former sowings, and sow again (1104). Lettuce: sow
on a warm border (1505). Mushrooms: make beds and spawn at 80° (1114).
Onions : sow in boxes, and place in a forcing-house, for planting out in April.
Peas: sow in boxes, and in the open ground (1388). Potatoes: plant on a slight
716 A MONTHLY CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS.
hotbed and on a warm border (1408). Radishes : sow on a warm border (1444).
Sea-kale: cover up (1097). Spinach: sow 1450. Turnips; sow (1420).
FRUIT DEPARTMENT.
Pinery (946) : give air in mild weather, slightly sprinkle the plants on fine
mornings. Vinery (971) : increase the heat as there stated for the preceding
month. Peach-house : cease syringing when the trees are in flower (998). Cherry-
house (1021): give air at every favourable opportunity. Fig-house: commence
forcing where the trees are planted in the borders (1033). Melons : sow seed for
early crop (1037). Strawberries : take into the forcing-house for succession
(1092). Fruit-trees of all sorts may be planted if the weather is open (1363).
Prune and nail fruit-trees (786). Dig fruit quarters (928).
MARCH.
VEGETABLE DEPARTMENT.
Artichokes : make new plantations (1495). Asparagus : make new beds (1481) ;
top-dress the latter end of the month (1482). Basil: sow (1574.) Beans ; plant
twice in the month (1392.) 'Beet : sow (1435). Cabbage : fill up vacancies in the
autumn plantations. Capsicums : sow seed (1345). Carrots : sow the main crop
(1429). Herbs: make new beds. Horse Radish: make new plantations (1547).
Jerusalem Artichokes: plant early in the month (1418). Sow Leek (1473),
Lettuce : prick out on a slight hotbed those sown last month in boxes. Mush-
rooms : make beds for summer use (1114). Onions : sow the main crops (1463).
Parsley : sow, if neglected last month (1534). Parsneps : sow the main crop
(1434). Peas: sow twice ; earth up early crops. Potatoes: plant main crop
(1408). Radishes : sow twice (1444). Sow Salsify (1438). Savoys : sow begin-
ning and end (1376). Scorxonera : sow (1437). Shallots and Garlic : plant the
beginning of the month (1474, 1475). Sow Spinach (1450). Turnips : sow on a
sheltered border (1420).
FRUIT DEPARTMENT.
Pinery : pot succession plants (944) ; top-dress fruiting plants. Vinery : see
Diary (971). Peach-house: remove all foreright shoots from the trees (995);
when the fruit is set, syringe them (1011). Cherry-house : increase the heat after
the bloom is set and stoned (1024). Fig-house : water freely, both at the root and
over-head (1033). Melons: plant out from last month's sowing (1042). Straw-
berries: give air freely while in flower (1092). Prune and nail Peaches and
Nectarines, and afterwards protect them with nets or other covering (1307).
Finish planting fruit-trees. Graft fruit-trees (650).
APRIL.
VEGETABLE DEPARTMENT.
Beans : plant twice, and earth up the early crop (1392). Sow Borecole (1378).
Broccoli: sow the winter varieties (1380). Brussels Sprouts: sow, beginning
of the month (1377). Cabbage : prick out the February sowing (1372). Cardoons:
sow for early crop (1499). Cauliflowers: plant out those wintered in frames
(1379). Celery: prick out the early-sown on a slight hotbed (1515). Cucumbers:
sow to plant out on ridges (1082). French Beans : sow, the beginning of the
month (1397). Lettuce: fill up the autumn plantations (1505). Onions: trans-
plant the autumn sowing (1465) ; and also those sown in boxes in February.
Peas : sow twice in the month ; earth up and stick early crops (1390). Radishes :
sow twice in the month. Sow Spinach first and third week. Turnips : thin, and
sow the latter end (1421). Vegetable Marrow : sow, the middle of the month ( 1 34 1 ).
FRUIT DEPARTMENT.
Pinery : add fresh tan between the pots of fruiting plants, and sprinkle them
A MONTHLY CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS. 7^7
over-head frequently (946) ; pot suckers that have been wintered in dung beds (933).
Vinery : when the grapes are set, keep a very moist atmosphere (971), and com-
mence thinning them immediately (1283). Peach-house: partially thin the fruit
before stoning, afterwards thin to the quantity required to ripen off (996) ; syringe
the trees daily in fine weather, and smoke them occasionally, to keep down
insects (999). Cherry-house : after the fruit is stoned, give the trees a good
root- watering (1024), which will probably be sufficient till the fruit is gathered ;
watch narrowly for insects (1023). Fig-house : when the shoots have made three
or four joints, stop them to cause them to produce fruit in the autumn (J032).
Melons : allow several of the main shoots to reach the sides of the frame before
being stopped (1037). Prime and nail figs (1232). Disbud peaches and necta-
rines (1301).
MAY.
VEGETABLE DEPARTMENT.
Basil: plant on a rich sheltered border (1574). Beans: top the early crops
(1394) ; plant twice in the month. Beet : thin to 15 inches apart. Borecole :
prick out of the seed-bed. Broccoli : prick out those sown last month, and make
another sowing of the winter kinds ; also Cape and Granges the last week (1380).
Cabbage : plant out the February sowing (1372). Cauliflower : earth up and
water with liquid manure ; take off the hand-glasses (1379). Cucumbers : prepare
ridges for out-door crops (1082). French Beans : make sowings the first and
last weeks (1397). Transplant Leeks (1473). Lettuce.- transplant early sowings ;
sow twice in the month (1505). Onions : thin them to nine inches apart (1463).
Peas: make two sowings. Potatoes: earth up the early crops (1412). Radishes:
make two sowings. Spinach .- sow, the middle of the month (1450) ; thin former
sowings. Scarlet Runner : sow, beginning and middle of the month (1398). Tur-
nips : make a sowing, if not done the end of last month (1421).
FRUIT DEPARTMENT.
Pinery : Give the plants manure- water occasionally, if fruit of a large size is
required (952) ; keep up a high temperature during the day (945). Vinery :
keep the laterals stopped to one joint (961) ; take away all useless shoots. Peach-
house : When the fruit begins to ripen, withhold water both at the roots
and over-head (1015) ; at the same time admit air freely (1011). Cherry -house :
raise the temperature to 70° when the fruit is swelling off (1024). Fig-house :
as the first crop approaches maturity, only sufficient water should be given, to
prevent the second crop of fruit falling off. Melons : regulate the Vines at an
early stage of their growth ; after the fruit is set, put pieces of slate beneath
it (1037). Continue to disbud wall-trees (1301) ; remove their coverings when
danger from frost is over (1307) ; and wash the trees with soap-suds when the
fruit is set (1311). Thin the fruit of the Apricot.
JUNE.
VEGETABLE DEPARTMENT.
Asparagus ; discontinue cutting (1483). Beans, put in the last crop (1392) ; top
and earth up former crops (1394). Broccoli: sow Cape and Granges (1380).
Cabbage: sow seed for Coleworts (1374). Capsicums: plant out on a warm border
(1345). Carrots: thin to two inches apart (1429). Celery: transplant into trenches
for an early crop (1516). Cucumbers : plant under hand-glasses (1082). Endive:
sow for an early crop (1508). French Beans: make a sowing the middle of the
month (1397). Transplant Leeks (1473). Transplant Lettuce. Peas : complete
the sowing of the marrow varieties (1390). Potatoes : earth up (1412). Radishes :
sow as in last month. Savoys : transplant for an early crop (1376). Scarlet Run.
3 A
718 A MONTHLY CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS.
ners : make the last sowing (1398). Spinach: sow twice. Tomatos: turn out
against walls (1342). Vegetable Marrow : plant under hand-glasses (1341).
FRUIT DEPARTMENT.
Pinery : pot the succession plants and suckers (949) ; plunge in a brisk bottom
heat, and shade (941). Vinery: as the fruit approaches maturity keep a dry
atmosphere (971) ; a few leaves may be taken off or tied on one side where they
shade the fruit (959). Peach-house : suspend nets or mats beneath the trees, and
place in them some soft material to catch the falling fruit (998). Cherry-house :
when the fruit is gathered, give the trees several good washings to destroy insects ;
the house should also be smoked (1023). Figs : in pots must be duly supplied
with water ( 1 034 ). Melons : ridge out late crops, give air freely to ripening fruit
(1037). Summer prune Vines against walls (984). Finally thin Apricots. Set
traps for Wasps (357). Net Cherry-trees (11 95).
JULY.
VEGETABLE DEPARTMENT.
Borecole: transplant (1378). Transplant Broccoli (1380). Transplant Brussels
Sprouts (1377). Cauliflower : transplant from the April sowing (1378). Cabbage :
sow in the last week for a crop to come in in May (1372). Celery .- transplant into
trenches (1516). Endive : make a second sowing (1508). French Beans : earth
up, and make the last sowing the latter end of the month (1397) Lettuce : make
a sowing the first and last week (1505). Peas: make two last sowings of early
sorts (1390). Radishes : sow on a cool border (1444).
FRUIT DEPARTMENT.
Pinery : discontinue watering those plants which are ripening their fruit (946) ;
keep a moist atmosphere in the succession house. Vinery : carefully avoid raising
a dust when the fruit is ripe (971) ; give air freely. Peach-house : when the
fruit is all gathered, give the trees several good washings over-head ; give abun-
dance of air till the leaves begin to decay, when the lights may be removed (1008).
Cherry-trees in pots should now be placed in a shady situation (1025). Fig-
house : when the first crop is gathered, water the trees liberally to bring forward
the second crop. Melons : pay proper attention to the plants in the open air
(1045). Finally thin wall-fruit (1303). Prune and tie espalier trees (1150).
Bud fruit trees (676). Pot Strawberry runners for forcing (1091). Mat Currants
and Gooseberries to preserve them (1222). Stop the shoots of Vines against walls
two joints above the fruit.
AUGUST.
VEGETABLE DEPARTMENT.
American Cress : sow to stand the whiter (1528). Transplant the main crops of
Borecole (1378) ; and Broccoli (1380). Cabbage : sow for main spring crop (1372) ;
transplant for Coleworts (1374). Carrots : sow to stand the winter (1429). Cauli-
flowers : transplant to come in during the autumn (1379) ; sow for the main spring
crop (1379). Celery : transplant into trenches (1516) ; and earth up for blanching
(1517). Endive : make the last sowing (1508) ; and transplant from former sow-
ings. Lettuce : sow for standing through the winter (1505) ; transplant from
former sowings. Onions : sow for standing through the winter (1464). Radishes :
sow the winter varieties (1444). Savoys : transplant the main crop (1376). Scarlet
Runners : earth up and stick (1398). Spinach : sow the main winter crop (1450).
Turnip : sow the winter crop (1421).
FRUIT DEPARTMENT.
Pinery : pot the succession plants into their fruiting-pots (945) ; plunge into a
good heat, and shade till they begin to grow again (941). Vinery: syringe the
A MONTHLY CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS. 719
Vines, and give them a root- watering after the fruit is cut, to prevent the leaves decay-
ing prematurely (971). Peach-house : the light may be taken off the early house,
and used for the purpose of forwarding Grapes against walls. Fig-house : syringe
the trees frequently to keep down insects (1033). Make new plantations of Straw-
berries (1244). Cut down the old canes of Raspberries when the fruit is gathered
(1232). Keep the shoots of wall-trees nailed in; displace all laterals. Stop the
laterals of Vines to one joint. Continue to bud fruit-trees as in last month.
SEPTEMBER.
VEGETABLE DEPARTMENT.
Cabbage: prick out from last month's sowing (1372). Celery: earth up for
blanching (15 17). Chervil: sow for winter use (1536). Curled Cress: sow for
winter use (1527). Endive: transplant (1508) ; and tie up for blanching (1509).
Mushrooms: Make beds for winter use (1114). Onions: pull up and house them
when dry (1471). Parsley: cut down a portion of the spring sowing (1534). Potatoes:
take up the early sorts (1416). Purslane: sow for winter use (1543). Shallots
(1474) and Garlic (1475) should now be taken up. Dig up vacant ground (531).
FRUIT DEPARTMENT.
Pinery : pot suckers that have been taken off fruiting-plants ; disroot and repot
the old stumps (944) ; prepare the fruiting-house for the fruiting-plants. Vinery :
the lights of the early forced-house should now be left open night and day (971) ;
or they may be taken off if repairs are required. Peach-house : if any vacancies
are to be filled up, take out the old soil and replace it with fresh (1001) ready for
planting next month. Protect out-door Grapes from wasps by bagging the bunches.
Gather fruit as it ripens (930). Expose wall-fruit to the sun and air to give it
flavour and colour. Continue to make new Strawberry plantations as in last month.
OCTOBER.
VEGETABLE DEPARTMENT.
Artichokes : tie up the leaves for producing the chard (1496). Asparagus : cut
down and winter-dress (1482). Beet : dig up and lay in sand (1435). Cabbage :
plant out for the main crop (1372). Cardoons : tie up the leaves for blanching
(1499). Carrots: take up the main crop (1430). Cauliflower' prick out under
hand-glasses, arid into frames (1379). Cucumbers : make beds, and sow seed for
early crops (1054). Lettuce: plant out for the main spring crop (1505). Pars-
neps : take up and preserve in sand (1434). Potatoes: take up the main crops
(1416). Tomatoes : gather the unripe fruit and lay in a forcing-house. Dig and
trench ground during dry weather, 533, 534.
FRUIT DEPARTMENT.
Pinery : the plants intended for fruiting next season should now be got into the
fruiting-house, if they were not put in when potted ; only partially plug the pots at
first (946) ; plant all the remaining suckers in spent tan or a dung-bed (941).
Vinery : As soon as the leaves have fallen from the Vines, prune them (962, 963) ;
take off the loose rough bark, and wash them (971). Peach-house : fill vacancies
with trees from the walls in the open garden (1003) ; take up and plant carefully
(737). Pot cherry-trees for forcing (1020). Withhold water from fig-trees when
the fruit is gathered. Melons : keep up the heat of the beds, to forward the
ripening of the late fruit. Gather any remaining fruit (931). Plant fruit-trees
of all sorts (737, 893). Prune Currants (1228) and Gooseberries (1220).
NOVEMBER.
VEGETABLE DEPARTMENT.
Artichokes: cover the roots with litter (1495). Beans : sow first crop (1392).
Cauliflowers : protect those which have formed heads from frost (1379). Celery :
3 A 2
720 A MONTHLY CALENDAR OP OPERATIONS.
take every favourable opportunity to earth it up (1517). Cucumbers: ridge out
the plants in the fruiting-beds (1057). Endive : preserve from frost (1510).
Horse Radish: dig up for winter use (1547). Jerusalem Artichokes : take up for
winter use (1418). Peas : sow for an early crop (1388). Salsify : dig up for winter
use (1438). Scorzonera : dig up for winter use (1437). Sea-kale : clear away the
decayed stems and leaves (1490). Preserve culinary vegetables from frost (857).
FRUIT DEPARTMENT.
Pinery : water the plant cautiously at this season ; those planted on a dung-bed
will require none : admit air at every favourable opportunity (943). Vinery „•
protect the border where the Vines of the early forcing-house are growing out-
side (956). Peach-house : prune (994) and dress the trees (1010) as soon as the
leaves have fallen. Cherry-house : if the lights have been taken off, they should
now be replaced, but left open night and day, unless the weather is severe. The
trees should now be pruned. Pot Fig-trees for forcing ( 1034). Continue to plant
all sorts of fruit-trees, as in last month. Protect Fig-trees (1323). Prune the
Apple (1149), Pear (1168), Plum (1207), Cherry (1192), Filbert (1260), and
Gooseberry and Currant, as in last month ; also nail and tie those against walls and
espaliers. Look over the fruit in the fruit-room (931). Mulch newly -planted
fruit-trees, to protect them from frost.
DECEMBER,
VEGETABLE DEPARTMENT.
Asparagus: take up roots for forcing (1096). Celery: protect during severe
frosts (1517). Cucumbers: attend to the linings of the beds (1061). French
Beans: plant in pots for forcing (1104). Mushrooms: keep a moist and steady
temperature in the house (1111). Radishes : sow on a hotbed for early use (1 108).
Rhubarb: take up roots, and pot for forcing (1098). Sea-kale: take uproots
carefully, for forcing (1097). Small Salad : keep a succession, by sowing once a
week (1107). Prepare materials for hotbeds (842).
FRUIT DEPARTMENT.
Pinery : Slightly increase the temperature of the fruiting-house (946) ; if there
is a great declination of bottom-heat, add a little fresh tan between the pots.
Vinery : Put on the lights, if they have been removed, so as to protect the Vines
from severe frost (969). Peach-house : after the trees are tied to the trellis, take
away a little of the loose, dry top-soil ; slightly dig the border (10 10), so as not to
injure the roots, and add some fresh soil (997). Cherry-house : Fix the trees to
the trellis, and make preparations for forcing next month. Fig-house : the frost
should be kept out (1035) ; and if the trees need any pruning, it should now be
done. Continue to prune and nail in mild weather. Partially unnail the shoots of
Peach and Nectarine trees. Protect Strawberries in pots (1091), and all fruit-
trees intended for forcing. Dig fruit quarters where pruning is completed (928).
NOVEMBER, DECEMBER, AND JANUARY.
The young gardener will have leisure during the long evenings of these three
months to improve himself by reading, to which he should add writing and drawing,
including of course arithmetic and mensuration. In these days, when the em-
ployers of gardeners are readers of gardening books, and often possess a consider-
able knowledge of vegetable physiology, the young man who does not occupy every
moment of his spare tune in improving himself, has no chance whatever of getting
a good situation as head gardener.
GENERAL INDEX.
*-!<* The pages are referred to ; not the paragraphs.
ACETARIACEOUS esculents, substitutes for, 683
Acrogens, orders belonging to, 16.
Air and ventilation necessary to plants in a growing state, 88 ; mode of heating and
ventilating on Mr. Penn's principle, 85
Alisanders, culture of, 680
Alliaceous plants, substitutes for, 665
Almond, its use, &c., 595
Amphibious animals, their uses in gardens, 114
Angelica, its use and culture, 688
Annular budding, how performed, 308
Apple, history of, 528 ; uses of and properties of a good one, 529 ; number of
varieties of, and a selection of early and late dessert sorts, 530 ; a selection of
early and late kitchen sorts, 532 ; list of dessert and kitchen, for espaliers, dwarfs,
or trained standards, 428 ; a select list for an orchard, 431 ; selection of sorts for
making cider, and valuable sort for cottage gardens, 533 ; principles to be observed
in selecting varieties, 534 ; modes of propagation, 535 ; soil and situation best
adapted for, and mode of bearing, pruning, and training, 536 ; summer and winter
pruning of dwarfs, espaliers, and those against walls for the first ten years of their
growth exemplified, 537 ; gathering and keeping, 543 ; diseases, insects, &c. to
which the trees are liable, with modes of eradication, 544
Apricot, a selection of the best sorts, and the propagation of the trees, 596 ; planting,
pruning, and general management of, 597 ; a few remarks on forcing the, 487
Artichoke, culture of, 670; culture of, for producing the chard, 671
Axrum maculatum, a native plant, the roots of which are sometimes used as a sub-
stitute for arrow-root, 656
Asparagus, soil suitable for, and mode of sowing or planting, 665 ; general culture
of, 666: particulars of the mode of forcing, 516 ; thrives best in wet-bottomed
soil, 713
Asparagaceous esculents, substitutes for, 672
Asphalte roofing, its use in affording protection to glass roofs, 161
Atmosphere considered with reference to the culture of plants, 67 ; its constituent
parts, 67 ; agitation of, promotes the vigour of plants, 83
Atmospheric moisture, much not necessary in greenhouses, 87 ; moisture always
present, 76 ; to measure the degree of, 76 ; necessary to plants, 77 ; at perfect
command in hothouses, 79 ; condensation of, on the glass of hothouses, 80 ;
moisture necessary in plant structures, 215 ; method of procuring, 216. See
Table in p. 703.
Balm, its use, &c., 694
Banana, history of, 512 ; construction of a house for, and mode of cultivation, 513 ;
list of varieties of, 601
Basil, culture of, 691
Baskets, method of making, 148 ; uses of, 151
Bean, a selection of varieties and their culture, 634
Beet, the Red, selection of varieties and their culture, 651 ; culture of the Spinach
and Chard, 658
Bell glasses, 152
Bellows, fumigating, 156 ; powdering, 157
Berberry, use of, and mode of cultivation, 580
722 GENERAL INDEX.
Birds, their nature, and the orders to which they belong, 115 ; modes of deterring,
119; to destroy, 120
Blanching, vegetables which require it, and means by which it is effected, 389
Blight, by what produced, 126
Boiler, size of, for heating by hot water, 207
Borage, its use and culture, 686
Borecole, culture of, 624
Botanic stoves described, and their uses, 223
Boxes for plants, 145
Broccoli, varieties of, and their culture, 626
Brussels Sprouts, culture of, 624
Budding, uses and principles of, 300 ; mode of performing, 302 ; shield, 303 ; flute,
307; annular, 308; bud -grafting, 702
Buds, the developement of, explained, 22
Bulbs, described, 30
Burnet, use of, 681
Cabbage, varieties of, and mode of culture, 622 ; culture of the Chinese, 627 ; tribe,
general culture and management of, 627, and 714 ; substitutes for the, 630
Calyciflorae, orders belonging to, 12
Canker, 123 ; its preventive and cure, 124. See note in p. 710.
Cap to prevent worms from entering pots, 96
Caper, culture of the, 689
Caps, mode of making oiled paper, for protecting flowers, 162
Capsicum, use and culture of, 607
Cardoon, use, culture, and cookery of, 671
Carnations, mode of layering, 276
Carrot, selection of varieties, and their culture, 649
Caterpillars on gooseberry bushes, to destroy, 711
Cauliflower, culture of, 624 ; a late variety quite distinct form the early variety, 713
Celeriac, culture of, 680
Celery, selection of varieties, and culture of, 677
Chamomile, its native locality, &c., 693
Chapman's new spring potatoes, 642
Charcoal, its use in striking cuttings, 263 ; in the culture of plants generally, more
especially in pot-culture as practised by Mr. Barnes, 702, 706
Cherry, history and general treatment of, in a forcing-house, 480 ; construction of
a house for forcing, 480 ; kinds best adapted for forcing, and time of commencing
to force, 481 ; insects to which the trees are subject, with the means of eradicating
or destroying them, 481 ; treatment of plants in pots, 482 ; forcing by a tempo-
rary structure, and the German practice of forcing, 483 ; use of, and a selection
of the best sort for dessert, arranged in the order of their ripening, 553 ; sorts for
preserving ; a selection of sorts for a small garden, and for the north of Scotland,
554 ; mode of propagating, and general management of, 554 ; a Dutch Cherry
garden described and figured, 556
Cherries, for espaliers, dwarfs, or standards, 428 ; for an orchard, 433
Chervil, culture of, 684
Chesnut, use of, and management of the trees, 578
Chiccory, mode of forcing, 518
Chive, culture of, 664
Citron, see Orange
Cleft-grafting, how performed, 291
Climbing plants, wire frame-work for, 355
Clipping, its object, and mode of performance, 236
Cold, in buildings with a northern exposure, 701
Coniferae, propagation by cuttings of the order, 261
Conservatory described, and its use, 223
Coriander, culture of, 685
Corn salad, culture of, 681
Corolliflorae, orders belonging to, 14
Cranberry, culture of, 576
Cress, selection of varieties, and culture of, 681
Cucumber, history of, mode of culture in British gardens, aud a list of the best
GENERAL INDEX. 723
early varieties, 494 ; particulars of their culture on a dung-bed, 496 ; management
of the linings of dung-beds, 500 ; particulars of their culture in pits heated by
linings, flues, or hot water, with the mode of constructing a pit to be heated by
flues, 503 ; construction of Corbett's pit, to be heated by hot water, 505 ; culture
in pots in forcing-houses, 506 ; construction of Ayres's cucumber-house, 507;
treatment of the plant in Ayres's house, 509 ; treatment necessary for the pro-
duction of fine fruit for prize exhibitions, 510; particulars of their culture in the
open air, 510 ; a selection of the best varieties of, 603
Currant, a selection of sorts of red and white, and their culture, 566 ; uses of and
culture of the black, 567 ; select list of, 430
Cutting plants, mode of performance, 235
Cuttings, principles of propagation by, 249 ; the plant and shoot to be selected
for, 250 ; time of taking off, 252 ; preparation of, 253 ; the number of leaves to
be left on, 253 ; manner of taking off, 254 ; treatment of till they are planted ;
255 ; the best soil for, and depth to plant, 256 ; distance to plant, 257 ; after-
treatment of, 258 ; glasses for covering, 258 ; watering, 258 ; temperature most
suitable for, 259 ; striking in water, 263 ; striking in powdered charcoal, 263 ;
different modes of forming plants from, 270 ; to induce plants to produce shoots
for, 271. See the Notes in p. 701.
Digging, how to be performed, 229
Dill, use and culture, 685
Disbudding and disleafing. See Pruning, and the note in p. 713.
Division, propagation by, 280
Draining, alters the condition of soils, 51
Earthworm, natural history of the, 94 ; natural uses of, 95 ; injury done by the, 96 ;
to destroy, 96 ; cap to prevent their entrance into pots, 96
Egg-plant, use and culture of, 606
Elderberry, its use, &c., 581
Elecampane, culture of, 689
Endive, culture of, 675
Endogens, orders belonging to, 15 ; described, 21
Engines, Read's patent, 154
Esculents, substitutes for leguminaceous, 638
Espalier rails described, 184; rail of cast iron, 426' ; strained wire, 427
Evergreens, best season for transplanting, 320 ; mode of transplanting, and con-
ditions to be observed, 322 ; machines and implements necessary for transplanting
large ones, 323 ; mode of packing, 324
Exogens, grand divisions of, 10 ; described, 21
Fennel, its use and culture, 685
Fermenting materials for supplying heat to pits and frames, 196
Fig, history, and general particulars of culture under glass, 485 ; varieties best
adapted for forcing, and practice of forcing in pots, 486 ; winter treatment
under glass, 487 ; a selection of sorts, 598 ; propagation and culture, 599
Filberts, selection of sorts, and management of the trees, 579
Flowers, parts of described, 34 ; to cause plants to produce them, 34 ; fertilization
of, 35 ; the supposed cause of double, 408. See Note in p. 708.
Flued walls, mode of constructing, 182
Flues, various modes of heating plant structures by, 197
Flute-budding, different modes of, and how performed, 307
Forcing-houses, their uses, 224
Fox-glove, a substitute for tobacco, 696
Frame, a description of the common hot-bed, 176
Frames, mode of making oiled-paper, 161; mode of fastening mats or other covering
on, 394
Frozen plants are recovered by early watering, 75
Fruit, its excellence depends chiefly on the developement of the leaves, and their
exposure to light, 35 ; gathering and preserving,^40 1 , 440 ; packing, 403 ; exotics
which may be cultivated for their fruit, 612 ; trees, &c., which may be cultivated
for their fruit, 581
Fruit-trees, distribution of, in a kitchen-garden, 420 ; select list of, for walls, 422
the distance from each other at which they should be planted against walls, 423 ;
724 GENERAL INDEX.
mode of planting, 424 ; selection of, for espaliers and dwarfs, "424; construction
of a common espalier-rail for, 425 ; cast and wrought iron espalier-rails for, 426 ;
the object of training, 357 ; different modes of training in the open garden and
against walls, 358 — 375 ; beneficial effect of pruning, 237 ; method of causing
them to produce blossom-bnds, 345 ; distance from plant to plant at which espa-
liers and dwarfs are to be planted, 329 ; select list of, for an orchard, 431
Fruit tree borders, management of, 439
Fruit-trees, and fruit-bearing plants, general remarks on their culture, 613
Fruit-room, its construction, 225 ; management of, 441
Fruits cultivated in British gardens, and their classification according to the natural
system of Botany, 526; arranged according to the climate they inhabit, 527
Furnace, best mode of constructing, for heating by hot water, 207
Gardeners, house described, 224 ; wages of different grades of, 414
Garden pots, sizes of, 142 ; ornamental, 143
Gardens, order and keeping of, in what it consists, 409 ; rules to be observed in,
410; general management of, 412
Garlic, culture of, 664
Guava, culture of, 611
Ginger, culture of, 689
Glass, law of the reflexion of light from, 192
Glazing, best modes of, 219
Gooseberries, select list of, and distance they are to be planted from each other, 429;
uses of, and a selection of the best sorts, 561 ; propagation and general manage-
ment, 562 ; insects and diseases to which the trees are liable, with modes of
eradication, 565 and 711 ; additional sorts enumerated, 711.
Gourd, use and culture of, 604
Granadilla, culture of, 612
Grafting, various modes of, 287. See Notes in p. 702.
Grapes, a selection of sorts, arranged according to the form and colour of the berries,
582 ; selection of sorts of various flavours, 583 ; a selection of sorts for various
purposes 584 ; general management of the Vines, 584 ; on growing them in pots,
585 ; on growing them for making wine, 586 ; to produce two or three crops
in one house in a season, 463
Grape-vine, history of, and general particulars relating to the culture of, under
glass, 452 ; form of house for the culture of, 454 ; propagation of, 454 ; mode
of pruning and training against walls, 455, 468; modeof culture under glass at Oak-
hill Gardens, 457 ; a diary of the course of culture at Oakhill Gardens, 459 ; mode of
culture on walls and against cottages, 464; pruning and training of, on Mr.
Hoare's system, 468 ; kinds most suitable for open walls, or for cottages, 472 ;
insects and diseases of, with modes of prevention and cure, 472.
Greenhouse described, and its use, 222; plants, propagation by cuttings of, 261
Gum in fruit-trees, its causes, 1 25
Hand-glasses, 152 ; description of a substitute for, 172
Heat, conduction of, 67 ; radiation of, 68 ; soil a bad radiator and conductor of,
70 ; means of counteracting the radiation of, 71 ; on retaining it by coverings, 215
Hellebore, white, its use and culture, 696
Henbane, its probable use in the destruction of insects, 696
Herbaceous grafting, how performed, 293, 296
Herbaceous plants, distinguishing character of, 18 ; propagation bv cuttings of hardy
and half-hardy, 261
Herbs, mode of forcing, 523
Hoeing, its object, and mode of performance, 232 ; with a hoe in each hand, 713
Honey-dew, its supposed causes, 126
Horehound, its use, &c., 694
Horse Radish, culture of, 686
Hotbeds, materials used for, 391; preparation of materials for, 392; M'Phail's
principle for, and formation of common, 393; management of, 394
othouses, their use and situation, 187 ; most perfect form of, 188 ; form of for
winter forcing, 189; advantages and disadvantages of curvilinear roofs to, 189;
advantages of ridge and furrow roofs to, 190; materials used for, 192; contrac-
tion and expansion of iron roofs, 193 ; modes of supplying heat to, 195 ; mode
heating them on Mr. Penn's principle, 85 ; uniform degree of moisture pro-
d by it, 86 ; difference of the heat of the glass internally and externally, 82 ;
GENERAL INDEX. 725
advantages of maintaining a high temperature in hot houses during the day, and a
low one during the night, 397 ; mode of fixing canvas shades to, 175 ; on sup-
plying water to plants in, 220.
Hot water, various modes of heating plant structures by, 201 ; on the size and best form
of pipes, 204 ; the situation the pipes should be placed in, 205 ; size of boiler,
207 ; rain-water should be used forheating by, 213 ; open gutters for circulating, 214
Hybrid plants, the number of useful and beautiful ones in cultivation, 7
Hyssop, its use, &c., 694
Implements of horticulture, 127; the principles on which they are constructed, 128
Inarching, uses and principles of, 297 ; mode of performing side and terminal, 298
Indian Fig, culture of, 612
Insects, their nature and classification, 99 ; transformation of, 101 ; food of, 102;
distribution and habits of, 104 ; uses of, 105; means contrived by nature to limit
the multiplication of, 105; enemies of, 106; means of destroying them, 108;
articles required for destroying, 170
Instruments used in horticulture— knives, 137 ; asparagus knife, hedge bills, 138 ;
saws, pruning chisels, shears, 139 ; axe, verge and grass shears, scythes, 140 ;
various others, 141
Iron, in the form of an hydrate, injurious to vegetation, 48 ; roofs, contraction
and expansion of, 193
Jerusalem Artichoke, culture of, 646
Kidney-bean, selection of varieties of the dwarf species, and their culture, 636 ;
culture of the twining sorts, 636 ; particulars of the mode of forcing, 520
Kitchen-garden, its situation, arrangement, extent, and soil, 416 ; should be well
drained, trenched, and levelled, 417 ; accompaniments to a, 418 ; plans of two,
419, 421 ; systems of cropping the, 435 ; general proportion of crops for one,
434 ; general management of, 434 ; seed required for a garden of H acres, 435
Ladder, description of a folding one for hothouses, 168
Lamb's Lettuce, see Corn Salad
Lavender, culture of, 693
Layering, operation of, 272 ; soil necessary for, 277
Layers, the principles of propagation by, 272 ; the time they require to produce
roots, 277
Leaves, the developement of explained, 22 ; of endogenous plants should be preserved
uninjured during their period of growth, 10 ; necessary to the existence of the
plant, 32 ; principles of propagation by, 266 ; conditions required for the rooting
of, 267 ; plants usually raised by, 268 ; propagation of bulbs by, 268 ; of plants
rooted in charcoal, 269
Leek, culture of, 663
Lemon, see Orange
Lettuce, mode of obtaining full-grown Cabbage Lettuce throughout the winter, 522 ;
selection of varieties, and culture of, 674
Level, its use, 169
Light, influence of, on the distribution of plants, 41 ; the effect of its absence on
plants, 89 ; follows the same laws as heat, 90 ; radiation and transmission of, 90 ;
refraction of, 91 ; the importance to plants of perpendicular, 91 ; means of in-
creasing the efficiency of, 92 ; heat should be in proportion to, 92 ; absence of,
occasionally necessary to some plants, 93 ; light and motion, 699, 700
Lime, its constituent parts and uses, 48 ; action of on vegetable substances, 62 ;
uses of, 63 ; compost, 63
Lime, see the Orange family, 608
Liquorice, its use, &c., 694
Loam, varieties of, 49
Lodge for under-gardeners described, 225
Loquat, culture of, 612
Love-apple, see Tomato
Machines used in horticulture : — wheelbarrow, 153 ; garden syringe, pneumatic
hand-engine, 154 ; barrow-engine, 155 ; fumigating bellows, iron fumigating pot,
156 ; powdering bellows, mowing-machine, and various others used in gardens, 157
726 GENERAL INDEX.
Manures : — organic, or animal and vegetable, 56 ; leaf-mould, 56 ; green crops, sea-
weed, malt-dust, rape-cake, haulm, rotten tan, peat soil, 57 ; urine, 58 ; hair,
wool, feathers, leather, horn, rags, dead animals, night-soil, sugar-bakers' scum,
bones, dung of animals, 59 ; saving and collecting of, 60 ; liquid, 389 and 707
— inorganic, or mineral, 60 ; quicklime, mild lime, chalk, 61 ; marl, gypsum, sea-
shells, 62 ; saltpetre, salt, 63
Manures, mixed : — coal-ashes, vegetable ashes, 64 ; soot, street-sweepings, liquid,
65 ; application of, 66
Marjoram, culture of the, 691
Marigold, culture of the, 686
Mats, mode of making straw, and their usefulness, 159
Medlar, general particulars of its culture and management, 552
Melon, history of, 487 ; summary of culture for the Cantaloup Melon, 488 ; practice
of Melon culture in British gardens, 490 ; culture in the open air, 492 ; insects
and diseases which the plants are subject to, with the mode of treatment to
be adopted for their eradication, 493 ; a selection of the best varieties of, 602
Mice, mode of catching them, 121
Mildew, its causes and cure, 125
Mint, culture of, 690
Moisture, its influence on the distribution of plants, 41 ; the capacity of air for, 80
Monochlamydese, orders belonging to, 14
Morel, its locality, 692
Mowing, its object and mode of performance, 238
Mulberry, use of, and management of the trees, 577
Mushroom, general particulars of its culture, 523 ; form of house for, and mode of
culture, 524 ; mode of culture in a cellar, 525 ; mode of growing it in lawns and
pastures, 692; in cow-houses and stables, 710
Nasturtium, culture of, 686
Nectarine, see Peach
Offsets, propagation by, 279
Onion, selection of varieties, 659 ; culture of, 660 ; culture of the Potato, and bulb-
bearing sorts, 661. See Notes in p. 712 and 713
Operations :— digging, 229 ; trenching, 230 ; hoeing, 232 ; raking, 233 ; rolling, 234 ;
sawing, 235 ; clipping, 236 ; sowing, 243 ; layering, 272 ; grafting, 280 ; inarching,
298 ; budding, 302 ; transplanting and planting, 309 ; potting, 329 ; pruning, 335 ;
thinning, 349 ; training, 351 ; weeding, 378 ; watering, 382 ; blanching, 389
Orache, culture of, 657
Orange, the use and varieties of, 608 ; propagation and culture of the Orange family,
610
Orangery described, and its use, 223
Organic matter in soils, necessary to fertility, 49
Orchard, its formation and its situation, 430 ; select list of fruit-trees for, and the
. distance apart at which they are to be planted, 431 ; culture of the soil in
the, 433.
Oxalis Deppei, culture of, 654
crenata, culture of, 655
Parsley, culture of, 684 ; use and culture of the Hamburgh, 653
Parsnep, culture of, 651
Peach and Nectarine, history of, and general particulars relating to the management
of, under glass, 472; construction of the house for, and kinds best adapted for
forcing, 474 ; mode of training and pruning, 475 ; general treatment of from the
commencing of forcing, 476 ; insects and diseases to which the trees are liable,
with modes of prevention and cure, 476 ; on their culture in pots, 477 ; course
of culture for two years at Stow Hall Gardens, 477 ; use of, and select list of
Peaches arranged in the order of their ripening, 587 ; select list of Nectarines
arranged in the order of their ripening, 588 ; propagation of, and culture of the'young
trees, 588 ; soil and situation best adapted for the trees, 589 ; mode of pruning
and training, 590 ; management of the borders in which the trees are growing,
592 ; modes of protecting the trees during winter and spring, 593 ; diseases and
insects to which the trees are liable, with modes of eradication, 594 ; essential
points of Peach culture, 595
GENERAL INDEX.
Peach-trees, mode of protecting by canvas coverings, 173
Pears, uses of, and properties of a good one, 545 ; number of varieties of, and a
selection of dessert sorts, arranged in the order of their ripening and keeping,
546 ; a selection of kitchen sorts arranged in the order of their ripening and
keeping, 547 ; a selection of sorts for perry, and a selection of the best sorts for
small gardens, 548 ; mode of propagation, soil and situation best adapted for, and
method of pruning and training the trees, 549 ; select list of, for espaliers,
dwarfs, or thinned standards, 423 ; select list of for an orchard, 432 ; beneficial
effects of thinning the blossom-buds, 550 ; gathering and keeping the fruit,
551
Peas, a selection of varieties, and their culture, 631 ; mode of protecting early crops,
633 ; means of destroying vermin by which they are attacked, 634 ; mode of forcing, 52 1
Pennyroyal, culture of, 690
Peppermint, its use and culture, 693
Peruvian Cherry, culture of, 600
Piue-apple, history of, and general particulars of its culture, 443 ; mode of cul-
ture at Oakhill Gardens, 444 ; construction of pits for the culture of, 445 — 448 ;
sizes of pots used at Oakhill Gardens, 448 ; their growth in beds of soil, 450 ;
to cause them to grow to a large size, 451 ; insects which sometimes infest the
plants, and modes of destroying them, 452; selection of best sorts, 600; sum-
mary of culture, 601
Pine-stove described, 223
Pine and Fir tribe, mode of grafting the, 294
Piping, in what manner performed, 261
Pits, their construction and use, 220 ; their usefulness for plant structures, 224
Plant structures, modes of ventilating, and the necessity of it, 217
Plantations, object of thinning ornamental, 350
Planting with the trowel, and in drills, 325 ; temporary mode of, 325 ; different
modes of, 326, 327 ; general rules for, 329. See Notes in p. 703 and 704
Plants, food of, must be seduced into a pulpy mass before being absorbed by them, 3 ;
injured by being cut close to the ground in a young state, 3 ; leaves necessary to
the growth of, 4 ; require rest, 5 ; means by which they are multiplied, 6 ; light
necessary to the growth of, 6 ; classification of, 8 ; the grand classes of the Natural
System explained, 9 ; number of genera, species, and varieties of, 10 ; distinguished
as evergreen, sub-evergreen, persistent-leaved, deciduous-leaved, ligneous, suffruti-
cose,17 ; nomenclature of, 19 ; structure of, 20 ; sexes of, 23 ; fruit of, 24 ; functions
of, 24 ; growthof described, 26 ; motion of sap in, 31 ; absorb and liberate gases, 33;
the vigour of seedlings depends on the age of the seed, 37 ; geographical distri-
bution of, 37; the important influence of temperature on the distribution of, 38 ;
the influence of light on the distribution of, 41 ; the influence of moisture on the
distribution of, 41 ; influence of soil on the distribution of, 43 ; stations of, 43 ;
habitations of, 45 ; exhalation from the leaves of, 81 ; diseases of, 123 ; props for
climbing, 163 ; wicker-work protector for, 171 ; garden labours with, 235 ; leaves
of, rooted in powdered charcoal, 269 ; watering, mulching, and staking newly-
planted, 328 ; object of growing them in pots, 330 ; drainage necessary to those
in pots, 332 ; care of newly-shifted, 333 ; management of hair-rooted kinds, 334;
modes resorted to for the annual resting of, 399 ; the advantages of resting of, 400 ;
packing and transporting, 402 ; the process of cross-breeding for raising new
varieties from seed, 406 ; precautions to be observed to prevent the promiscuous
fecundation of, 406 ; modes of perpetuating, 407 ; duration of, 408
Plants and animals, analogy between, 2
Plum, its use, and a selection of de*sert sorts arranged in the order of their ripen-
ing, 558 ; selection of sorts for a small garden, and the general management of
the trees, 559 ; gathering, keeping, and packing the fruit, 560 ; select list of for
espaliers, dwarfs, or trained standards, 428 ; select list of for an orchard, 433 ;
a few remarks on forcing the, 487
Pomegranate, culture of, 599
Potato, selection of varieties, and their culture, 639 ; Lancashire practice of plant-
ing, 642 ; modes of obtaining young ones during the winter, 643 ; taking up and
preserving the crop, 645 ; particulars of the mode of forcing, 51 9. See Notes in p. 714
Potting, its object and mode of performance, 330, 331 ; time and season for, 334 ;
importance of using rough turfy soil mixed with stones, &c. 616 and 706
Propagation, principles of, 239 ; by seed, 240 ; by cuttings, 249 ; by joints and
728 GENERAL INDEX.
nodules, 264 ; by bulbs, tubers, and tubercles, 266 ; by bulb-bearing leaves, 266 ;
by leaves, 266 ; by cuttings, 270 ; by layers, 272 ; by suckers, 277 ; by slips, 278 ;
by runners, 279 ; by offsets, 279 ; by division of the root, 280 ; by grafting, 280 ;
by inarching, 297 ; by budding, 300
Props for climbing- plants, 163 ; to increase the durability of wooden, 164
Protection, articles for, 158; materials used for, 390
Pruning, principles and use of, 336 ; close pruning explained, 338 ; shortening-in,
fore-shortening, spurring-in, 339 ; heading-in, close-lopping, lopping, snag-
lopping, lopping-in, 340 ; cutting down, stopping the shoots, 341 ; disbarking,
ringing, 342 ; disbudding, disleafing, 343 ; clipping, root-pruning, 345 ; seasons
for, 348. See Notes in p. 704—706.
Pumpkin, or Pompion, use and varieties of, 604 ; culture of, 605
Purslane, culture of, 685
Quadrupeds, a notice of the smaller, injurious to gardens, 120 ; means of destroying
and deterring them, 121
Quince, general particulars of its culture and management, 551
Radish, selection of varieties and their culture, 653 ; mode of forcing, 522
Raking, its object and mode of performance, 233
Rampion, culture of, 672
Raspberries, select list of, 430
Raspberry, uses of, and a select list of sorts, 567 ; propagation and culture of, 568
Reed walls, mode of constructing, 183
Rhubarb, propagation and culture of,^ and a selection of the best varieties, 688 ;
particulars of the mode of forcing, 518 ; medicinal, mode of preparing, 693
Ringing, its effects on fruit-trees, 342
Rocambole, culture of, 664
Rogers's conical boiler and hot-water apparatus described, 208 ; best fuel for, 211 ;
subsequent improvements in, 700
Rolling, its object, 234
Roots, propagation by cuttings of, 262 ; root-grafting, how performed, 293 — 295 ;
pruning, its beneficial effects in checking luxuriant growth, 345
Roots, substitutes for esculent, 655
Rosemary, culture of, 693
Rubus, various species which may be cultivated for their fruit, 569
Rue, its use, &c., 694
Runners, propagation by, 279
Sage, culture of, 690
Salads, mode of forcing, 521
Salsify, culture of, 652
Samphire, its use and culture, 689
Sap, motion of in plants, 31
Savory, culture of, 691
Savoy, culture of, 623
Sawing, mode of performance of, 235
Scorzonera, culture of, 652
Sea-kale, particulars of the mode of forcing, 517 ; its propagation and culture, 668
Seedling plants, time and method of transplanting, 310
Seed, what is necessary to the germination of, 25 ; process of germination in, 240 ;
to cause them to germinate quickly, 241 ; the period necessary for the germina-
tion of various sorts of, 242 ; the quantity of moisture most favourable to the
germination of, 242 ; depth to which it should be buried to cause it to germi-
nate, 243 ; degree of heat most favourable to the germination of, 243 ; atmo-
spheric air necessary to the germination of, 244 ; to accelerate the germination
of, 244 ; vitality of, 246 ; season for sowing, 247 ; process of sowing, 248 ; quan-
tity required for a kitchen-garden of one and a quarter acre, 435
Seeds, what they consist of, and their vitality, 36 ; packing and transporting, 402
Seed-room, its construction, 225
Service, its culture and management, 552
Shaddock, see Orange
Shading, the object of, and materials used for, 390
GENERAL INDEX. 729
Shallot, culture of, 664
Sheds, their use for various purposes, 226
Shelter, the means to produce, 84
Shield-budding, different modes of, and how performed, 303
Shrubs, distinguishing character of, 18
Side-grafting, how performed, 292
Skirret, use and culture of, 652
Slips, propagation by, 278
Slugs and snails, natural history of, 96 ; to destroy them, 98
Small salads, plants used for, 682
Soil, the influence of, on the distribution of plants, 42 ; peat, 49, 57 ; object of
labours on the, 227; necessity of pulverizing, during dry weather, 228; the
advantage of frequently stirring it, 388. See Notes in p. 707 and 709.
Soils, considered with reference to horticulture, 45 ; origin and kinds of, 46 ;
sandy, 46 ; gravelly, clay, 47 ; on the inclination of the surface of, 50 ; varieties
of, indicated by the plants which grow on them, 50; improvement of, 51 ; altering
the texture and composition of, 51 ; burning of, as a means of improving, 53 ;
pulverizing of, necessary to their improvement, 54
Sorrel, culture of, 658
Spinach, culture of the common, 656 ; culture of the New Zealand and perennial,
657 ; culture of the Patience, 658
Splice or whip-grafting, how performed, 288
Strawberry, history of, and the practice of forcing it, with a list of the sorts
best adapted for the purpose, 514 ; time of beginning to force, and treatment of
the plants after forcing, 515 ; culture of the Alpine, 516; use of, and a selection
of the best sorts, 570 ; a selection of sorts in the order of their ripening, and
one for a small garden, with their propagation and culture, 572 ; culture of parti-
cular kinds, 575 ; methods of accelerating a crop of fruit in the open garden, 576
Structures, portable, 171
Subsoils, importance of good, 50
Succory, culture of, 676
Suckers, propagation by, 277
Syringe, Read's garden, 154
Scythes and sharp-edged implements, to keep from rusting, 129
Tallies and labels, different forms of, 164 ; best method of painting and lettering, 167
Tansy, culture of, 691
Tarragon, its use and culture, 685
Temperature, its important influence on the distribution of plants, 38
Thalamiflorse, orders belonging to, 11
Thermometers, their uses explained, 169
Thyme, culture of, 690
Timber-trees, girdling and felling, 347 ; machine for girdling, 347
Toads, their usefulness in destroying insects injurious to gardens, 94
Tobacco, its propagation and culture, 694 ; mode of curing for garden purposes, 695
Tomato, use and culture of, 606
Tools used in horticulture, 129 ; common lever, crowbar, perforators, 130 ; dibbers,
picks, draw-hoes, 131; Spanish hoes, lawn-scraper, thrust-hoes, spades, 132;
turf-spades, verge-cutters, trowels, and spud, 134; daisy-weeder, transplanters,
dung and tan forks, digging-forks, 135 ; rakes, besoms, beetles, and rammers,
136; mallet, hammer, garden pincers, 137; and instruments, chests of, where
procured, 141
Tool-house described, 226
Training, the principles and operation of, 352; instruments required for, 376;
comparative view of the different modes of, 376. See note in p. 711
Transplanting, uses and theory of, 309 ; mode of preparing trees for, 312. See p. 702.
Trees, injured by being planted deeply, 4 ; distinguishing character of, 17
- and shrubs, propagation by cuttings of deciduous, 260; propagation by
cuttings of evergreen, 260 ; mode of layering, 273 ; the time to transplant deci-
duous, 311 ; different modes of transplanting, 312; on transporting and replant-
ing, 314 ; on the treatment of, after transplanting, 317 ; on supporting and
protecting newly-planted, 318
Trellises and latice-work for fruit-trees and climbers, 186
Trenching, its object and mode of performance, 230
730 GENERAL INDEX.
Tropse^olum tuberosum, culture of, 655
Truffle, where to be found, and by what means, 692
Turnip, selection of varieties, and their culture, 647
- Cabbage, culture of, 627
Utensils used in horticulture : garden-pots, 142 ; blanching-pot, 143 ; water-
saucers, 144; plant-boxes, 145"; watering-pot, 146; sieves, 147; pot-carriers,
baskets, 148; bell-glasses, hand-glasses, 152; powdering-boxes, 153; various
others, 153.
Varieties, duration of, 408 ; new varieties of herbaceous plants, 409. See Notes in
p. 709
Vegetable culture, what necessary in, 5
Vegetables, improvement of by cultivation, 404
-- culinary : — systematically arranged according to their natural orders,
616; number of genera of, which may be cultivated in British gardens, 619;
horticulturally arranged, 619 ; propagation, and seed, saving of, 620 ; general re-
marks on their culture, and soils best adapted for, 621 ; times of sowing and
planting culinary, 438; gathering and preserving, 401
Vegetable marrow, see Gourd
Vegetation, stimulants to, 245 ; modes of accelerating, 391 ; modes of re-
tarding, 395
Vermin, necessity of destroying those injurious to gardens, 93
Vines, propagation of by joints, 265 ; objections to depriving a vine of a portion of
its leaves when the fruit is ripening, 709 ; causes of a deficiency of colour in the
fruit, 709 ; the vine when forced not calculated to sustain uninjured a temperature
below 40°, 70 '
Walls, their use in gardens, 176 ; direction and best materials for, 177 ; height of,
178 ; copings of, mode of fixing temporary rafters to, 179 ; construction of, 180 ;
trellised, colouring the surface of, flued, 181 ; conservatory, 183 ; reed as a sub-
stitute for brick, 183
Wall-trees, to protect, 74 ; articles required for training, 167
Walnut, use of, and management of the trees, 578 ; leaves, useful for destroying
worms, 696
Wasp and fly traps, 111
Water, the presence of, increases the tendency to spring and autumn frosts, 75 ;
its importance in cultivation, 382 ; comparative effects of spring and pond, 383 ;
application of to plants, 385. See Notes in p. 703, 704
Watering-barrow for strawberries, 384
— pots, 146
Water-cress, culture of, 682
Wedge-grafting, how performed, 292
Weeding, and implements for, 238, 381
Wicker-work hurdles for sheltering plants, 163
Wormwood, its use, &c., 694
Young gardeners, advice with reference to their improvement by reading, writing,
drawing, &c., during the long winter evenings, 720.
THE END.
LONDON :
BRADBURY AND EVANS, PRINTERS, WKfTEFRIARS.
The following ERRATA occur in only a Part of the Impression.
Page 1, line 17, from the top, for " The two last," read " The last two."
— 14, — 25, for " Bignoniceae," read " Bignoniacese," and/or "Cobaeaceae," read " Coboeaceee.'
— 15, — 33, for " uniform," read " ensiform."
— 15, — 45, for " seldom if ever branched," read " very seldom branched."
— 16, — 5,/or " Alisimaceae," read " Alismaceae."
- 16, — 44, fur " plants, read "plant."
— 16, — 45, for " species or orders," read " species, or orders."
_ 55, — 42, for " PulveriziHg," read "Pulverising."
— 61, — 13, for " (200)," read "(201)."
- 66, — 20, for " over-croppings," read "over-cropping."
- 67, — 9, for " the latter two," read " the tv Blatter."
— 76, — 13, for " those clouds," read " clouds formed."
— 77, — 8, for " between then ; it is," read " between them. It is."
— 98, — 22, for " weazel being their natural enemies," read " weazels, being their natural
enemies."
— 107 — 18 for " great flocks," read " large flocks."
— 128, heading,/oj- " construction and use," read " construction and uses."
— 145, line 3, for "by a common saucer," read " for a common saucer."
— 165, — 41, for "paint," read "part."
— 167, — 4, for "boiling," read "boiled."
— 169, — 18, for " plants," read " planks."
— 174, — 19, for "hoops," read "hooks."
— 178, — 31, for " south and north," read " east and west."
— 179, — 20, for "or row," read "a row."
— 192, — 14,/or " vol. XX.," read vol. XV."
— 193, — 24,/or "greater," read "heavier."
— 221, — 12,/or "may be served," read " may be preserved. '
— 224, — 47, for "be forced," read " are forced."
— 225, — 41, for "beach," read "beech."
— 234, — I, for "whence," read «' which."
— 235, — 40,/or " the operation," read " this result."
— 241, — 33,/or " caryopsi," read " caryopses."
— 255, — 27,/or " (D. dioica, form6sa and umbellata)," read " (D. dioica, formosa, and um-
bellata)."
— 289, — 34,/or "6," read "a."
— 289, — 35, for " c," read "6."
— 293, — 28,/or "peas," read "pears."
— 327, — 48, for "requiring," read "acquiring."
— 353, — 16, for "backs," read "bricks."
— 369, — 21, for "proved," read "approved."
— 369, — 47, for " left-hand," read " right-hand."
— 369, — 50, for " right-hand," read " left-hand."
— 395, — 33, for " are preserved," read " is prolonged."
— 396, — 4, for " coal-cellar," read" cold cellar."
— 396, — 26, for "lower," read "low."
732
ERRATA.
Page 404, 4. for " its reach,"rearf " his reach."
_ 405, — 3, for " were placed," read " was placed."
— 413, — 18, for "are wanted," read "is wanted."
422, 35, first column, for " Beurr£ Ranee," read "-Beurre1 de Ranz."
_ 423, — 3, — — /or " Grisley Frontignac," re^rf "Grizzly Frontignan."
432, — 47, — — for " Alfriston," read " Alfreston."
432, 30, second column, for " Beurre" Ranee," read " Beurr£ de Ranz."
433f .«jf — — for " Jackworth Imperatrice," read " Ickworth Imperatrice.''
433t 10, — — for " Drape"e Rouge," read " Diapr^e Rouge."
443, — 27, for "lowest," read "coldest."
_ 446, _ 2, for " three," read " twenty."
— 460, — 45, for " Cease," read " Ceased."
463, — 41, far " Grisley Frontignan," read " Grizzly Frontignan."
_ 470, — 46, for " shoot," read " arm."
_ 486, — 48, for " curb," read " kerb."
— 487, — 41, for " Cucumis," read " Cucumis."
— 512, — 36, for " paradisiaca," read "sapientum."
512, — 41, for "Musa p. Cavendishii," read "Musa s. Cavendishii."
— 512, — 42, for " M. p. dacca," read " M. s. dacca."
— 513, — 1, for "Musa p. dacca," read "Musa s. dacca."
— 513, — 6, for "M. p. Cavendishii," read « M. s. Cavendishii."
— 527, — 2, for " Cucumis," read " Cucumis."
_ 557, — 10, for " diances," read " distances."
— 582, — 5, for " fruit," read " tomato."
— 585, — 20, for "(0000)" read " (956)."
— 589, — 35, for " mirabolan," read " myrobalan."
— 626, — 41, for "Tartarian, approaches," read "Tartarian, which approaches."
— 056, — 3, for "rush nut, and some others," read "rush nut, \Arum maculatum, and some
others."
— 684, — 38, for " parsley," read " parsnep."
The following Notes ought to have appeared in p. 699 and 706.
268 in p. 85. " Why motion of heated air should, when uniformly heated with the body, give
relief, is not so plain." p. 85. Evaporation goes on more rapidly when the air is in brisk motion
than is the case when it is still ; and evaporation produces cold : hence, although a still, and a brisk
air may be of the same temperature, yet they produce a very different effect, as indicated by the
sensations ; a brisk motion causing rapid evaporation, and occasioning a proportionably greater
degree of cold on the surface, than is the case when evaporation goes on slowly in a still atmo-
sphere1.—N.
859 in p. 402. The eggs of insects, and seeds of weeds, in soil which is to be used for potting
plants, are effectually destroyed by kiln-drying; which is more especially necessary when the sur-
face of pasture or meadow land is used. Turf from a loamy soil, kiln-dried, chopped up and mixed
with thoroughly rotted dung, with the addition of a few stones, smaller or larger according to the
size of the pots to be used, will grow well almost every kind of plant, except some of the more
delicate of the hair-rooted kinds— R.
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